Unit 4 & 5

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 GENERAL
1.1. STABILITY
When the aircraft get disturbance (due to horizontal gust, vertical gust, etc.,) if
the aircraft comes to its equilibrium position without any effort of the pilot is said to be
stability.
Stability is further divided in to:

STABILITY

STATIC STABILITY DYNAMIC STABILITY

STABLE STABLE

UNSTABLE UNSTABLE

NEUTRAL NEUTRAL

STABILITY AND CONTROLLABILITY

The requirement of static and dynamic stability for any dynamic system arises
from the characteristics of the system response to disturbances like sudden gusts etc or
to its controls. The control on the other hand is the response of aircraft to deliberate
applied forces/moments which cause the aircraft to deviate from initial equilibrium
position. The controls must be made effective enough to allow the airplane to realize
the maximum utility, and at the same time light enough, so that maneuvering the
airplane will not tax the pilot’s strength, yet never so light with very little effort can
inadvertently maneuver the airplane past its structural design limits. These problems
become more difficult as airplanes become bigger and faster.

1.1.1. Static stability: it is the initial tendency of an airplane, when disturbed, to return to its
equilibrium position.
• Stable: the initial tendency of an airplane, when disturbed, to return to its equilibrium
position. , it is said to be Stable.
• Unstable: the initial tendency of an airplane, when disturbed,, if it not comes to its
equilibrium position, it is said to be Unstable.
• Neutral: the initial tendency of an airplane, when disturbed,, if it attains a new position,
then the aircraft is said to be Neutral.

1.1.2. Dynamic stability: it is the overall tendency of an airplane to return to its equilibrium
position, following a series of damped oscillation.

Unstable
Stable Neutral Page 2 of 45
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 Unstable
1.2. Centre of Pressure: The centre of pressure is a point on a body where the total sum of
pressure field acts, causing a force and no moment acting on it. The centre of pressure
will change its position when the angle of attack changes.
1.3. Aerodynamic Centre: The point at which the pitching moment coefficient for the
aerofoil does not vary with CL. For symmetric aerofoils in subsonic flight, the
Aerodynamic Centre is located approximately 25% of the chord from the leading edge
of the Aerofoil. For non-symmetric airfoils the quarter-chord is only an approximation
for the Aerodynamic Centre.

Aerodynamic 1/4 C
Centre
Centre of
pressure

1/4 C

1.4. DEGREE OF FREEDOM:

In a sense, any motion of an airplane may be considered as a manoeuvre. An airplane
may be said to have six degrees of freedom which are described in relation to its three
axis defined as follows.
• Longitudinal Axis: It is a straight line running fore and aft through the Centre of
gravity and its horizontal when the aircraft is rigging position. The airplane may
travel backwards or forwards along the axis (Heaving). Backward motion is one of
the rarest of all manoeuvres such as tail slide. Forward motion along this axis is the
common to all and is the main feature of straight and level flight. Any rotary motion
about this axis is called rolling.
• Directional Axis or Normal Axis: it is the straight-line through the centre of gravity
and is vertical when the airplane is rigging position (right angles to the longitudinal
Axis). The airplane may travel upwards or downwards along this axis, as I climbing
or descending. But in fact such movement is not very common, the climb or descent
being obtained chiefly by the inclination of longitudinal axis to the horizontal
followed by a straight forward movement along that axis. Rotary motion of this axis
is called Yawing.
• Lateral Axis: it is a straight line through the centre of gravity at right angles to both
the longitudinal axis and normal axis. It is horizontal when the airplane is rigging
position and parallel to the line joining the wing tips. The airplane may travel to
right or left along the lateral axis. Such motion is called side slipping or skidding.
Rotary motion of an airplane about the lateral axis is called Pitching.

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 These axes must be considered as moving with the airplane and always remaining fixed
relative to the airplane.

For e.g., during a vertical nose dive, the longitudinal axes will be vertical and the lateral
and the Normal axes are horizontal. So, the manoeuvres of an airplane are made up of
one or more or even of the following

• Movement upwards or downwards

• Movement forwards or backwards
• Movement sideways to right or left
• Pitching
• Yawing
• Rolling
1.5. AIRCRAFT CONTROLS:
Control is the one in which is to create external forces, so as to cause the aircraft to
deviate from the given equilibrium condition. Aerodynamic control is exercised
fundamentally through three different sets of control surfaces are
1.5.1. Ailerons
1.5.2. Elevators
1.5.3. Rudder

1.5.1. AILERONS: the ailerons are part span trailing edge flaps incorporated in to the wings
near the tips. They move differentially, so that the starboard wing aileron moves

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 downwards to increase the lift of starboard wing, the port aileron moves upwards to
decrease the lift of port wing.
The purpose of these ailerons is to create rolling moment. i.e., a moment about the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis.
1.5.2. ELEVATORS: the elevator is a trailing edge flap incorporated in the horizontal tail.
The purpose of the elevator is to modify the tail lift; thereby pitching moment is created
about its centre of gravity. i.e., moment about the aircraft’s lateral axis. The tab is
designed to modify the elevator hinge moments and hence the stick forces, necessary
to deflect the elevator.
1.5.3. RUDDER: the rudder is the trailing edge flap incorporated in the vertical tail fin. It is
used to create a side force on the fin and so as to create a yawing moment. i.e., a moment
about the aircrafts directional or normal axis. The rudder is used to many aspects of
control, including the following:
• Control of direction on the ground.
• Recovery from a spin.
• To prevent sideslip in a coordinated turn.
• To reduce sideslip in special manoeuvres.
• To overcome asymmetric power effects (effect of engine failure).
• To overcome adverse yawing effects due to rolling or to use of ailerons.

An aircraft control system should possess the following features:

• The response to a given control action should always be the same sense, whatever the
condition of flight. If in some condition, this is not the case, the phenomenon is known
as control reversal, and can be disastrous.
• The aircraft should be sensitive to control displacements, but not too sensitive. This
implies that the aircraft should be statistically stable, but not too stable.
• The magnitude of the control force required to displace a control should increase
steadily with the control displacement, and also the magnitude of the aircraft’s
response.
• The response of the aircraft to the operation of the controls should be rapid. i.e, there
should not be any considerable time long.

Since the aircraft has many degrees of freedom, there are many different control actions,
involving the use of the controls singly or together, which each instigate modifications
in the conditions of flight in respect of different modes.

1.5.4. RUDDER REQUIREMENTS:

BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF RUDDER

Control of rotation of the airplane about the z-axis is provided by the rudder. The critical
conditions for the design of the rudder are:

• Adverse yaw,
• Cross wind take-off and landing,
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 • Asymmetric power for multi-engine airplane
• Spin
• ADVERSE YAW AND ITS CONTROL

When an airplane is rolled to the right, the rate of roll produces a yawing moment tending to
turn the airplane to the left. Similarly a roll to left produces yaw to right. Hence, the yawing
moment produced as a result of the rate of roll is 20 called adverse yaw. The production of
adverse yaw can be explained as follows. Consider an airplane rolled to right, i.e. right wing
down. Let the rate of roll be „p‟. The rate of roll has the following two effects.

a) A roll to right implies less lift on the right wing and more lift on the left wing. This is brought
about by aileron deflection – in the present case an up aileron on the right wing and a down
aileron on the left wing. Since, CL on the right wing is less than CL on the left wing; the induced
drag coefficient (CDi) on the right wing is less than CDi on the left wing. This results in a yawing
moment causing the airplane to yaw to left.

b) Due to the rolling velocity (p) a section on the down going wing at a distance “y” from the
FRL experiences a relative upward wind of magnitude “py”. At the same time a section on the
up going wing experiences a relative downward velocity of magnitude “py”. This results in the
change of direction of the resultant velocity on the two wing halves (Figure below). Now the
lift vector, being perpendicular to the resultant velocity, is bent forward on the down going
wing and bent backwards on the up going wing. Consequently, the horizontal components of
the lift on the two wing halves produce a moment tending to yaw the airplane to left.

A rough estimate of effect of adverse yaw is

𝐶𝐿 𝑝𝑏
𝐶𝑛−𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑌𝑎𝑤 =
8 ∗ 2𝑉

Where, p = rate of roll in radians per second; b = wing span and V = flight velocity.

An airplane is generally designed for a specific value of (pb/2V). For example

pb / 2V = 0.07 for cargo/bomber
pb / 2V = 0.09 for fighter
Hence, one of the criteria for rudder design is that it must be powerful enough to counter the
adverse yaw at the prescribed rate of roll.

• CONTROL IN CROSS WIND TAKE-OFF AND LANDING

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 𝑣
When there is a cross wind, the effect is as if the airplane is side slipping, 𝛥𝛽 = 𝑉
where v is the cross wind velocity. Further the tendency of an airplane possessing directional
static stability is to align itself with the wind direction. During take-off and landing the pilot
has to keep the airplane along the runway. Hence, another criterion for the design of the rudder
is that it must be able to counteract the yawing moment due to sideslip produced by cross wind
(𝐶𝑛𝛽 𝛥𝛽). This criterion becomes more critical at lower speeds because (a) the effectiveness
of the rudder, being proportional to V2, is less at lower flight speeds and (b) 𝛥𝛽 being
1
proportional to 𝑉, is high at low flight speeds.
Generally the rudder must be able to overcome v = 51 ft/s or 15 m/s at the minimum
speed for the airplane.

• CONTROL IN ASYMMETRIC POWER

Consider a multi-engine airplane. When one of the engines fails the following changes take
place.
(a) The engine that is operating causes a yawing moment T x yp (Figure below)
(b) In the case of engine propeller combination the drag (De) of the propeller will be large if it
is held in the stopped condition. Hence generally the propeller is feathered so that it does wind
milling.

In this situation there is drag but it is small. In the case of airplane with jet engines, the failed
engine is held in idling condition. The drag due to failed engine causes a yawing moment which
reinforces the yawing moment due to the operating engine. If the engine on the right wing has
failed then the yawing moment due to the operating and the failed engines would cause a
positive yawing moment. (Figure below)

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1.6. ASSUMPTIONS:
The following assumptions are made in the analysis of stability and control.
• The flow is incompressible.
• The airframe is a rigid structure. i.e., no account will be taken of any distortion of the
airframe due to aerodynamic forces.
• The relationships between the various parameters are generally linear, so that the
curves are straight lines and the coefficients are constants. This is generally justified
by the fact that we are usually concerned only with small displacements.
• The longitudinal motion is independent of the lateral and directional motions.

1.7. LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

The stability of the control of the airplane which consults pitching about the lateral axis
is called longitudinal stability or control.
In order to obtain stability in pitching, we must ensure that if the angle of attack is
temporarily increased, forces will act in such a way as to depress the nose and thus
decrease the angle of attack once again.
An ordinary unswept wing with a cambered aerofoil section cannot be trimmed or
balanced to give positive lift and at the same time be stable in the sense that a positive
increase in incidence produces a nose down pitching moment about C.G.
The positions as regards the wing itself can be improved to some extent by sweptback,
by wash-out (i.e., by decreasing α) towards the wing tips by change in wing section
towards the tips and by a reflex curvature towards the trailing edge of the wing section.

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 The wing alone is not going to affect the longitudinal stability of the aircraft as a whole.
It depends up on four factors.
• The position of the C.G, which must not be too far back; this is probably the most
important consideration
• The pitching moment on the main plane usually tends towards instability, though it can
be modified by the means mentioned
• The pitching moment on the fuselage or the body of the body of the airplane; this too is
suitable to tend towards instability.
• The tail plane – its area, the angle at which it is set, its aspect ratio and its distance from
the centre of gravity. This nearly always a stabilizing influence.

