TOPIC 3:

NETWORK
Networks
•3.1.1 Identify different types of networks.
•3.1.2 Outline the importance of standards in the
construction of networks.
•3.1.3 Describe how communication over networks is
broken down into different layers.
•3.1.4 Identify the technologies required to provide a
VPN.
•3.1.5 Evaluate the use of a VPN.
What is Network?

A computer network is a collection of computing devices

that are connected in various ways to communicate and
share resources.
Usually, the connections between computers in a network
are made using physical wires and cables.
However, some connections are wireless, using radio
waves or infrared signals to transmit data.
3.1.1 Identify different types of
networks.
Types of NW based on their scopes:
•LAN
•WAN
•VLAN
•SAN
•VPN
•PAN
•P2P
LAN (Local Area Network ):
℘ Spans small area - a single building (i.e Office building) or group of
buildings (Educational institutions, manufacturing plants)
℘ Generally LANs connect workstations and personal computers
℘ Each computer in a LAN has its own CPU
℘ Computers in a LAN share expensive devices and data (i.e. Laser
printers)
℘ LAN can allow users to communicate with each other
℘ Data transmission rate is faster than telephone line
℘ Distances are limited
℘ Number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN is limited.
℘ LAN can be connected to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves
℘ LANs are also typically owned, controlled, and managed by a single
person or organization.
LAN (Local Area Network ):
WAN (Wide-Area Network):
℘ Spans a large physical area (i.e. Country or continent)
℘ WANs use telephone lines, satellite dishes, or radio waves to span
larger geographical areas than can be covered by a LAN.
℘ A WAN is a geographically-dispersed collection of LANs.
℘ A network device called a router connects LANs to a WAN.
℘ The Internet is the largest WAN, spanning the Earth.
℘ WANs (like the Internet) are not owned by any one organization but
rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and
management.

***The Internet is a vast collection of smaller networks that have agreed to communicate using the same protocols and
to pass along messages so that they can reach their final destination.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network ):

℘ Spans a physical area larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN,
such as city
℘ A MAN is owned and operated by a single entity (i.e. Government or
large corporation)
℘ MANs are usually characterized by very high-speed connections
using fiber optical cable or other digital media.
SAN (Storage Area Network ):
℘ A storage area network (SAN) is a type of LAN
designed to handle large data transfers.
℘ Connects servers to data storage devices
through a technology like Fibre Channel.
VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network ):
℘ A network of computers that behave as if they
are connected to the same wire even though
they may actually be physically located on
different segments of a LAN.
℘ VLANs are configured through software rather
than hardware → flexible.
℘ When a computer is physically moved to another
location, it can stay on the same VLAN without
any hardware reconfiguration.
PAN (Personal Area Network ):
℘ PAN is a computer network organized around an individual person
℘ PAN involves a mobile computer, a cell phone and/or a handheld
computing device such as a PDA
℘ These networks transfer files including email and calendar
appointments, digital photos and music
℘ Personal area networks can be constructed with cables (USB or
FireWire) or be wireless (Bluetooth or infrared)
℘ Cover a range of less than 10 meters
WLAN (Wireless Area Network ):
℘ A type of local-area network that uses
high-frequency radio waves rather than wires to
communicate between nodes.
 P2P (Peer to Peer):
℘ A peer to peer network is a type of network
where each computer in the network can act
both as a client and a server.
℘ This omits the need of a central server.
℘ Resources are more widely available (storage,
bandwidth, computing power);
℘ Redundancy/recovery;
℘ Supports file sharing for collaborative work;
INTERNET:
℘ The Internet is a global network connecting millions of computers.
℘ The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking
infrastructure.
℘ It connects millions of computers together globally, forming a
network in which any computer can communicate with any other
computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet.

History of the internet: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIQjrMHTv4

Intranet:
℘ An intranet is a network open only for internal employees of a
company.
℘ The employees should use the network for inter-organization
procedures. (i.e to communicate with a remote branch)
Extranet:
℘ Extranet is another type of internet work owned by a single
enterprise.
℘ Instead of inside-usage, an extranet will offer services to the outside
world - mainly to the customers and suppliers of the venture. (E.g.
ATM network)
℘ An intranet resides behind a firewall and is accessible only to people
who are members of the same company or organization, an extranet
provides various levels of accessibility to outsiders.
℘ Only valid username and password can access an extranet, and
identity determines which parts of the extranet can be viewed.
3.1.2 Network Standards/Protocols:
• A network protocol is a standard set of rules and procedures for computers to use
when communicating with one another -a series of prescribed steps to be taken
• Protocols are agreed "ways of going about things" - in other words, formalised actions.
• A protocol is a reference ensuring that all programs are written following the same
format. It would be pointless to write a communications program in which the
programmer invents his own series of codes and messages. Such a program would be
unable to interact with any other. The program receiving the output of this original
program would be unable to decipher the messages. For this reason all programs must
follow common standards.
Imagine two people talking on the phone....one talks the other
listens, then they reverse, and the talker becomes the listener. That
is a Protocol! What happens when they both talk? Neither hears
what the other says? What happens if the both listen, but not
talk...no "data' is exchanged.
3.1.2 Network Standards/Protocols:
•Networking is a field that particularly requires common protocols. These protocols or
standards enable compatibility through a common language. Software and hardware
producers need to ensure their products are compatible with each other. Open
standards encourage diversity of production, which drives competition, lowers prices
and generates innovation.
•An example of a standard networking protocol is TCP/IP. This communication protocol
enabled the proliferation of the Internet possible.
Imagine if each company made its own "protocol standard" and
didn't allow it to talk with another's "protocol standard". That
company would become very rich by being the sole provider, or out
of business because nobody would buy it because of its uniqueness.
Wrapping it up...standards and protocols are what allow different
computers, from different companies, running different software to
communicate with each other. It's what made networking possible.
Why are they necessary?
• Standards enable compatibility through a common “language”
internationally
• Standards enable interoperability between different hardware and
software configurations or makes.
• Standards reduce ambiguity in information relay. They create an
environment where only one thing is correct.
3.1.4 VPN
℘ A virtual private network (VPN) is a technology that provides a secure and
reliable private connection between computer networks over an existing public
network, typically the Internet.
℘ Use "virtual" connections routed through the Internet from the business's
private network to the remote site or employee.
℘ VPN allows companies to communicate confidentially over a public network
and to send voice, video or data.
℘ Remote workers and organizations with global offices and partners to share
data in a private manner.
℘ There are several systems enable companies to create networks using the
Internet as the medium for transporting data. These systems ensure that only
authorized users can access the network and data can not be intercepted.
3.1.4 VPN
There are two components required to provide a VPN.
• The first is a network access server (NAS). A NAS might be a dedicated server, or it
might be one of multiple software applications running on a shared server. It's a NAS
that a user connects to from the Internet in order to use a VPN. The NAS requires that
user to provide valid credentials to sign in to the VPN. To authenticate the user's
credentials, the NAS uses either its own authentication process or a separate
authentication server running on the network.
• The other required component of remote-access VPNs is client software. In other
words, employees who want to use the VPN from their computers require software on
those computers that can establish and maintain a connection to the VPN. Most
operating systems today have built-in software that can connect to remote-access
VPNs, though some VPNs might require users to install a specific application instead.
The client software sets up the tunneled connection to a NAS, which the user indicates
by its Internet address. The software also manages the encryption required to keep the
connection secure.
Read:
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/vpn2.htm
How VPNs Work?
(Click to watch video)
3.1.4 VPN: Site to Site VPN
A site to site VPN allows offices in different location
site to site securely over a public network, such as
the internet. Each site has a VPN gateway, like a
router, firewall or concentrator. The VPN is in charge
of encapsulating and encrypting all outbound traffic
and sending it through a VPN tunnel over the
internet to a peer VPN gateway at the target site. On
receiving the packet the VPN gateway strips the
headers, decrypts the content and relays the packet
towards the target host inside the private network.
3.1.4 VPN: Remote Access VPN
In a Remote-access VPN, clients, such as
telecommuters, mobile users, and extranet
consumers, are able to access a company network
securely over the Internet. Each host and client
typically have VPN client software loaded or uses a
web-based client.
Whenever the host tries to send any information, the
VPN client software encapsulates and encrypts the
information before sending it over the internet to the
VPN gateway at the edge of the target network. On
receiving the packet the VPN gateway strips the
headers, decrypts the content and relays the packet
towards the target host inside the private network.
 Authentication