1.8. LATERAL STABILITY:

The stability or control of an airplane which concerns rolling about the longitudinal axis
is called lateral stability and control. To secure lateral stability we must so arrange
things that when a slight roll takes place the forces acting on the airplane tends to restore
it to an even keel.
In all airplanes when flying at small angle of attacks there is a resistance to roll because
the angle of attack and so the lift will increase on the down going wing and decrease on
the up going wing. But this righting effect will only lost while the airplane is actually
rolling. It must also be emphasis that this only happens while the angle of attack is
small; if the angle of attack is near the stalling angle then the increase on the falling
wing may cause the decrease in lift, and the decrease angle on the other side and
increase; thus the new force will tend to roll the airplane still further, this being the
cause of auto rotation.
1.9. DIRECTIONAL STABILITY:

The stability or control of an airplane which concerns yawing about the Vertical axis is
called Directional stability and control.
When disturbed from its original direction, if the aircraft is directionally stable a yawing
moment is produced when it is in a direction opposite to the rotational disturbance. This
pushes the aircraft so as to return it to the original orientation, thus tending to keep the
aircraft oriented in the original direction.
Directional stability called weather vaning, because a directionally stable airplane free
to rotate its centre of mass is similar to a weather vane rotating about its pivot (Vertical).
1.10. NEUTRAL POINT:
𝑑𝐶𝑚
Neutral point is the centre of gravity position for which = 0 giving neutral stability.
𝑑𝛼
The increments in total lift due to change of incidence act through the neutral point,
since no pitching moment produced at that point

1.11. STATIC MARGIN:

The distance between the neutral point and the centre of gravity position to the wing
mean chord is called as static margin. It is denoted by 𝐻𝑛 .

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 Let ℎ𝑛 𝑐 be the distance from wing leading edge to the neutral point and ℎ𝑐 be the
distance of the centre of gravity aft of the wing leading edge, then the static margin is

ℎ𝑛 𝑐 − ℎ𝑐
𝐻𝑛 = = ℎ𝑛 𝑐 − ℎ𝑐
𝑐
1.12. STICK FIXED & STICK FREE
In pitching for instance, stick fixed means that the elevators are held in their neutral
position relative to the tail plane.
In pitching, stick free means the pilot releases the control column and allows the
elevators to take up their own positions.

1.13. INHERENTLY STABLE AIRPLANE

Inherent stability is the quality of an aircraft that relates to its tendencies when the pilot
releases the control column.
Most aircraft are designed such that, if you release the controls the aircraft will naturally
tend to level out and fly straight and level. These aircraft are said to be "inherently
stable."
High-performance aircraft such as fighter planes and aerobatic aircraft often have little
or no inherent stability and when the pilot releases the controls the aircraft may bank or
pitch in one direction or another. These aircraft take much more skill and concentration
to fly safely, so most civilian aircraft are designed to provide a high amount of inherent
stability.

1.14. MARGINALLY STABLE AIRPLANE

Marginally stable airplane is when the airplane control components are in correct
position. So the controls are change slightly, then the system becomes unstable.

STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

2.1. WING ALONE

The following assumptions to be made first,

• Assume the forces and moments on the wing is the only component which affects the
longitudinal static stability
• Assume that the contribution of the thrust – drag couple to pitching moment is
negligible
• Assume that the centre of gravity (C.G) lies on the chord line of the wing
• Assume the angle of incidence is to be small, so that distances measured along the chord
line are effectively the same as when measured horizontally

A.C
L
C.G

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W
 hoc
hc

Figure (4)

From the Figure (4),

A is the aerodynamic centre of the wing.
The distance between leading edge and the Aerodynamic Centre is denoted by hoc.
The distance between leading edge and the C.G. point is denoted by hc.
c is the wing mean chord.
h and ho are the non-dimensional parameters defining the position of these points.
W is the weight of the aircraft.
The total moment about C.G. denoted by M is given by
𝑀 = 𝑀 0 + 𝐿 (ℎ𝑐 – ℎ0 𝑐)
𝑀 = 𝑀 0 + 𝐿 (ℎ – ℎ0 )𝑐
Dividing 2 by ½ 𝜌𝑣 2 𝑆𝑐 gives
𝐶𝑚 = 𝐶𝑚0 + 𝐶𝐿 (ℎ – ℎ0 )
Differentiate the above eqn. With respect to 𝐶𝐿 gives
𝑑𝐶𝑚
= (ℎ – ℎ0 )
𝑑𝐶𝐿
From the above Eqn, It is clearly evident that if h>h0, i.e., the C.G. is aft of the wing
𝑑𝐶𝑚 𝑑𝐶𝑚
aerodynamic centre, then 𝑑𝐶𝐿
> 0, the aircraft is therefore unstable. If h0 > h then 𝑑𝐶𝐿
< 0, i.e., the C.G. is forward of the aerodynamic centre, the aircraft is therefore stable
if h0 = h, i.e. the C.G. coincides with the aerodynamic centre, then the aircraft is
𝑑𝐶𝑚
therefore neutral. i.e. = 0.
𝒅𝑪𝑳
The aft movement of the C.G. has a destabilizing effect. i.e. it makes the aircraft less
stable or more unstable.

Aft C.G
Cm C.G moving Aft

Cl
Cm0 C.G coincides with A.C

Forward C.G

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 Figure (5)

The importance of the relative positions of the aircraft C.G. and the wing aerodynamic
centre is explained in physical terms.
• On increase in incidence, the resulting increment in lift acts through the aerodynamic
centre which tends to move the C.G. backwards, the resulting pitching moment is nose
up. i.e. destabilizing.
• Further aft the C.G. the larger will be destabilize moment created by a given lift
increment.
• On decrease in incidence, the resulting increment in lift in opposite direction through
aerodynamic centre which tends to move the C.G. forward of the aerodynamic centre,
the resulting pitching moment is nose – down, i.e. stabilizing.
The above discussion is based on a number of assumptions,
1. The incidence is not too great
2. C.G. lies on chord line.
3. Cm Vs Cl curves are straight lines.
The first assumption is generally justified, but the second and third is not.
In low wing configuration, the C.G. lies above the chord line and in high wing
configuration, the C.G lies below the chord line. Aft C.G
Aft C.G
Cm Cm

CL CL

Forward C.G
Forward C.G

Figure (6) a. C.G Above chord line Figure (6) b. C.G below chord line

From Figure (6) a, the curves indicates that in general the low wing aircraft is more
𝒅𝑪𝒎
stable at low incidence than at high incidence, since the increases with incidence.
𝒅𝑪𝑳
From Figure (6) b, the high wing aircraft is more stable at high incidence
Both sets of curves in Figure (6) show the destabilization effect of the aft movement of
C.G.
In the analysis which follows, it will be assumed that C.G. is close enough to chord line
for Cm Vs Cl curves to be effectively straight lines.

2.2. WING AND HORIZONTAL TAIL:

The wing alone is generally unstable, except in certain configurations in which the wing
is mounted well aft on the fuselage.

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 Now a horizontal tail is added well aft of the C.G. this will have a stabilizing effect.
Increase in tail incidence will produce increase in tail lift which will create aircraft nose
down. i.e., stabilizing pitching moment.
The tail lift is generally much smaller than the wing lift but when the tail is mounted
well aft of the C.G. its moment will be very large when compared to the moment due
to the wing which gives the overall stability to the aircraft. 𝑳𝑻
C.G
A.C L

hoc W 𝒍 − 𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒕 𝒂𝒓𝒎

hc

Figure 7 shows the combination of wing and tail.

LT is the tail lift acting through centre of pressure or aerodynamic centre of the tail plane
‘𝒍’ is the tail lift arm the distance between the C.G. of the wing to the tail aerodynamic
centre point.
The total moment about C.G. is denoted by M and is given by
𝑴 = 𝑴 𝟎 + 𝑳 (𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 )𝒄 − 𝑳𝑻 𝒍
Dividing by ½ 𝝆𝒗𝟐 𝑺𝒄 gives
𝒍𝑺𝑻
𝑪𝒎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝑳 (𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑪𝒍𝑻
𝑪𝑺
Where 𝑪𝒍𝑻 - tail lift co-efficient, ST is the tail plane area,
𝒍𝑺𝑻
̅.
is a non-dimensional and be denoted by 𝑽
𝑪𝑺
Then eqn 2 becomes
𝑪𝒎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝑳 (𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑪𝒍𝑻 𝑽 ̅
This equation is called as pitching moment equation.
At equilibrium condition are trim, the moment becomes zero. Then the eqn 3 becomes
𝟎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝑳 (𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑪𝒍𝑻 𝑽 ̅
The above eqn is said to be longitudinal equation.
On diff equation 3 w.r.t Cl gives
𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝑪
= 𝟎 + (𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ 𝒍𝑻
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝑪 𝒅𝜶
= (𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ 𝒍𝑻
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝑪𝑳
Denote by a, then we get,
𝒅𝜶
𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝑪 𝟏
̅ 𝒍𝑻
= (𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝜶 𝒂
or

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 𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝑪
= 𝒂(𝒉 – 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ 𝒍𝑻
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜶
From Eqn 7 it is clearly evident that the aft movement of C.G. results increase in h
which increases
𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝑪𝒎
, which is destabilizing effect. The condition of stabilizing effect is < 0. So, to
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳
ensure stability it is only necessary to make 𝑽 ̅ value as large. This can be done by
increasing the tail plane area or tail lift arm should be large by keeping the tail plane a
long way aft of the C.G.
The tail lift co-efficient depends on number of factors which are as follows.
2. The effective incidence of the tail plane, which is denoted by ∝𝑻
3. The elevator angle, 𝜼
4. The angular deflection of the trimming tab relative to the elevator, which is denoted
by 𝜷. Which we call as tab angle.
Assume that 𝒅𝑪𝒍𝑻 is a linear function of these variables in which ∝𝑻 , 𝜼, 𝜷 are not too
large.
If the tail plane is symmetrical, so that 𝑪𝒍𝑻 = 𝟎, when∝𝑻 = 𝜼 = 𝜷 = 𝟎. Then we may
write
𝒅𝑪𝒍𝑻 𝒅𝑪𝒍𝑻 𝒅𝑪𝒍𝑻
𝑪𝒍𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 ∝𝑻 + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒂𝟑 𝜷, where 𝒂𝟏 = ,𝒂𝟐 = and 𝒂𝟑 =
𝒅𝜶𝑻 𝒅𝜼 𝒅𝜷
Where,𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , 𝒂𝟑 are constants which are called stability derivatives or stability co-
efficients.
Effective tail incidence differs from the wing incidence for two reasons
5. The tail is generally set an angle to the aircraft longitudinal axis which is different from
the angle at which the wing is set. The tail plane setting is denoted by 𝜼𝑻 , and is defined
as the amount by which tail plane incidence relative to this axis, exceeds the wing
incidence relative to the same axis.
6. The flow leaving the wing is subjected to downwash. If 𝜺 is the angle of downwash at
the tail, then the effective tail incidence is reduced by 𝜺. This 𝜺 is a function of lift co-
efficient and so of incidence.
𝒅𝜺
The rate of change of 𝜺 w.r.t. incidence is denoted by 𝒅𝜶 and is constant (since 𝜺 varies
linearly with 𝑪𝑳 and 𝑪𝑳 varies with𝜶).

Therefore, the tail angle of incidence is given by

𝜶𝑻 = 𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺
Therefore, eqn 9 becomes
𝑪𝒍𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒂𝟑 𝜷
Then the equation 3 becomes
𝑪𝒎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒍 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ {𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒂𝟑 𝜷}
Then the longitudinal trim equation is
𝟎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒍 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ {𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒂𝟑 𝜷}
The trim equation is obtained by neglecting 𝒂𝟑 𝜷
𝟎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒍 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ {𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼}

Page 14 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN
 Cm Wing Alone

𝛼𝑇 Tail Plane Aerofoil

Elevator
Cl

Tab
𝜂 Wing +Horizontal Tail

𝛽
Tail Alone

In stick fixed case 𝜼 and 𝜷 are constants if we differentiate equation 12 w.r.t 𝑪𝑳 then

𝒅𝑪𝒍𝑻 𝒅𝝐
= 𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − )
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜶
Then equation 7 and 8 becomes,

𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝝐
̅ 𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 −
= 𝒂(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 )
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜶
or

𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒂 𝒅𝝐
̅ 𝟏 (𝟏 −
= (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 )
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒂 𝒅𝜶

2.3. FACTORS AFFECTING THE TAIL CONTRIBUTION:

The factors which influence the effectiveness of the tail plane as a stabilizer are as
follows

• When the wing incidence increases, the downwash also increases, thus reducing the
effective increase in tail incidence. It is clearly seen from the equation
𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝝐
= 𝒂(𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ 𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − )
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝜶
𝒅∈
Then the presence of reduces the effectiveness of the tail. It is not simply with the
𝒅∝
𝒅∈
existence of downwash, but its rate of change with wing incidence .
𝒅∝
𝒅∈ 𝒅𝑪𝒎
With high speed configuration exceeds unity then > 0 and aircraft becomes
𝒅∝ 𝒅𝑪𝑳
unstable.
i.e. Destabilizing effect.

Page 15 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN
 We are using the high tail planes or tailless configuration because the tail plane would
affect from the downwash.
• The dynamic pressure at the main tail may differ from the dynamic pressure in the free
stream.
Tail efficiency factor is defined as the ratio of the dynamic pressure at tail to the free
stream dynamic pressure.
Et is directly proportional to dynamic pressure to tail.
LT is directly proportional to dynamic pressure to tail.
Due to the location of tail w.r.t the wing wake, the tail efficiency factor, E t< 1which
will reduce the stabilizing effect
In case of propeller driven aircraft, 𝑬𝒕 is reduced by means of slip stream effects and by
the variation of power. It usually varies from 0.75 to 0.95 in the power condition and
may be greater than unity in power on condition.
Larger the 𝑽 ̅ (tail volume coefficient, greater will be the effectiveness of the tail.
When 𝑽 ̅ increases, then the tail effectiveness will be greater.

2.4. STICK FIXED CONDITION:

Let 𝒉𝒏 𝒄 be the distance from the wing leading edge to the neutral point and 𝒉𝒄 is the
distance of the centre of gravity aft of the wing leading edge

The pitching moment is given by

𝑪𝒎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒍 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ {𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒂𝟑 𝜷}
In stick fixed condition, 𝜼 and 𝜷 are constants then differentiate equation 1 w.r.t 𝑪𝑳
gives

𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒂 𝒅𝝐
̅ 𝟏 (𝟏 −
= (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 )
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒂 𝒅𝜶
𝒅𝑪𝒎
When C.G. is at neutral point 𝒉 = 𝒉𝒏 and = 𝟎 then Eqn 2 becomes
𝒅𝑪𝑳

𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝝐
̅
𝟎 = (𝒉𝒏 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 (𝟏 − )
𝒂 𝒅𝜶
Eqn 3 – Eqn 2 gives

𝒅𝑪𝒎
−( ) = (𝒉𝒏 − 𝒉) = 𝑯𝒏
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅

Where 𝑯𝒏 - stick fixed static margin.

From Eqn 5 confirms that the static margin is a direct measure of a longitudinal static
stability.

From Eqn 5 and Eqn 4

Page 16 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN
 𝒅𝑪𝒎
𝑯𝒏 = (𝒉𝒏 − 𝒉) = −
𝒅𝑪𝑳

𝒅𝑪𝒎
𝒉𝒏 = 𝒉 −
𝒅𝑪𝑳

𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝝐
̅
𝒉𝒏 = 𝒉 − (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) + 𝑽 (𝟏 − )
𝒂 𝒅𝜶
𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝝐
̅
𝒉𝒏 = 𝒉𝟎 + 𝑽 (𝟏 − )
𝒂 𝒅𝜶
Eqn 7 gives the position of the stick fixed neutral point.
𝒅𝑪𝒎
If value is measured directly then we could determine the stick fixed static
𝒅𝑪𝑳
margin value at once for any given aircraft with the help of wind tunnel, we could
𝒅𝑪𝒎
measure Cm and L directly so that from Cm Vs CL graph, we could calculate value.
𝒅𝑪𝑳
But the condition is that Cm about C.G pt should be zero. Therefore it is impossible to
𝒅𝑪𝒎
measure the value directly.
𝒅𝑪𝑳

Instead, we have to vary the CL value while maintaining Cm value as zero by

deflecting the elevator. i.e., the stick fixed margin value can be measured in terms of
elevator angle deflection.
𝒅𝑪𝒎
Therefore we need to relate stick fixed to the elevator angle to trim, 𝜼trim
𝒅𝑪𝑳

Now, consider the flight in the trim condition. Neglecting the tab term 𝒂𝟑 𝜷.
Then the pitching moment equation becomes

𝟎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒍 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ {𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼}
Here, 𝜼 represents the elevator angle to trim. Then differentiate Eqn 8 w.r.t CL allowing
for variations in 𝜼 maintaining the trim condition. i.e., Cm=0 gives

𝒅(𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) 𝒅𝜼
̅ 𝒂𝟏
𝟎 = 𝟎 + (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ 𝒂𝟐
−𝑽
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳

𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜺 𝒅𝜼
̅ 𝒂𝟏
𝟎 = 𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 − 𝑽 (𝟏 − ̅ 𝒂𝟐
)−𝑽
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜺 𝒅𝜼
̅ 𝒂𝟏
𝟎 = 𝒉 − (𝒉𝟎 + 𝑽 (𝟏 − ̅ 𝒂𝟐
)) − 𝑽
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝜼
̅ 𝒂𝟐
𝟎 = 𝒉 − 𝒉𝒏 − 𝑽
𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝜼
̅ 𝒂𝟐
−𝑽 = 𝒉𝒏 − 𝒉
𝒅𝑪𝑳

Page 17 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN
 𝒅𝜼
̅ 𝒂𝟐
−𝑽 = 𝑯𝒏
𝒅𝑪𝑳
𝒅𝜼
Eqn 15 gives the static margin in terms of . Here static margin must be a positive
𝒅𝑪𝑳
̅ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂𝟐 are positive.
value if the aircraft stable, 𝑽

Increase in CL must imply nose down pitching moment increment with the stick fixed.
To balance this, the tail must provide a nose up pitching moment increment which
means the elevator must be deflected downwards. Thus a ‘ + ’𝒗𝒆 change in 𝑪𝒍 is
𝒅𝜼
accompanied by a negative change in elevator angle 𝜼 i.e. 𝒅𝑪 <0.
𝑳

2.4.1. DETERMINATION OF STICK FIXED NEUTRAL POINT:

Eqn 13 is utilized in flight tests to determine the stick fixed neutral points and C.G.
margins of aircraft.
𝒅𝜼
If the C.G. is well forward so that the aircraft is very stable, 𝒅𝑪 will be large and
𝑳
positive.
𝒅𝜼
If the C.G. is moved further aft, 𝒅𝑪 may still be negative, but numerically less. If this
𝑳
𝒅𝜼
process of moving the C.G. aft is continued will become positive, the aircraft
𝒅𝑪𝑳
becomes unstable.
𝒅𝜼
There is one C.G. position for which 𝒅𝑪 = 𝟎 and this is the stick fixed neutral point.
𝑳
In flight tests

• The aircraft C.G. is fixed in a given position well forward.

• The aircraft is then flown in the trim condition at given steady speed. If the tests are
made with power off, this means flying in a shallow glide.
• The elevator angle to trim 𝜼 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 is measured.
• From the measured weight and airspeed, the 𝑪𝑳 value can be calculated.

The above two steps are repeated at different number of speed and a graph 𝜼 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 Vs
𝑪𝑳 is drawn for the given C.G. position say h = h1. The slope of the curve will be large
and negative and the aircraft is very stable.

The C.G. position is moved a little further aft say h = h2 where, h2> h1 and the tests are
repeated. Here the slope of the curve is less than that of the first curves but still negative.

This process is repeated for many C.G. positions without moving the C.G so far aft so
as to avoid the aircraft becoming unstable.
ℎ > ℎ𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒

ℎ = ℎ𝑛 𝐶𝐺 𝑎𝑡 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑡

𝜂𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚

𝐶𝑙
ℎ = ℎ4
Page 18 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN ℎ = ℎ3
 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐶𝐺
ℎ = ℎ1

The curves of elevator angle to trim against 𝑪𝑳 are known as trim curves.

All the curves intersect at 𝑪𝑳 = 𝟎 because in hypothetical conditional, when 𝑪𝑳 = 𝟎

the term in h disappears from the trim eqn, so that the value of 𝜼 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 is not affected by
C.G. position.

All the curves are generally straight lines, if they are slightly curve, the nature of the
analysis will not affect, since the slope of curves remains the criterion for stability. From
𝒅𝜼
the trim curves, the slope 𝒅𝑪 may be measured for the values of h.
𝑳
𝒅𝜼
Then plot the graph for 𝒅𝑪 𝑽𝒔 𝒉 will yields the straight line as shown in figure.
𝑳

ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4 ℎ𝑛
𝑑𝜂
𝑑𝐶𝑙
ℎ

From this graph the hn value is estimated at the point the straight line cuts the horizontal
𝒅𝜼
axis. At that point 𝒉 = 𝒉𝟎 and 𝒅𝑪 = 𝟎.
𝑳

From the trim curves, it is easy to read of the elevator angle required to trim at any
given speed or lift co-efficient. Since 𝜼 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 increases as 𝑪𝑳 falls, if the aircraft is stable,
it follows that 𝜼 𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 increases with speed.

2.5. STICK FREE CONDITION:

In the stick fixed condition, the elevator is free to take up any position as the airplane
reacts to the disturbance.

In stick free condition, the elevator angle 𝜼 is not to be constant but the tab angle 𝜷 is
still constant, since the tab is not free to move except as a result of direct action by the
pilot.

The elevator is being free to move and takes up a position in which the moment about
the hinge line is zero. This condition will helpful to know the relationship between the
elevator angle and the other parameters.

The elevator hinge moment is denoted by H and is defined as

Page 19 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN
 𝟏 𝟐
𝑯= 𝝆𝑽 𝑺𝑬 𝑪𝑬 𝑪𝑯
𝟐
𝟐𝑯
𝑪𝑯 = ( )
𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑺𝑬 𝑪𝑬

Where, 𝑺𝑬 – Area of the elevator, 𝑪𝑯 – Coefficient of Hinge moment, 𝑪𝑬 - Chord

length of the elevator

We assume that the value of 𝑪𝑯 depends on

• Tail incidence
• Tab angle
• Elevator angle

When 𝜶𝑻 = 𝜷 = 𝜼 = 𝟎, 𝑪𝑯 becomes 0, then

𝑪𝑯 = 𝒃𝟏 𝜶𝑻 + 𝒃𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒃𝟑 𝜷

Where 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒃𝟑 are known as hinge moment coefficients and they are constants.