3.1.4 VPN Types: verifies the

identity of a
user or service

• Secure: All traffic on the VPN must be encrypted, authenticated and is

the sent along virtual tunnels.
• Trusted: All traffic on the VPN relies on the security of a providers
network to protect the traffic.
• Hybrid: A combination of both secure and trusted technologies.
3.1.4 Secure VPN:
Requirements for VPNs:
VPN administrator must know the extent of the VPN:
Regardless of the type of VPN in use, a VPN is meant to have capabilities
that the "regular" network does not. Thus, the VPN administrator must
be able to know at all times what data will and will not be in the VPN.
Requirements for VPNs:
Secure VPN requirements:
• All traffic on the secure VPN must be encrypted and authenticated.
• The security properties of the VPN must be agreed to by all parties in
the VPN.
• No one outside the VPN can affect the security properties of the VPN.
Requirements for VPNs:
Trusted VPN requirements:
• No one other than the trusted VPN provider can affect the creation or
modification of a path in the VPN.
• No one other than the trusted VPN provider can change data, inject data, or
delete data on a path in the VPN.
• The routing and addressing used in a trusted VPN must be established before
the VPN is created.
Requirements for VPNs:
Hybrid VPN requirements:
• The address boundaries of the secure VPN within the trusted VPN must
be extremely clear.
Features of a VPN that make it secure:
Authentication
Nobody outside the VPN should be able to affect the security property of the
VPN (it must be impossible for the attacker to weaken/change encryption);
Encryption
Data intercepted will not be readable;
Tunnelling software
Security properties of each tunnel should be agreed by the administrators of
the two endpoints of the tunnel;
Multiple exit nodes
Makes it hard to distinguish where the data was generated thus more secure
(less prone to phishing);
VPN Technologies:
Several network protocols have become popular as a result of VPN developments:
•PPTP- point to point tunneling protocol
•L2TP- layer 2 tunneling protocol
•SSL v3 - secure socket layer
•IPsec with encryption
•SOCKS* - socket secure
•TLS (Transport Layer Security) - SSL vs. TLS article
These protocols emphasize authentication and encryption in VPNs. Authentication
allows VPN clients and servers to correctly establish the identity of people on the
network.
Encryption allows potentially sensitive data to be hidden from the general public.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Using VPN:
A VPN is one solution to establishing long-distance and/or secured
network connections. VPNs are normally deployed by businesses or
organisations rather than by individuals, but virtual networks can be
reached from inside a home network. Compared to other
technologies, VPNs offers several advantages, particularly benefits
for wireless local area networking.
A VPN can save an organisation money in several situations:
• Eliminating the need for expensive long-distance leased lines.
• Reducing long-distance telephone charges.
• Offloading support costs.
Advantages & Disadvantages of Using VPN:
However, despite their popularity, VPNs are not perfect and limitations exist as
is true for any technology. Organizations should consider issues like the below
when deploying and using virtual private networks in their operations:
• VPNs require detailed understanding of network security issues and careful
installation / configuration to ensure sufficient protection on a public network
like the Internet,
• The reliability and performance of an Internet-based VPN is not under an
organisation's direct control. Instead, the solution relies on an ISP (internet
service provider) and their quality of service.
• Historically, VPN products and solutions from different vendors have not
always been compatible due to issues with VPN technology standards.
Attempting to mix and match equipment may cause technical problems, and
using equipment from one provider may not give as great a cost savings.
3.1.5 Evaluate the use of a VPN
• A VPN is a way for companies to allow their employees to access
company resources outside the office. The use of a VPN has led to
changes in working patterns. Many companies are allowing their
employees to work from home (telecommuting). While employees
are traveling they can access company resources (files, application
software, databases, printers).
• Businesses are not the only ones that use VPNs. Many people
subscribe to VPN services at home to protect their online privacy.
VPN:
The article:
Second LulzSec hacker 'Neuron' could be tracked down via UK VPN
OSI Seven Layer Model:
℘ How communication over network is broken down into different
layers?
 DATA TRANSMISSION
3.1.6 Define the terms: protocol, data packet.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary.
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data transmission across a network can
vary.
3.1.9 Explain why compression of data is often necessary when
transmitting across a network.
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of different transmission media.
3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by packet switching.
3.1.6 Define the terms: protocol, data packet
Network Protocols:
A protocol is a set of rules describing how two things interact A network protocol
defines the format and the order of messages exchanged between two or more
communicating entities, as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt
of a message or other event.
HTTP, FTP, POP3, SMTP, IMAP, TCP are all examples of network protocols.
3.1.6 Define the terms: protocol, data packet
Data Packet:
A data packet contains data traveling over a network. It is a basic unit
of binary data for communication over a digital network.