The downward deflection of tab will produce nose down, i.e., negative hinge moment,
so that 𝒃𝟑 is always negative.

The downward elevator deflection will produce nose down hinge moment. Therefore
𝒃𝟐 is also negative.

The third coefficient 𝒃𝟏 may be either positive or negative, depending largely on the
position of hinge.

In stick free condition, 𝑪𝑯 = 𝟎, so that equation 3 becomes

𝟎 = 𝒃𝟏 𝜶𝑻 + 𝒃𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒃𝟑 𝜷

𝒃𝟏 𝜶𝑻 + 𝒃𝟑 𝜷
𝜼=−
𝒃𝟐

The tail lift coefficient is given by

𝑪𝑳 𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 𝜶𝑻 + 𝒂𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒂𝟑 𝜷

𝜷 is very small and it is negligible, so that

𝒃𝟏 𝜶𝑻 + 𝒃𝟑 𝜷
𝑪𝑳 𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 𝜶𝑻 − 𝒂2 ( )
𝒃𝟐

Since𝜶𝑻 = 𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺, then equation 6 becomes,

𝒃𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒃𝟑 𝜷
𝑪𝑳 𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) − 𝒂𝟐 ( )
𝒃𝟐

Page 20 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN
 Then differentiate w.r.t 𝜶 with 𝜷 as constant, we obtain

𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒅𝜺 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏
= 𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − ) − (𝟏 − )
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜶 𝒃𝟐

𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏
= 𝒂𝟏 (𝟏 − ) (𝟏 − )
𝒅𝜶 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒅𝜶 𝟏 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻
Then, = × 𝒅𝑪 = 𝒂
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒅𝜶 𝒍 𝒅𝜶

𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏
= (𝟏 − ) (𝟏 − )
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐

The pitching moment equation is

̅ 𝑪𝑳
𝑪𝒎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒍 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 𝑻

𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒂 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏
( ) ̅
= (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ 𝟏 (𝟏 −
= (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ) (𝟏 − )
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐

𝒅𝑪
The stick free neutral point (𝒉 = 𝒉′𝒏 ) is the CG position for which ( 𝒅𝑪𝒎 ) =𝟎
𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆

Therefore,
𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒂 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏
𝟎 = (𝒉′𝒏 − 𝒉0 ) − 𝑽
̅ ̅ 𝟏 (𝟏 −
= (𝒉′𝒏 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ) (𝟏 − )
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐

Equation 12- Equation 11, we get

𝒅𝑪𝒎
−( ) = 𝒉′𝒏 − 𝒉𝟎 = 𝑯′𝒏
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆

Where 𝑯′𝒏 - stick free static margin and is a direct measure of the stick free longitudinal
static stability.

From equation 12, the position of stick free neutral point is given by

𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏
𝒉′𝒏 = 𝒉𝟎 + 𝑽
̅ (𝟏 − ) (𝟏 − )
𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐

In order to fly at different lift coefficients, it is necessary to vary the elevator angle 𝜼.
If there is no stick force, then the tab must be used to trim out such forces by making
the elevator hinge moment zero.

In an initial trimmed condition, from equation 7,

𝒃𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) + 𝒃𝟑 𝜷
𝑪𝑳 𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) − 𝒂𝟐 ( )
𝒃𝟐

Page 21 of 45
PREPARED BY J. KARTHIKEYAN
 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜼𝑻 − 𝜺) 𝒃𝟑 𝜷
𝑪𝑳 𝑻 = 𝒂𝟏 (𝜶 + 𝜂𝑻 − 𝜺) − +
𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟐

𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟑 𝒅𝜷
= (𝟏 − ) (𝟏 − )−
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒅𝑪𝒍

In the trim condition,

̅ 𝑪𝑳
𝟎 = 𝑪𝒎𝟎 + 𝑪𝒍 (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 𝑻

Differentiate w.r.t 𝑪𝒍

𝒅𝑪𝑳 𝑻 𝒂 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟑 𝒅𝜷
̅
𝟎 = (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ̅ { 𝟏 (𝟏 −
= (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 ) (𝟏 − )− }
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒅𝑪𝑙

𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 𝒂 𝒃 𝒅𝜷
̅
𝟎 = (𝒉 − 𝒉𝟎 ) − 𝑽 (𝟏 − ) (𝟏 − ̅ 𝟐 𝟑
)+𝑽
𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒅𝑪𝒍

𝒅𝑪𝒎 𝒂 𝒃 𝒅𝜷
−( ) ̅ 𝟐 𝟑
=𝑽 = 𝑯′𝒏
𝒅𝑪𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒌 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒃𝟐 𝒅𝑪𝒍
𝒅𝜷
Equation 18 is the expression for the stick free static margin in term of 𝒅𝑪
𝒍
Here 𝒂𝟐 is positive, since downward elevator deflection produces increase in tail lift
and 𝒃𝟐 and 𝒃𝟑 are both negative, since the aircraft to be stable, 𝑯′𝒏 must be positive.
𝒅𝜷
Therefore, the criterion for the stick free static stability is 𝒅𝑪 > 𝟎
𝒍

2.5.1. DETERMINATION OF STICK FREE NEUTRAL POINT:

The stick free neutral point is determined by flight test.

𝒅𝜷
The neutral point at which the centre of gravity position 𝒉 = 𝒉′𝒏 for which 𝒅𝑪 = 𝟎 and
𝒍
this point is the stick free neutral point.

In flight tests,

• The aircraft CG is fixed in a given position well forward.

• The aircraft is then flown at a given seed using the elevator.
• The tab is deflected to trim out the stick force and the tab angle 𝜷𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 is measured.
• From the measured weight and airspeed, the Cl is calculated.

The above two steps are repeated at different number of speeds and a graph of 𝜷𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 Vs
Cl is drawn for the given CG position say h=h1, the slope of the curve will be large and
positive and the aircraft is stable.

The Cg position is moved further aft say h=h2 where h2 >h1 and the tests are repeated.
Here the slope of the curve is less than that of the first curve but still positive.

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 This process is repeated for many CG positions without moving the point so far so as
to avoid the aircraft becoming unstable.
𝒅𝜷
From the graph of 𝜷𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒎 Vs Cl, the slope 𝒅𝑪 may be measured for the values of 𝒉. Then
𝒍
𝒅𝜷
a graph of 𝑽𝒔 𝒉 is drawn and this is generally a straight line as shown in figure.
𝒅𝑪𝑙

𝒅𝜷
From the graph of 𝒅𝑪 𝑽𝒔 𝒉 the 𝒉′𝒏 values is estimated at the point when the straight
𝒍
𝒅𝜷
line cuts the horizontal axis. At that point 𝒉 = 𝒉′𝒏 and = 𝟎.
𝒅𝑪𝒍

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐶𝐺 ℎ = ℎ1

ℎ = ℎ2 > ℎ1 𝑑𝛽 ℎ
𝛽𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑚 𝑑𝐶𝑙
ℎ = ℎ3 > ℎ2
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ4 ℎ𝑛′
𝐶𝑙
ℎ = ℎ𝑛′

2.6. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STICK FIXED AND STICK FREE STATIC

STABILITY

The position of the stick fixed neutral point is given by

𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝝐
̅
𝒉𝒏 = 𝒉𝟎 + 𝑽 (𝟏 − )
𝒂 𝒅𝜶
The position of the stick free neutral point is given by

𝒂𝟏 𝒅𝜺 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏
𝒉′𝒏 = 𝒉𝟎 + 𝑽
̅ (𝟏 − ) (𝟏 − )
𝒂 𝒅𝜶 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐
𝒂 𝒃 𝒂 𝒃
From the above equations 𝒉𝒏 > 𝒉′𝒏 if 𝟏 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 < 𝟏. i.e., if 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 > 𝟎
𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐

Both 𝒂𝟏 & 𝒂𝟐 are positive, 𝒃𝟐 must be negative and 𝒃𝟏 is either negative or positive.
𝒂 𝒃
So, the sign of 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 depends on the sign of 𝒃𝟏 .
𝟏 𝟐

𝒂 𝒃
Case – I: If 𝒃𝟏 is negative, then 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 is positive. Therefore 𝒉𝒏 > 𝒉′𝑛 and the aircraft is
𝟏 𝟐
more stable stick fixed than the stick free.

Physically, If 𝒃𝟏 is negative, then increase in incidence gives rise to a negative elevator

hinge moment. ie., nose down. If the stick is free, the elevator will be deflected upwards
and the LT will be reduced. Result will be the nose down. i.e., stabilizing pitching
moment due to tail lift will be less than if the stick is fixed.

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 𝒂 𝒃
Case – II: If 𝒃𝟏 is positive, then 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 is negative. Therefore 𝒉𝒏 < 𝒉′𝒏 and the aircraft is
𝟏 𝟐
more stable stick free than the stick fixed.

Physically, If 𝒃𝟏 is positive, then increase in incidence gives rise to a positive elevator

hinge moment. ie., nose up. If the stick is free, the elevator will be deflected downwards
and the LT will be increased. Result will be the nose up. i.e., stabilizing pitching moment
due to tail lift will be more than if the stick is free.
𝒂 𝒃
Case – III: If 𝒃𝟏 = 𝟎, then 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 = 𝟎, which means 𝒉𝒏 = 𝒉′𝒏 and the stability is the same
𝟏 𝟐
stick fixed and stick free.

Physically, change in incidence gives no elevator hinge moment.

2.7. EFFECTS OF FUSELAGE:

The fuselage is an aerodynamic body and a condition of yaw is similar to a condition

of incidence, so that an aerodynamic side force is created.

The increments in side force with increments in yaw acts through the fuselage
aerodynamic centre, which is close to the quarter length point.

If this aerodynamic centre is ahead of the aircraft CG, then the effect is destabilizing.

To overcome this instability in the fuselage, it is possible to add in to its design Dorsal
or Ventral fins.

A Dorsal fin is a small aerofoil of very low aspect ratio mounted on the top rear part of
the fuselage.

A Ventral fin is similar to the Dorsal fin, but it is mounted on the bottom rear part of
the fuselage.

When the aircraft is yawed to the starboard, a side force will be created to the right side.
The line of action of this force will be aft of the aircraft C.G, due to the fins the yawing
moment will be created to the port side and this is stabilizing effect.

The fins are at low incidence and very small and have low Aspect Ratio. Therefore, at
low angle of yaw it will be ineffective because of very small side force is created. So,
at low angles of yaw the fuselage itself is unstable, when fitted with Dorsal and Ventral
Fins become unstable.

At high angles of yaw, the fins become more effective because of their low Aspect
Ratio. It will not tend to stall and increase in effectiveness continues. So, at high angles
of yaw the fuselage with Dorsal and Ventral fins is stable.
Fuselage alone

ψ
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 Side View Front View

Fuselage with Dorsal

and ventral fin

2.8. EFFECTS OF ELEVATOR:

The elevator is so designed to control the tail lift coefficient and hence to control the
overall pitching moment due to tail.

The elevator hinge moment equation is given by

𝑪𝑯 = 𝒃𝟏 𝜶𝑻 + 𝒃𝟐 𝜼 + 𝒃𝟑 𝜷

Where 𝒃𝟏 , 𝒃𝟐 , 𝒃𝟑 are known as hinge moment coefficients and they are constants.

The elevator hinge moment is denoted by H and is defined as

𝟏
𝑯 = 𝝆𝑽𝟐 𝑺𝑬 𝑪𝑬 𝑪𝑯
𝟐

Where, 𝑺𝑬 – Area of the elevator, 𝑪𝑯 – Coefficient of Hinge moment, 𝑪𝑬 - Chord length

of the elevator

Downward deflection of elevator must induce a nose down hinge moment and vice
versa.
𝝏𝑪𝑯
i.e., = 𝒃𝟐 < 𝟎
𝝏𝜼

𝝏𝑪𝑯
The derivative 𝒃𝟏 = is usually small may be either positive or negative and it
𝝏𝜶𝑻
depends on

• The shape of the tail plane section, which determines the pressure distribution over the
tail and the elevator.
• The size of the elevator in relation to the tail plane, since this affects the pressure over
the elevator.
• The position of the Hinge point.

Some aircrafts use the all moving tail plane which is called as slab tail. Slab tail will
produce large tail lift with small deflections, since the tail is more sensitive to changes
in incidence than to changes in elevator angle. This type of tail plane may consist of a
single rigid but movable aerofoil. All moving aerofoil with additionally a movable
elevator is usually known as Variable Incidence Tail plane.

2.9.STICK GEARING & STICK FORCE:

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 Stick Gearing: The forces either push or pull in which the pilot has to apply to the stick
in order to deflect the elevator, is a direct result of the elevator hinge moment and is
directly related to it.

Stick gearing is defined as the ratio of the elevator deflection in radians to the stick
movement in metres and is denoted by ‘m’. This is simple function of mechanical
linkage in the control circuit.

If 𝜃 is the elevator deflection from a position in which the stick force is zero, x is the
𝜃
stick movement, then the stick gearing is given by 𝑚 = 𝑥

Stick Force: The stick force is defined by ‘P’ in newtons and the elevator hinge moment
is denoted by H.

The work done by the stick force is given by

𝑊 = 𝑃𝑥

If there is no frictional loss and if the forces and moments are in equilibrium condition,
then

𝑃𝑥 = 𝐻𝜃

𝑃 𝜃
= =𝑚
𝐻 𝑥
𝑃 = 𝐻𝑚

A pull force on the stick is positive and this deflects the elevator upwards. Upward
elevator deflection gives rise to a nose up. i.e., positive hinge moment. Thus the stick
gearing is positive.

DYNAMIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY

3.1. EQUATIONS OF MOTION

Here in longitudinal dynamic stability, this concept shows the variations in forward and
downward components of linear velocity and in the angular velocity in pitch, but the
sideways velocity and the angular velocity in roll and yaw are always zero.
Now consider the aircraft is in steady straight and level flight.
We shall use the wind axes system, so that Gx points in the direction of motion and Gz
points vertically downwards.
In undisturbed motion, the linear velocities are
• U along Gx
• Zero along GZ
• The displacement and angular velocity in pitch are zero

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 Now consider the aircraft gets disturbance, due to this disturbance the small increments
in linear velocity components, displacement and angular velocity in pitch are
• 𝑢 along Gx
• 𝑤 along Gz
• 𝜃 is the angular displacement in pitch
• 𝑞 is the angular velocity in pitch

Due to these increments, the total forces and pitching moments will be changed and
their increments are denoted by

• 𝛿𝑥 along Gx
• 𝛿𝑧 along Gz
• 𝛿𝑚 in pitching moment

𝛿𝑥 = 𝑢𝑋𝑢 + 𝑤𝑋𝑤 + 𝑞𝑋𝑞 + 𝜃𝑋𝜃

𝛿𝑧 = 𝑢𝑍𝑢 + 𝑤𝑍𝑤 + 𝑞𝑍𝑞 + 𝜃𝑍𝜃
𝛿𝑀 = 𝑢𝑀𝑢 + 𝑤𝑀𝑤 + 𝑞𝑀𝑞 + 𝜃𝑀𝜃 + 𝑤̇ 𝑀𝑤̇

Here we are assuming that the acceleration derivatives in 𝛿𝑥 and 𝛿𝑧 are negligible.
Also we omitted the terms which represents the increments due to elevator deflection
given by ηXη , ηZη , and ηMη .
In general, we should include all these terms, but in stick fixed case there will be no
elevator movement subsequent to the disturbance so we take all these terms as zero.
Now we equate these forces and moments to their appropriate 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
and the product of inertia with angular acceleration.
W
m= is the mass of the aircraft.
g
B is the moment of inertia about the pitching axis.
Also,
𝑥̇ = 𝑈 + 𝑢
𝑥̈ = 𝑢̇
𝑞 = 𝜃̇
𝑧̇ = w
𝑧̈ = ẇ
Then 𝑓 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑎
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊
𝛿𝑥 = (𝑥̈ + 𝑞𝑤) = 𝑥̈ = 𝑢̇
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
(Neglecting 𝑞𝑤 because of very small increments)
𝑊 𝑊
𝛿𝑧 = (𝑧̈ − 𝑞(𝑈 + 𝑢)) = (𝑧̈ − 𝑞𝑈) (Neglecting u)
𝑔 𝑔
𝛿𝑚 = 𝐵𝜃̈ = 𝐵𝑞̇
Equating 1 and 4, 2 and 5, 3 and 6, we get

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 𝑊
𝑢̇ = 𝑢𝑋𝑢 + 𝑤𝑋𝑤 + 𝑞𝑋𝑞 + 𝜃𝑋𝜃
𝑔
𝑊
(𝑧̈ − 𝑞𝑈) = 𝑢𝑍𝑢 + 𝑤𝑍𝑤 + 𝑞𝑍𝑞 + 𝜃𝑍𝜃
𝑔
𝐵𝑞̇ = 𝑢𝑀𝑢 + 𝑤𝑀𝑤 + 𝑞𝑀𝑞 + 𝜃𝑀𝜃 + 𝑤̇ 𝑀𝑤̇
Then equation 7 becomes,
𝑊 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝜃
0=− + 𝑢𝑋𝑢 + 𝑤𝑋𝑤 + 𝑋 + 𝜃𝑋𝜃
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑞
𝑊 𝑑 𝑑
0 = (𝑋𝑢 − ) 𝑢 + 𝑤𝑋𝑤 + (𝑋𝜃 + 𝑋𝑞 ) 𝜃
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Equation 8 becomes
𝑊
0 = − (𝑤̇ − 𝑞𝑈) + 𝑢𝑍𝑢 + 𝑤𝑍𝑤 + 𝑞𝑍𝑞 + 𝜃𝑍𝜃
𝑔
𝑊 𝑑𝜃 𝑊 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝜃
0= 𝑈− + 𝑢𝑍𝑢 + 𝑤𝑍𝑤 + 𝑍 + 𝜃𝑍𝜃
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑞
𝑊𝑑 𝑊 𝑑
0 = 𝑢𝑍𝑢 + (𝑍𝑤 − ) 𝑤 + ((𝑍𝑞 + 𝑈 ) + 𝑍𝜃 ) 𝜃
𝑔 𝑑𝑡 𝑔 𝑑𝑡
Equation 9 becomes
0 = −𝐵𝑞̇ + 𝑢𝑀𝑢 + 𝑤𝑀𝑤 + 𝑞𝑀𝑞 + 𝜃𝑀𝜃 + 𝑤̇ 𝑀𝑤̇
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑤
0 = −𝐵 + 𝑢𝑀𝑢 + 𝑤𝑀𝑤 + 𝑀𝑞 + 𝜃𝑀𝜃 + 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑤̇
𝑑 𝑑2 𝑑
0 = 𝑢𝑀𝑢 + (𝑀𝑞 + 𝑀𝜃 − 𝐵 ) 𝜃 + ( 𝑀𝑤̇ + 𝑀𝑤 ) 𝑤
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
These equations constitute three simultaneous linear differential equations with
constant coefficients in the three variables u, w, θ each a function of time‘t’
The solutions to such a set of equations are of the form
𝑢 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 , 𝑤 = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 , 𝜃 = 𝐴3 𝑒 𝜆𝑡
Where λ is constant determined by the coefficients in equations
A1 , A2 , A3 are arbitrary constants
Sub equation 13 in equation 10, 11, 12, and dividing by 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 , we get
𝑊
0 = (𝑋𝑢 − 𝜆) 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 𝑋𝑤 + (𝑋𝜃 + 𝜆𝑋𝑞 )𝐴3
𝑔
𝑊 𝑊
0 = 𝐴1 𝑍𝑢 + (𝑍𝑤 − 𝜆) 𝐴2 + ((𝑍𝑞 + 𝑈 ) 𝜆 + 𝑍𝜃 ) 𝐴3
𝑔 𝑔
0 = 𝐴1 𝑀𝑢 + (𝑀𝑞 𝜆 + 𝑀𝜃 − 𝐵𝜆2 )𝐴3 + (𝜆𝑀𝑤̇ + 𝑀𝑤 )𝐴2
These equations cannot be solved uniquely so we take the determinant of the
coefficients is equal to zero.

W
Xu - g λ Xw Xθ +λXq
W W
Zu Zw - g λ (Zq + g U ) λ+ Zθ = 0
Mu λMẇ + Mw Mq λ+ Mθ -Bλ2

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 When this determinant is expanded, it yields quadric expression in λ. so that we may
write the equations 17 in the form of
λ4 +p3 λ3 +p2 λ2 +p1 λ1 +p0 =0

Where 𝑝0 , 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 and p3 are constants whose values are determined by the

combinations of the various aerodynamic derivatives which form the coefficients in the
equation of motion 7, 8, and 9.
Equation 18 is called the characteristic equation for the set of differential equations 10,
11, and 12.

3.2. SOLUTION OF THE STABILITY QUADRIC

From equation 18, the values of 𝜆 may be determined in terms of the coefficients.
In general, equation 18 gives four distinct roots, if we denote it by λ1 , λ2 , λ3 and λ4.
A A
For any one of the roots, A1 and A2 are determined, but for another roots these ratios have
3 4
different values.
Therefore, the general solution of the equation of motion may then be written as
u=A1 eλ1t +B1 eλ2t +C1 eλ3t +D1 eλ4t
w=A2 eλ1t +B2 eλ2t +C2 eλ3t +D2 eλ4t
θ=A3 eλ1t +B3 eλ2t +C3 eλ3t +D3 eλ4t
The value of λ may be real or complex.
• If λ is a complex value, the solutions occur in conjugate complex pairs such as 𝑎−+ ib
• If the roots are real and positive, the solutions occur in the form of 𝑘𝑒 𝜆𝑡 , where k is
constant and this function tends to infinity with time‘𝑡’.
The corresponding motion is there a divergence and the aircraft is unstable in this mode.
• If the roots are real and negative, the solutions occur in the form of 𝑘𝑒 −𝑚𝑡 , where 𝑚 >
0 and this function tends to zero as time ‘𝑡’ tends to infinity.
The corresponding motion is a subsidence and the aircraft is dynamically stable.
• If the roots are in the complex occur in the form of a+− ib, the corresponding solutions
are in the form of 𝑒 at (𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑡).
The corresponding motion is an oscillation and the aircraft is dynamically is unstable if
𝑎−> 0 and stable if 𝑎 < 0.
Therefore, the requirement for complete dynamic stability in every mode is that all the
roots of the stability quadric should have negative real parts.
If there is a pair of equal roots, the solution is in the form of (𝑅 + 𝑠𝑡)𝑒 𝜆𝑡 and this
function tends to zero as ‘𝑡’ tends to infinity.
𝐴1 A2 𝐵1 𝐵2
The ratios and are determined by the value of the root λ1 and and are
𝐴3 A3 𝐵3 𝐵3
determined by the value of the root 𝜆1.
So that the ratios depend on the aerodynamic derivatives which constitute the
coefficients of the equation of motion.
The roots λ1 & λ2 corresponds to important contributions to the values of u and w.