More Info: http://computer.howstuffworks.com/question525.htm

3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Many protocols have been defined to assist in network
communication. Some of these protocols were developed to
help resolve communication problems like
•data integrity,
•flow control,
•deadlock,
•congestion,
•error checking.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Integrity:
In the context of computer systems - methods of ensuring that data is real, accurate and
safeguarded from unauthorized user modification.
In the context of networking, refers overall completeness, accuracy and consistency of
data.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Integrity:
Data integrity must be imposed when sending data through a network.

In other words, how does a computer know that when it receives data over a network
that it is complete, accurate, and consistent. This can be achieved by using error checking
and correction protocols.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Flow control - mechanism to ensure the rate at which a sender is
transmitting is in proportion with the receiver’s receiving capabilities.
Networks of any size have many different devices connected and each
device has unique data transmission parameters.
For instance, a router is built to manage the routing of data whereas a
desktop, at the receiving end of that data, has far less sending/receiving
abilities.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
These differences sending/receiving abilities may lead to conflict if the
sender starts transmitting data faster than the receiving node’s ability.
To counteract this problem, flow control is used. This technique manages
the flow of data between nodes, keeping the sending/receiving capabilities
of both nodes as the primary concern.
Example:
Xon-Xoff is an example of a flow control protocol that sync the sender with
the receiver. It transmits a transmit off signal when the receiver no longer
has space in its buffer and a transmit on signal when the receiver can
resume taking data. Xon-Xoff works on asynchronous serial connections.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Deadlocks - Computer networks are based on passing messages from
computer to computer. The computers must have a protocol established
that determines the order of communication.
A deadlock is a situation in which two or more communicating computers
are each waiting for the other to send a message, and thus neither ever
does.
In a networking environment, deadlocks can occur due to lost or corrupt
signals during communication. A protocol must be in place to handle these
types of situations or the communicating will break down.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Examples:
• "It takes money to make money".
• You can't get a job without experience;
you can't get experience without a job.
• Dining philosophers problem!!!
The cause of deadlocks:
Each process needing what another process has. This results from sharing resources such
as memory, devices, links.
Computer networks - A deadlock is a situation in which two or more communicating
computers are each waiting for the other to send a message, and thus neither ever does.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Dining Table Philosophers:
There is a dining room containing a circular table
with five chairs. At each chair is a plate, and
between each plate is a single chopstick. In the
middle of the table is a bowl of spaghetti. Near the
room are five philosophers who spend most of their
time thinking, but who occasionally get hungry and
need to eat so they can think some more.
In order to eat, a philosopher must sit at the table,
pick up the two chopsticks to the left and right of a
plate, then serve and eat the spaghetti on the plate.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Dining Table Philosophers:
There is a dining room containing a circular table with five