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 The values of 𝐶1 , 𝐷1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐷2 are small when compared with the other terms, in the
same way the other roots 𝜆3 & 𝜆4 make contributions to 𝜃.

Therefore, we may write

𝑢 = 𝐴1 𝑒 𝜆1 𝑡 + 𝐵1 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡
𝑤 = 𝐴2 𝑒 𝜆1 𝑡 + 𝐵2 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡
𝜃 = 𝐶3 𝑒 𝜆3 𝑡 + 𝐷3 𝑒 𝜆4 𝑡
In general, 𝜆1 and 𝜆2 constitute a conjugate complex pair. Therefore oscillation in 𝑢 and
𝑤 vary with the same frequency. This frequency is determined by the imaginary part of
𝜆1 & 𝜆2 .
This period of oscillation is very long. This motion is the Phugoid oscillation or long
period oscillation.

If 𝜆3 & 𝜆4 constitute a conjugate complex pair. The oscillation in which the 𝜃 varies,
i.e., oscillation in pitch. The frequency is determined by the imaginary part of
𝜆3 & 𝜆4 .

The period of oscillation is short and t he frequency is high. This motion is the short
period oscillation

3.3. STABILITY CRITERIA

• All roots of the stability quadratic equation shall have negative real parts.
(𝜆1 , 𝜆2, 𝜆3 & 𝜆4 )
• All the coefficients in the stability quadratic equation shall be positive. (𝑝0 , 𝑝1 , 𝑝2 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑝3 )
• Additional requirement, that the determinant
𝑝3 1 0
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 = 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 − 𝑝1 2 − 𝑝0 𝑝3 2
0 𝑝0 𝑝1

May also be positive

Then the stability can be provided by means of Routh’s Hurwitz Criteria.

3.4. PHUGOID MOTION

The aircraft getting disturbed in its longitudinal axis (i.e., pitching up and down)
and return back to its original position by means of damped oscillation is called
longitudinal dynamic stability.
It applies fundamentally to the response of an aircraft to two kinds of
disturbance.
The first kind of disturbance is by the vertical gust, without change in forward
speed but there is change in incidence which leads to change in lift and consequently in
pitching moment. The frequency of this oscillation is generally high, so that this motion
is given by the name of Short period oscillation. Because of this short period, it is not

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 possible for the pilot to apply a correction and it is therefore essential that the short
period oscillation be adequately damped.
If the aircraft geometry is such that the oscillation is not quickly damped out,
then an automatic stabilizer must be incorporated in the control system.
The second kind of disturbance is by the horizontal gust, it is a simple
disturbance in the longitudinal component of velocity i.e., in forward speed, with no
change in incidence. Since an increase in forward speed results in general, in increased
drag and this force increment then tends to slow the aircraft down again, the aircraft is
generally statically stable in this mode. An exception is the case when the undisturbed
speed is below the minimum drag speed and in this condition; the aircraft is statically
unstable in response to such a disturbance.
If the aircraft is statically stable, the effect of increased forward speed is to
increase not only the drag but also the lift, so that the aircraft will gain height given by
1
𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝑑
2
1 2
𝐿 = 𝜌𝑉 𝑆𝐶𝑙
2
In doing so, it exchanges kinetic energy for potential energy, so that it loses
speed. Once its speed falls below the undisturbed value, it begins to descend again.
Thus the consequence of the disturbance is an oscillation in which the aircraft
successively gains and losses height, while losing and gaining forward speed. This
oscillation is known as Phugoid Oscillation.
If the condition is dynamically stable, the oscillation is damped, but in practice, it is
generally only poorly damped and may even be unstable.

A simple but approximate analysis of the motion may be made by using energy
considerations.
Let 𝑉 be the mean forward speed during the oscillation i.e., the velocity in the mean or
the equilibrium condition of flight before the onset of the disturbance. Suppose that in
falling through a height ‘ℎ’ from the mean altitude, the aircraft increases its speed by an
increment 𝑣.
Then the loses in potential energy is mgh and the corresponding gain in kinetic energy
is
1
𝑚{(𝑉 + 𝑣)2 −𝑉 2 }
2
By the law of conservation of energy
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚{(𝑉 + 𝑣)2 − 𝑉 2 }
2
𝑊 1𝑊 2
𝑔ℎ = {𝑉 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑉𝑣 − 𝑉 2 }
𝑔 2𝑔
1 2
ℎ= {𝑣 + 2𝑉𝑣}
2𝑔
Since 𝑣 2 is very small compared with V, we neglect the 𝑣 2 term and write
𝑉𝑣 = 𝑔ℎ

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 𝑔ℎ
𝑣=
𝑉
Now in the mean condition, lift equals weight of the airplane, so that
1
𝑊 = 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝑙
2
If L is the lift after falling through a height h, then
1
𝐿 = 𝜌(𝑉 + 𝑣)2 𝑆𝐶𝑙
2
Therefore,
𝐿 (𝑉 + 𝑣)2 𝑉 2 + 𝑣 2 + 2𝑉𝑣
= =
𝑊 𝑉2 𝑉2
2
𝐿 2𝑣 𝑣 2𝑣
= 1+ + 2 =1+
𝑊 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝑣2
Neglecting 𝑉 2 , because of very small, then
2𝑔ℎ
𝐿 = 𝑊 (1 + )
𝑉2
The resultant vertical force is then (L-W), so the vertical acceleration is
2𝑔ℎ
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐿 − 𝑊 (𝑊 (1 + 𝑉 2 ) − 𝑊) 2𝑔2 ℎ
𝑣. 𝑎 = = 𝑊 = 𝑊 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑉2
𝑔 𝑔
And it follows that the equation of motion may be written as
𝑑2 ℎ 2𝑔2 ℎ
ℎ − 𝑑𝑡 2 = 𝑉2
3.5. FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERIOD AND DAMPING
Period: period is the time taken for one full oscillation. It is reciprocal of frequency.
2𝜋 √2𝜋𝑉
𝑇= =
2𝑔2 𝑔
√ 2
𝑉
V is the mean forward speed during the oscillation. i.e., the velocity in the mean or
equilibrium condition of flight before the onset of the disturbance.
Damping: it is any effect that tends to reduce the amplitude of oscillations in an
oscillatory system.

• Variation with CL
The airplane lift coefficient has considerable effect on the Phugoid mode, the damping
of the aircraft improving with reduction in CL and the period decreasing with increase
in CL. At high speeds (low CL) the aircraft nearly always has a damped Phugoid.

• Variation with Cdf

Increasing the parasite drag of an aircraft will improve the damping of the long period
mode and have small effect on the aircraft

• Variation with airplane damping, 𝐶𝑚𝑑𝜃

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 The damping of the Phugoid improves with increase in the damping parameter 𝐶𝑚𝑑𝜃 ,
but the period is only slightly affected.

• Variation with Inertia

Increasing the inertia (resistance any physical objects to a change in its state of rest or
motion) tends to reduce the damping of the long period mode and has less effect on the
period.

• Variation with Static Stability (𝑑𝐶𝑚/𝑑𝐶𝑙)

Static stability is the initial tendency of an airplane, when disturbed, to return to its
original position.
There is usually some C.G position for which the damping of the Phugoid is poorest.
Forward or aft shift of the C.G from this critical position will improve the damping.
Moving the C.G aft tends to lengthen the period.

STATIC LATERAL STABILITY

4.3. DIHEDRAL EFFECT

Normal force

Dihedral Angle
Side Wind
Normal force

The main features of wing design which cause it to make a contribution to the
aspect of lateral stability is the wing dihedral.
Dihedral wing is mounted on the fuselage at an angle to the horizontal plane in
which the wing lies above the horizontal plane through its root.
The sideslip produces the rolling moment which determines the static lateral
stability of an aircraft. Banking of an aircraft induces sideslip and this sideslip produces
rolling moment. So the condition of bank does not induce the rolling moment directly.
The major contribution to the rolling moment is associated with the geometric
dihedral of the wing and for this reason it is generally termed as dihedral effect.
If an aircraft gets disturbances and start to roll to starboard side of the wing, the
result of this bank is a tilting vector to the right. The lift is no longer enough to sustain
the weight of the aircraft, which as a result sideslip to the right. If this right sideslip
induces a rolling moment to port, this will tend to restore the aircraft to the unbanked
condition. This implies to the unbanked condition.

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 Thus the condition for positive dihedral effect .i.e., positive lateral static
stability, is that sideslip to starboard shall produce rolling moment to port.
The above figure shows the positive dihedral effect. That is the wing is side
slipping to the left, so that the side wind comes from the left at an angle to the plane of
both wings and it give rise to an aerodynamic force whose normal component is
upwards on the port wing and downwards on the starboard wing. There is a rolling
moment to starboard side which constitute a positive dihedral effect, .i.e., Stabilizing
effect.
The anhedral wing will give negative dihedral effect, .i.e., destabilizing rolling
moment due to side slip.
4.2 ADVERSE YAW

A pilot initiates a turn from straight flight by rolling the airplane in the desired
direction of the turn while at the same time applying a little ruder in order to start the
airplane yawing in the desired direction. If done properly, a so called coordinated turn
is achieved where the resultant of the gravitational and inertial forces remains
perpendicular to the wing.

A pair of aileron surfaces of plain flaps that travel simultaneously when deflected will
usually produce a motion known as adverse yaw

At an angle of attack, a flap deflection in downward direction will experience more

drag increment than that produced from the same deflection up

For example, suppose the right side aileron moves up and the left one move to initiate
a turn to the right. The higher drag in the left aileron will produce a yawing moment that tends
to yaw the airplane to the left, opposite to what was desired. This is known as adverse yaw due
to ailerons, a characteristic to make the airplane uncomfortable to fly.

To ease the adverse yaw, the mechanical linkages are so designed such that for a given
control movement, the upward movement on one aileron is greater than the downward
movement on the opposite aileron. For example, if the aileron moves up 300 but down only
150.

Another means of eliminating the adverse yaw is by using the frise aileron. The frise
aileron has the hinge point below the aileron surface. As the aileron is raised, the nose
projects down in to the flow, thereby increasing the drag on the up aileron. The frise aileron
designed to eliminate adverse yaw

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4.3. AUTOROTATION

Autorotation is an inherent tendency of un-swept wings at angles of attack beyond

stalling angle and is one of the principal causes for a straight wing propeller driven
airplane to enter in to a spin. The autorotative tendency of the fuselage also contributes
to the development of the spin. However the autorotative tendencies of the wings and
the fuselage by themselves are not sufficient to make an airplane develop a steady state
spin depends on the balance between aerodynamic and inertial moments.

The auto rotational characteristics of the wing depend on the nature of the variation of
the CL and CD with an α beyond stall.

14 A
12 C B
10 E F
lift coefficient

8
6
4
2
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
angle of attack

Consider an airplane which is flying at straight and level flight at an incidence very
close to the stalling angle. Suppose that its condition corresponds to point ‘A’ on the
lift curve.

If the aircraft is subjected to a disturbance in roll, causing a roll, wing to drop. This
wing will now have a downward velocity, the airflow over it will have a relative up-
wash velocity and the effective incidence will be increased. This may result in the wing
becoming stalled, with a consequent sharp reduction in lift on this down going wing.

The up-going wing will experience a reduction in effective incidence by the same
amount as the increase on the other side and this will cause its lift to be reduced also.
The points ‘B’ and ‘C’ on the lift curve represent respectively the conditions of the
down going and up going wings.