chairs. At each chair is a plate, and between each plate is a
single chopstick. In the middle of the table is a bowl of
spaghetti. Near the room are five philosophers who spend most
of their time thinking, but who occasionally get hungry and
need to eat so they can think some more.
In order to eat, a philosopher must sit at the table, pick up the
two chopsticks to the left and right of a plate, then serve and
eat the spaghetti on the plate.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Congestion:
Network devices have a memory location called a buffer that is used to
store data that has been sent to them from another source. If this
buffer becomes full and cannot handle any more data a problem
known as congestion occurs.
Congestion occurs when the source sends more data than the
destination can handle. When this congestion occurs performance will
degrade.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Congestion:
When congestion occurs, the destination device has only two options
with the arriving data packets, to drop them or keep them.
A protocol determines whether the destination device keeps the old
packets and drops the new packets or it keeps the new packets and
drops the old packets. In both the cases packets are dropped.
Transport Layer protocol -DCCP (short for Datagram Congestion
Control Protocol) provides the establishment, maintenance and
teardown of an unreliable packet flow, as well as the congestion
control of that packet flow.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Error Checking - Storing and transmitting data both involve the
actions of physical entities in the real world: electrons, photons,
atoms, molecules, wires, contacts and more.
There's always some degree of uncertainty because background noise
is ever present in our physical universe and might alter or corrupt any
given data bit.
We need assurance when we retrieve it that it hasn't been altered.
Error checking protocols exist to check such errors and, if an error is
detected the network, will try to recover the data, often by requesting
a resend of the data packets.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Error Checking:
Redundancy - A redundancy check is extra data added to a message for the purposes
of error detection.
Several schemes exist to achieve error detection, and are generally quite simple. All
error detection codes transmit more bits than were in the original data.
The receiver applies the same algorithm to the received data bits and compares its
output to the received check bits; if the values do not match, an error has occurred at
some point during the transmission.
Two common schemes used in redundant error checking are parity checking and
check sum.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Error Checking:
Parity Check: Parity Checking is one of the easiest error checking methods to implement. In this
technique, a redundant bit called a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1's
in the unit becomes even (or odd).
For example, suppose a sender wants to transmit the binary data 11000001. The sender starts by
adding up all of the 1 bits. Since 11000001 contains three 1's the sum is an odd number.
In an even parity scheme, a parity bit of 1 would be added to the data to make it add up to four, which is
an even number.
110000011
In an odd parity scheme, a parity bit of 0 would be added to the data to retain the odd numbered sum.
110000010
A parity check can detect all single-bit errors. However, if any two bits change in transmission, the
changes cancel each other and the data unit will pass a parity check even though the data is damaged.
3.1.7 Explain why protocols are necessary
Error Checking:
Check sum: Checksum can be computed in many different ways, using different algorithms.

Checksum = Total % (MaxVal + 1)

Suppose the data whose contents you wish to verify is the following stream of 10 byte values:

36 211 163 4 109 192 58 247 47 92

If the checksum is a 1-byte value, then it can't hold a number greater than 255.
The sum of the values in the above data is 1,159, so the 8-bit checksum is the remainder left
when 1,159 is divided by 256, or 135.
If the sender of the data calculated a checksum of, say, 135, and the receiver got a checksum
of 246, then the data was damaged during transmission.
Check sum
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data
transmission across a network can vary
Terms:
Data transfer rate (also Bandwidth): The speed with which data is moved from one
place to another on a network
Multimedia: Several different media types
Data compression: Reducing the amount of space needed to store a piece of data
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data
transmission across a network can vary
Every task a computer undertakes deals with managing data in some way.
In the past, computers dealt almost exclusively with numeric and textual data, but
now computers are truly multimedia devices, dealing with a vast array of information
categories. Computers store, present, and help us modify many different types of
data, including:
• Numbers
• Text
• Audio
• Images and graphics
• Video
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data
transmission across a network can vary
• All data is stored as binary digits.
• Each document, picture, and sound bite is somehow represented as strings of 1s
and 0s.
• Data compression is reducing the amount of space needed to store a piece of
data.
• In the past we needed to keep data small because of storage limitations.
• Today, computer storage is relatively cheap; but now we need to share it with
others.
• The Web and its underlying networks have inherent bandwidth restrictions that
define the maximum number of bits or bytes that can be transmitted from one
place to another in a fixed amount of time.
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data
transmission across a network can vary
― Data transmitted over a network is packaged and transported in small pieces of
data.
― The flow of these small pieces of data directly affects a user's experience.
― When data packets arrive in a smooth and timely manner the user sees a
continuous flow of data; if data packets arrive with large and variable delays
between packets the user's experience is degraded.
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data
transmission across a network can vary
Network Latency:
Network latency (lag) - is the time delay that happens as data packets transmit
from one point to another over a network.
Sometimes network latency may be defined by the time it takes some form of data
to make a full circuit back to the originating point.
Factors that contributes NW latency:
• Transmission –medium used to transmit data – phone line, fiber optic line
• Propagation- physical distance between the origin and destination
• Routers and computer hardware delays
3.1.8 Explain why the speed of data
transmission across a network can vary
Possible Factors that can effect speed:

1. Length of the route that the packets have to take between sender and receiver.
2. Type of media transporting the data.(e.g. fiber optics, satellite, wireless, metal wiring)
3. Network congestion - causes data to be retransmitted.
•Traffic load - how many people are using network.
•Time of day - people use network more during peek times.
4. Weather - satellite and wireless signal interference.
3.1.9 Explain why compression of data is often
necessary when transmitting across a network
• The compression ratio gives an indication of how much compression occurs.
• The compression ratio is the size of the compressed data divided by the size of the
original data. The values could be in bits or characters or whatever is appropriate as
long as both values are measuring the same thing. The ratio should result in a number
between 0 and 1. The closer the ratio is to zero, the tighter the compression.
3.1.9 Explain why compression of data is often
necessary when transmitting across a network
A data compression technique can be lossless, which means the data can be retrieved
without losing any of the original information. Or it can be lossy, in which case some
information is lost in the process of compaction. Although we never want to lose
information, in some cases the loss is acceptable. When dealing with data
representation and compression, we always face a tradeoff between accuracy and size.
Compressed Image files:
There are number of ways to compress an image file:
Reducing image quality
• using fewer, larger, pixels to make the image, which reduces image resolution
• using fewer bytes to store the colour code, which reduces the depth of colour
Removing repetition
An image file can be simplified by removing repetition. For instance, an image may
include a large group of pixels that are all the same colour. Normally, each pixel is stored
separately. ın an compressed file, the colour is stored once, with a number to say how
often that colour is repeated. Depending on the type of image there may be little loss of
quality.
File formats
Some of the compressed image formats: JPEG, TIFF, GIF, PNG
Compressed Sound:
Sound compression reduces the bit rate* of the recording.

• using fewer channels (eg. Stereo becomes Mono)

• lower sample rate (fewer sound changes per second)
• reduced bit depth (fewer bits to store each sample by removing higher and lower
sounds)

Sound compression does produce a reduction in sound quality.

Compressed Video:
Video compression reduces the bit rate. To do this we can reduce:

• the number of audio channels

• the smaple rate
• the image quality(the number of pixels per image)

In compressed video, the image may be less sharp and the movement less smoth.
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Data transmission: Computers hold data in binary form, using
on/off switches. Each on/off signal represents one bit of
data. Computers can turn this binary data into a stream of
on/off signals which can be transmitted. signals can be sent
from one place to another.
The signals can be:
• electrical pulses that travel down metal cables
• pulses of light that traveldown a fibre-optic cable
• wireless signals - radio signals, microwave and infrared
waves- when the bits are sent as electromagnetic waves
that move through space, and also air and many other
materials.
Whatever system is used to carry the on/off signals, it is
known as the transmission medium.
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Long distance data transmission: The Internet - data
transmission is used to link computers. The computers can
share and send data.
Short distance data transmission: Different parts of a
computer transmit data to each other. E.g Bluetooth -
headset to a mobile phone
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Simplex communication:
The signal can only go in one direction
Closed-circuit TV camera to security guard’s monitor
Duplex communication:
The signal can go both ways
A phone conversation
Half-duplex communication:
The link can only carry signals in one direction at a
time. The two sides have to take turns to send a signal.
walkie-talkie system
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Cables connect devices together.
Signals are sent along the cable.
Twisted pair cable:
• pairs of copper wires
• individually insulated then
twisted together
• Inexpensive, flexible, convenient
• not suitable for long-distance
link. Electrical
interference can cause errors in
the data
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Cables connect devices together. Signals
are sent along the cable.
Coaxial cable:
• metal cable, surrounded by a layer of
insulation then another layer of metal
• protected against electrical
interference
• more expensive than twisted pair, not
flexible
• used where cables need to go close to
electrical and radio equipment
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Cables connect devices together. Signals
are sent along the cable.
Fibre-optic cable:
• fairly expensive
• not effected by electrical
interferences
• suitable for long distance links.
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Types of data transmission:
• Serial transmission
• Parallel transmission
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Serial transmission
• the bits that make up the data are sent one at a time
• the bits all travel along the same transmission
medium(single wire or as a wireless signal), one after
the other
• most reliable method of transmission: bits are kept
separate from each other and they arrive in the same
order that they were sent
• used for long-distance communication

Internet 1001001
CPU
connection
Serial transmission
3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Parallel transmission
• Communication links use several wires at the same time
• Each wire carries one bit, seceral bits can be sent at
the same time
• All the bits arrive at the same time

1
0
0
Peripheral 1 CPU
0
0
1
Parallel transmission
 3.1.10 Outline the characteristics of
different transmission media.
Advantages Disadvantages Uses

Serial Reliable over a long Slower: the bits are Internet connections
distance sent one at a time

Parallel Quicker: Several bits Not reliable: Connections btw

are transmitted at the Possibility of error in components inside the
same time the signal is high. computer
Microscopic differences
in the wire causes
slightly different
speeds. Long distance -
more delay.
the bits won’t arrive at
the same time
3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by
packet switching
Packet: A unit of data sent across a network
Packet switching: The approach to network communication in which packets are
individually routed to their destination, then reassembled
Router: A network device that directs a packet between networks toward its final
destination
Repeater: A network device that strengthens and propagates a signal along a long
communication line
3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by
packet switching
What is Packet Switching?
• To improve the efficiency of transferring information over a shared communication
line, messages are divided into fixed-sized, numbered packets.
• The packets are sent over the network individually to their destination, where they
are collected and reassembled into the original message.
• This process is called packet switching
3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by
packet switching
• The packets of a message may take different routes on their way to the final
destination. Therefore, they may arrive in a different order than the way they were
sent.
• The packets must be put into the proper order, and then combined to form the
original message.
3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by
packet switching
• A packet may make several intermediate hops between computers on various
networks before it reaches its final destination.
• Network devices called routers are used to direct packets between networks.
• Intermediate routers don’t plan out the packet’s entire course; each router merely
knows the best next step to get it closer to its destination.
3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by
packet switching
• Eventually a message reaches a router that knows where the destination machine is.
• If a path is blocked due to a down machine, or if a path currently has a lot of network
traffic, a router might send a packet along an alternative route.
• If a communication line spans a long distance, such as across an ocean, a device called
a repeater is installed periodically along the line to strengthen and propagate the
signal.
• A digital signal loses information only if it is allowed to degrade too much. A repeater
keeps that from happening.
3.1.11 Explain how data is transmitted by
packet switching

Figure: Messages sent by packet switching

Summary of Packet Switching
Packet switching is the process of transferring data from one Node to another.
There are three main steps that occur in packet switching:
1. The message that is to be sent from one node is disassembeled into smaller bits
of information, or packets
2. The Packets then take a route to the destination
Note: The Packets may take different Paths and go to different nodes in the
network
3. When all of the packets have arrived the packets are re-assembeled into the
correct order in order for the Node to read the data