Then there will be a rolling moment resulting from the difference in lift of two wings
and this moment will be in the same sense as the original roll and so will constitute a
negative damping in roll. The aircraft will not only continue to roll but will accelerate
in roll. This phenomenon is known as AUTOROTATION.

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 When the rate of roll reaches a certain value, the corresponding change in incidence of
the two wings is such that the lift coefficient is again the same on both sides as indicated
by ‘D’ and ‘E’ on lift curve. Then the aircraft will continue to auto rotate at a steady
rate.

The ailerons become ineffective once autorotation has begun, so that the motion cannot
be corrected by use of ailerons. The remedy for the condition is to reduce the incidence.

4.4. SPIN

Autorotation does not occur in isolation with an aircraft in flight, since the
lateral disturbance which initiates the autorotation also instigates a directional
disturbance which complicates the motion. The resulting motion is called spinning.

The directional motion is created as a result of the difference in drag between

the two wings. The down going wing is stalled so that the drag on that side is much
greater than on the other side. If the roll is to starboard, the drag is higher on the
starboard side, there is a yaw moment to starboard and the aircraft begins to yaw to
starboard.

There is an interaction between the yawing moment due to roll and rolling
moment due to sideslip; ultimately a steady condition is reached which is a steady spin.
In this process the aircraft descends along a helical path.

Aerodynamic characteristics of a spin

The aerodynamic characteristics of a spin for a straight – wing and those for
swept – wing aircraft are quite different.

i. For a straight wing

Fig (a) shows the graph of 𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐷 curves for the straight wing. If this type
of airplane is flying at an angle of attack at 𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 or above, then the airplane is
tend to roll to the right and the right wing drops. This right wing is flying with
a higher local angle of attack and becomes even more stalled. On the other hand,
the left wing moves upward with a lower angle of attack and becomes less
stalled thus producing more lift.

The right rolling motion of the airplane is aided by the relative increase in lift
of the left wing and a yawing moment to the right is produced. These moments
results in Autoration. Which means the airplane tends continue to roll and yaw
without any input from the pilot. Spin is characterized primarily by the rolling
motion with moderate yaw. The attitude of the spin for this type of wing is about
400 or more.

Stall

𝐶𝐿

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 𝐶𝐿 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝐷
Up going
wing Down going
wing

𝐶𝐷

ii. For a swept wing

Fig (b) shows the graph of 𝐶𝐿 𝑣𝑠 𝐶𝐷 for the swept wing. In the graph the
𝐶𝐿 curve does not have a well defined maximum lift point and if this type of
airplane is rolled at high angles of attack, only a small changes in 𝐶𝐿 take place.
There is no definite stall and the wing autorotation contribution will be quiet
weak. The change in 𝐶𝐷 that occurs between the two wings is large and a large
yawing moment is created. Swept wing aircrafts have low aspect ratios and the
mass of the aircraft is distributed along the longitudinal axis of the airplane
rather than in the wings. During the spin, as the yaw develops this mass
distribution contributes to the inertial moments and tends to flatten the spin.
This result in very high angles of attack and high sink rates.

The rate of spin and steepness of descent for a given airplane are function of initial
incidence and its lateral and directional stability characteristics. High incidence well
beyond the stall, leads to the flat spin, in which the rate of rotation is high, but the
descent is not very steep.

SPIN and AUTOROTATION RECOVERY

The most effective spin recovery technique is by reducing the incidence and so
getting away from the stalled condition on both wings. But the elevator is ineffective in
spin as a result of the large angle of sideslip. The existence of sideslip caused a
considerable increase in the range of incidence over which the spin can occur and also
results in a relatively high rate of rotation. Thus the sideslip has to be reduced by using
rudder.

Recovery procedure is to apply full rudder first to reduce the sideslip and then
deflecting elevator downwards to reduce the angle of attack. The final stage consists in
using the ailerons to eliminate roll and then pulling out of the dive.

The autorotation of fuselage depends on its cross sectional shape. Generally

fuselages with circular cross section or cross section with round bottoms are resistant
to autorotation and cross section with flat bottoms are prone to autorotation.

4.6. SPIRAL INSTABILITY

The Spiral mode is a non–oscillatory. When excited, the mode dynamics are
usually slow to develop and involve the complex coupled motion in roll, yaw and

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 sideslip. The mode characteristics are very dependent on the lateral static stability and
on the directional static stability of the airplane.

The Spiral mode is usually excited by a disturbance in sideslip which typically

follows a disturbance in roll causing a wing to drop.

Assume that the airplane is in level flight condition, and that a disturbance is
causes a small positive roll angle φ. This sideslip puts the fin at incidence β which
produces lift and in turn it generates a yawing moment to turn the aircraft in to the
direction of the sideslip. The yawing moment creates a differential lift across the wing
span which created a rolling moment causing the starboard wing to drop further. This
develops the divergence as shown in the figure indicated at b and c.

The dihedral effect of the wing generates a negative restoring rolling moment
due to sideslip which acts to return the wing to a level altitude. Some additional
restoring rolling moment is also generated by the fin lift force when it acts at a point
above the roll axis.

Therefore the situation is one in which the fin effect or the directional static
stability and the dihedral effect or the lateral static stability act in opposition to create
this dynamic condition.

When the dihedral effect is higher, the spiral mode is stable and hence
convergent, i.e. the wing is slow to recover a level altitude after a disturbance. When
the fin effect is higher, the spiral mode is unstable and hence divergent, i.e. the rate at
which the divergence is very slow. But the requirements for lateral and directional static
stability are such that the opposing effects are very nearly equal. Then the spiral mode
will be nearly neutrally stable, i.e. it will be either convergent or divergent, that is the
aircraft simply flies turn at a constant roll altitude. The time constant is very large,
typically 100seconds or more.

It is also important that a spiral departure is not the same as a spin. Spinning
motion is fully stalled flight condition whereas in a spiral descent the wing continues
to fly in the usual sense.

4.7. SPIRAL DIVERGENCE

Spiral instability exists when the static directional stability of the airplane is very strong as
compared to the effects of its dihedral in maintaining lateral equilibrium. When the lateral equilibrium
of the plane is disturbed by a gust of air and a sideslip is introduced, the strong directional stability
tends to yaw the nose into the relative wind, while the comparatively weak dihedral lags in restoring
the lateral balance.
Due to the yaw, the wing on the outside of the turning moment travels faster than the inside
wing and as a consequence its lift becomes greater. This produces an over banking tendency which, if
not corrected by the pilot, will result in the banking angle becoming steeper and steeper. At the same
time, the strong directional stability that yaws the plane into the relative wind is actually forcing the

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nose to a lower pitch attitude. Then the start of a slow spiral which has begun if not counter-acted by
the pilot will gradually increase into a steep spiral dive.
Thus it is a fairly complicated motion, involving a mixture of side forces and moments in both
the rolling and yawing sense .A small degree of spiral instability is often tolerated, and usually the rate
of divergence in the spiral motion, is so gradual that the pilot can control the tendency without any
difficulty. Of the in-flight structural failures that have occurred in general aviation airplanes, improper
recovery from this condition has probably been the underlying cause of more fatalities than any other
single factor.

4.7. LONGITUDINAL CONTROLS (PITCHING)

The pilot's control of pitching, and hence forward speed, is the elevator (fixed) tail plane
combination with a trim device. This is the control system, in this mode, which is most common in
aircraft designed to fly well below speeds at which compressibility effects would be felt. With a fixed
tail plane, the elevator must be sufficiently powerful to pull the aircraft up to stalling incidence at
extreme ranges of CG position. Some light aircraft have undersized elevators to make the
machine un-stallable. The elevator is essentially a flap, or pair of flaps, hinged at or near the nose
to the trailing edge of the fixed horizontal stabilizing plane, or tail plane. When fitted as a pair,
on either side of the fuselage say, they must be rigidly coupled to prevent any flutter between the
two. The chord of the elevator is 30%-40% of the total chord of tail plane and elevator combined.
The elevator should possess some aerodynamic balancing which is often achieved by horn
balancing or setting the hinge back, or a combination of the two. Owing to the dependence of
longitudinal trim on CG position, which is variable, a trimming device of some kind, controllable
by the pilot, should be fitted to allow the pilot to trim out any hinge moments set up by a CG
position change or a forward velocity change, etc. This trim device is usually a trim tab set in part
of the trailing edge of the elevator, and connected to a control lever or wheel in the cockpit
through an irreversible system, which does not allow the tab to deflect in either way, relative to
the elevator, unless operated from the cockpit.

Fixed trim tabs can be fitted, or some other permanent device having the same effects
such as a strip of metal attached to the trailing edge and bent to the required deflection. Fixed
trimmers can only effect one control position and are usually adjusted for the cruising position.
Some aircraft have had the whole tail plane pivoted, and thus are capable of having the tail-setting
angle altered at will by a trim control in the cockpit.

The adjustment of the tail incidence, relative to the fuselage, can be made into a very effective
and powerful control in pitch, and it is known as the all flying, slab, or all moving tail plane. The
tail plane is hinged near the leading edge and the elevators are retained for special application or
in rudimentary form as trimmers, if at all. The aerodynamic moments about the pivot are extremely
large, requiring power assistance in manipulation. In addition, the fuselage tail plane junction
requires special attention in design to eliminate large drag losses. These two disadvantages
prohibited the general use of this type of control until the advent of supersonic flight revealed
inherent faults in the conventional elevator. In supersonic aircraft and missiles, the rotating tail
plane or stabilizer is almost universal. It can be made much more rigid and has a less disturbing

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effect on the shock pattern at the tail. The tail plane-fuselage interaction must still be most
carefully studied.

Landing and take-off flaps, leading edge flaps and slats are not controls in the sense meant here,
but by their operation increase the lift and/or drag of the aircraft and are controllable by the pilot.
They also have an influence on the pitching stability of the aeroplane but this is an undesirable
attribute of their function.

LATERAL CONTROL
This is most commonly affected by ailerons, which are a pair of flaps hinged near their
leading edge, set at the trailing edges of the mainplanes and so coupled that they work in
opposition. Thus, if one is deflected up the other goes down. It is called adverse because the
upgoing wing is retarded as a secondary effect of the aileron deflection, and this is opposite to the
direction the upgoing wing is required to go, in a banked turn.

Apart from balance problems, the design of ailerons has been concerned largely with
eliminating the adverse yaw. Two ways have been extensively used. The Frise aileron, designed as
a means of aerodynamic balance, is arranged so that when the control is raised the offset nose of
the aileron protrudes into the airstream.

This creates a localized region of low pressure and thus helps to balance the control and to provide
an addition to boundary layer drag on the downgoing wing. The nose of the downgoing aileron
on the other side does not project into the airstream of the upgoing wing and no extra drag arises.
Note that the ailerons are geared together so that any hinge moment felt by one is experienced by
the system as a whole, so the balancing suction hinge moment is in the system as a whole, whilst
the extra drag is on the wing of the up-deflected control only.

The other commonly used method of minimizing the adverse yaw is to gear the ailerons
differentially.

Ailerons are located towards the wing-tips by the necessity, in most aircraft, to utilize
trailing edge flaps for landing and take-off. It can be argued that the further out the ailerons are
placed the greater their moment arm and hence their power. This is true in a sense, but to provide
that power, ailerons of larger chord are required if their span is to be limited. Being set towards
the tips of the wings, which are the most flexible part, helps the occurrence of aileron reversal
and this is a serious condition.

Aileron reversal arises solely from the elasticity of the wing structure. In normal use an
up-deflected aileron produces a twisting moment on the wing about the OY axis tending to
increase the incidence of that part of the wing and this, in an elastic structure, will tend to nullify
the action of the aileron and reduce the rolling moment. This twisting moment induced by an
aerodynamic loading created by the control deflection increases as the square of the forward speed
whilst the reacting torsional stiffness in the wing structure is constant. A flight speed is reached
when the aileron deflections will not produce rolling moment because the distortion of the main
structure creates a main incidence change and hence aerodynamic force change sufficient to
balance out that caused by the control deflection. This is a critical speed of flight which when

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exceeded produces the phenomenon of the aircraft rolling in opposition to a control deflection, i.e.
the control is effectively reversed. This aeroelastic control reversal phenomenon is possible on all
flap control systems but first appeared as an aileron reversal on fighter aircraft of the second world
war when they were flown at very high (contemporary) speeds.

As high-speed aircraft require thin wings which are therefore less stiff the problems of
control reversal are important. One method of counteracting this torsional effect is to fit inboard
ailerons, i.e. ailerons fitted near the wing root. Although this reduces the power of the ailerons,
control reversal due to torsion is virtually eliminated.

Rolling controls which do not suffer from reversal effects are lift spoilers. Fitted on the upper
surface of the wing forward of the quarter chord point these are essentially plates which protrude
normal to the surface on one wing and violently disturb the flow over the wing and hence reduce
the circulation and lift The wing drops and the control is effected. The adverse yaw inherent in the
motion is minimized by the large component of drag set up by the spoilers on the downgoing wing
creating an opposing yawing moment A further advantage to the use of this form of control is that
being located in the wing to operate through the upper surface, the trailing edge is left free for
full span flaps. The main disadvantage to this control type is that there is a delay between
operation of control and response of aircraft In addition there is no feedback of sensitivity to the
pilot who cannot feel the control although this can be introduced artifically.

Wings (or wing-tips) hinged near the quarter chord point, and allowed to alter their
incidences in opposition through a simple power-assisted control system, would seem the logical
control for high-speed aircraft, especially if the wings have to be rigid and thin, and of low aspect
ratio.

DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS (YAWING)

Finless and rudderless aeroplanes can feasibly be designed but the general control criteria for flight
demand a device for directional control. This is the rudder and it is probably the most familiar of
all aircraft controls. It consists of a flap hinged near the leading edge and fixed to the trailing edge
of the fin(s). It must be powerful in operation yet incapable of sensibly altering the directional stability
of the aircraft when freed. This demands considerable aerodynamic balancing. Fins and rudders,
like tailplanes and elevators, are usually of symmetrical streamline section, but in the case of
single propeller-driven aircraft are sometimes offset, or of non symmetrical section, to compensate
for the rotation of the flow in the slipstream in which they are immersed. Single rudders are usually
in the propeller slipstream and this is found to be a useful taxiing control. Multi-engined aircraft
sometimes have twin fins and rudders set in the propellers' streams in order to obtain a measure
of this control on the ground. .

For multi-engined aircraft particularly, the rudder must be provided with very quick
operating trimmers which must be sufficiently powerful to trim out the hinge moment associated
with the design criterion of engine failure.

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 The action of the rudder, as that of all controls working in the wash of an aerodynamic
surface, is susceptible to changes in flow regime over the fin. A stalled fin in a large sideslip can
reverse the action of the rudder by causing it to take an adverse deflection and in severe cases can
cause the rudder to lock on beyond the control of the pilot. Rudder locking can be caused by
aerodynamic overbalance of the control. At high incidence the separation of flow from the upper
fuselage blankets the lower part of the rudder. The horn balance is then too effective and can
force the rudder onto its stops. This effect may be alleviated by a dorsal fin. If the rudder is now
overbalanced and the aircraft yaws, the dorsal fin acts as a vertical slender delta wing, generating
a strong vortex which re-energizes the air at the base of the rudder, bringing the control back to
full effectiveness.

The necessity for landing with the OX axis nearly parallel to the ground surface results in
fitting the fin and rudder to the top and rear of the fuselage, introducing a certain asymmetry to
the whole tail unit. In future aircraft, landing with the OX axis vertical, designers will be able
to arrange for a symmetrical tail unit in which the rudder and tailplane and their controls are
identical. Further, if this cruciform tail system is turned so that the tail stabilizing planes are at 45°
to the mainplanes, the elevating and steering function will be shared by each surface. This is a
familiar design on some types of missile.

AERODYNAMIC BALANCING OF CONTROLS

Previous discussion has noted that the control hinge moment has a considerable bearing
on the power of the control and its ease of handling as well as on the static stability of the aircraft
as a whole. Further investigation into the response characteristics of control surfaces and the
dynamic stability of aircraft also shows the importance of the hinge moment parameter. A basic
design requirement is that over-large hinge moments must be reduced by balancing. Care must be
taken not to carry the process too far and overbalance the control, which would then deviate from
the neutral setting, if released from the pilot's restraint.

Several methods of aerodynamic balancing are available to the designer and it is not unusual
for two or more methods to be used on a single control. The methods discussed below have universal
application and all could be usefully employed on any of the controls, but those methods involving
asymmetric flaps, e.g. the Frise aileron which has a form of distorted nose balance, are most often
used on aileron controls. For this reason the common symbolism of bt, b2, b3, the slope of the
curve of control hinge moment coefficient with incidence, control deflection, and tab deflection
respectively, is used here.

A complexity to be considered when comparing the utility of the types of balance available
is that the parameters bl and b2 are themselves not constant over the angles of incidence for
deflections available to the control. An example of the change in slope is given in Fig. . The
comments given below will be confined to deflections near the neutral setting.

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Methods of aerodynamic balance depending on control shape

Horn balance Part of the control surface is carried forward of the hinge axis to protrude
either within the fixed plane where it is then a shielded horn or at the extremity of the fixed plane
where it is unshielded (Fig. ). Occasionally the horn is partly shielded. The portion forward
of the hinge-line will suffer aerodynamic forces causing a hinge moment in opposition to that of
the trailing part of the control both when the incidence of the whole is changed or when the
control is deflected. The horn balance is a powerful design tool which permits bx to be increased to
zero or even made positive without causing undue overbalance of b2. For this reason horn
balance is mostly used on elevators and rudders. In general, the degree of balance (or positive
change in b1 and b2) is greater for increased area of horn, relative to the control area, and increases
as the aspect ratio of the horn decreases. The other parameters remain constant. For shielded and
part shielded horns the nose shape of the horn has an effect, a blunter nose being more effective
than a streamline or sharp nose.

Nose (shape) balance {sealed gap) The effect of change of nose shape is most marked when the
gap between control and main surfaces is sealed by some flexible membrane so that lower
surface flow conditions cannot communicate with the upper surface flow regime (Fig. ).
Further, with the gaps between the upper and lower control surfaces and main surfaces suitably
restricted the pressures pu and p1 , acting over the nose portion will be appreciably constant
and have no relation to the nose shape. The control nose will thus work as a lever acted upon by
the pressure difference (p1 - pu). The overall effect of the seal is somewhat diminished by the cut-
outs necessary on the hinge structure. This allows the pressures to equalize in a region extending
beyond that of the cut-out itself. In addition the leak from the lower to upper surface modifies
the flow.

With an unsealed gap the actual shape of the nose is more important and it is found that sharp
or slender noses are less effective than round or bluff profiles.

Balancing by other changes in shape, A simple trimming device which, has been long used on
aircraft controls is the fixing of a strip of cord to one or both sides of the trailing edge parallel
to the edge. This was commonly used on fabric-covered controls. On metal skins the cord is
replaced by a strip of metal which can be bent to give the effect of a fixed lab.

The balance of controls on swept wing or tailplane surfaces is susceptible to the shape of
the extremities. For example, a control which finished off perpendicular to the hinge-line at the
outboard end is more, positive than one whose end is parallel to the plane of symmetry. The
reverse is the case at the inboard end.

Methods of aerodynamic balance depending on control positioning

Set-back hinge This is the simplest method of balancing and any degree of balance can be
attained. As the hinge is moved aft the portion of the control ahead of the hinge sustains moments in
opposition to the control moment of the rear portion and balance is effected. Close aerodynamic

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balance by this method is not usual, as the magnitude of the b2 effect is very susceptible to the
flow regime near the nose and to the surface condition and shape, and overbalance can easily
result. A combination of set-back hinge and horn balance in which overbalance can be avoided
is often employed.

Gap The gap between the control and fixed surface can have considerable influence on the
working of the control by permitting a high-energy jet of air to leak from the lower surface to
the upper, to re-energize the boundary layer and thus delay separation. The magnitude of the effect
depends on the condition of the surfaces and the Reynolds number of the flow, and may vary
appreciably. For sealed controls the vent gap size is important and the balance effectiveness falls
off rapidly as the gap increased.

Tab balancing This has been mentioned under shape methods above. In some applications
a tab in the form of a small flap set over part of the trailing edge of the control is so geared that it
deflects in opposition to the main control surface, i.e. if the control deflects down the tab goes up
and vice versa (Fig. ). The tab produces a hinge moment on the control hinge-line which
acts against the moment set up by the control and effect the balance. The gearing ratio of this type
of tab is the important design feature. If necessary the linkage can be designed to allow the tab
deflection to follow the flap. In this case it acts to increase the control hinge moment and thus
provides anti-balance.

The spring tab This is not a pure balancing device (Fig. ). Its primary purpose is to relieve
the high hinge moments and hence stick forces arising from the higher speed ranges of the aircraft's
performance. Hinge moments are proportional to the square of the flight speed. Basically, the
control linkage from the stick or pedals deflects the control through a stiff spring, and is continued
to actuate the tab. At low speeds the aerodynamic forces are too weak to overcome the spring
which acts as an inextensible link and the control surface deflects normally. At high speeds the
forces on the tab extend the spring, the control surface moves tinder the action of these forces
independent of the pilot's linkage since they both independently rotate about the hinge-line, and
the tab is deflected relative to the control. Thus the tab deflection, which is geared to balance the
hinge moment, arises in proportion to the hinge moment. The ratio between the two depends
on the tab size gearing and spring strength.

Mass balancing

Although beyond the scope of the present volume mass balancing is mentioned here to,
distinguish it from aerodynamic balance. Control surfaces, like other real bodies, possess mass
and in all forms of motion exhibit inertial characteristics. It can be readily appreciated therefore
that a flap hinged at its leading edge and possessing mass will resist accelerations in any form
according to its inertia. For example, if the flap is an elevator and the aircraft begins to pitch
nose up, the elevator, all aero-dynamic considerations aside, will lag and deflect up if the centre
of mass of the elevator is behind the hinge-line. Equally when in steady rotation about its hinge
the elevator will have inertia lω which will require an applied moment to bring the flap to rest
in the new control position. This characteristic coupled to the aerodynamic characteristics of

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the controls can result in flutter which implies the rhythmic, and often frequent, motion of a control
surface beyond the control of the pilot.

The inertial character of a control, in all six degrees of freedom, or motion must, therefore, be
carefully considered. As the mass distribution of the control is the only variable the obvious
method of solution is to redistribute the mass to the most innocuous location. This is done by the
arrangement of extra masses about the hinge-line of the control, sometimes externally; hence the
term mass balancing. Mass balancing is the artificial correction of the inertial characteristics of a
control to avoid excessive flutter of the control and main surface to which it attaches. It has no
direct connection with aerodynamic balancing except to the extent that aerodynamic balancing
affects the coupling between inertial and aerodynamic moments and forces.

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