Watch Packet Switching Animation

 Wireless Networking
3.1.12 Outline the advantages and disadvantages of wireless networks.
3.1.13 Describe the hardware and software components of a wireless
network.
3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless networks.
3.1.15 Describe the different methods of network security.
3.1.16 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of each method of
network security.
3.1.12 Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of wireless networks.
Advantages:
• Convenience - The wireless nature of such networks allows users to access network resources from nearly any convenient
location within their primary networking environment (a home or office). With the increasing saturation of laptop-style
computers, this is particularly relevant.
• Mobility - With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the internet even outside their normal work
environment. Most chain coffee shops, for example, offer their customers a wireless connection to the internet at little or
no cost.
• Productivity - Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant affiliation with their desired network
as they move from place to place. For a business, this implies that an employee can potentially be more productive as his
or her work can be accomplished from any convenient location.
3.1.12 Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of wireless networks.
Advantages:
•Deployment - Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires little more than a single access point.
Wired networks, on the other hand, have the additional cost and complexity of actual physical cables being run to
numerous locations (which can even be impossible for hard-to-reach locations within a building).
•Expandability - Wireless networks can serve a suddenly-increased number of clients with the existing equipment. In a
wired network, additional clients would require additional wiring.
•Cost - Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from wired counterparts. This potentially increased
cost is almost always more than outweighed by the savings in cost and labor associated to running physical cables.
3.1.12 Outline the advantages and
disadvantages of wireless networks.
Disadvantages:
• Security - To combat security issues, wireless networks may choose to utilize some of the various encryption
technologies available. Some of the more commonly utilized encryption methods, however, are known to have
weaknesses that a dedicated adversary can compromise. Novice home users may make themselves vulnerable by
not utilizing proper security precautions when setting up a wireless network at home.
• Range - The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is on the order of tens of
meters. While sufficient for a typical home, it will be insufficient in a larger structure. To obtain additional range,
repeaters or additional access points will have to be purchased. Costs for these items can add up quickly.
• Reliability - Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking signals are subject to a wide variety of
interference.
• Speed - The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-54 Mbps) is far slower than even the slowest common
wired networks (100Mbps up to 1 Gbps).

Wireless networks have led to changes in working patterns, social activities and raised health issues.
3.1.13 Describe the hardware and software
components of a wireless network.
Hardware:
Wireless router - A router is network device that determines where data packets should
go and sends them to their destination by the shortest, most efficient route. A wireless
router is a router that uses radio waves to transmit data.
3.1.13 Describe the hardware and software
components of a wireless network.
Hardware:
Wireless adapter - A wireless network adapter connects a
computer to a wireless network so that they can
communicate. Virtually all laptop and smaller computing
units come with a built-in wireless adapter. If you want to
convert your desktop computer to a wireless unit, you have
to obtain a wireless adapter. The adapter slips into a slot
inside the computer, with an antenna that projects out the
back of the computer. You can also buy adapters that plug
into a usb port.
3.1.13 Describe the hardware and software
components of a wireless network.
Hardware:
Extender - Wireless networks have a finite range. If you find that your signal is not
strong enough to cover the areas you want, a wireless extender can fix the problem. A
wireless extender captures the router signal and rebroadcasts it. Plug your extender
into a wall socket about halfway between the router and where you are having
difficulty picking up the wireless signal.
3.1.13 Describe the hardware and software
components of a wireless network.
Software:
Router Software - routers contain built-in software that can be accessed using any
web browser software. This software is used to configure the router. You can perform
tasks like assigning a router's SSID and setting security and firewall parameters.
A SSID is a unique name given to a wireless network that is broadcast so that clients
can connect to it. Each packet sent over a wireless network includes the SSID, which
ensures that the data being sent over the air arrives at the correct location.

For more info: http://www.howstuffworks.com/wireless-network1.htm

3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks.
WiFi:
• Wireless network that uses radio waves to transmit and receive data.
• Effect range relatively short, about 20 m.
• Currently has higher average data speeds compared to other wireless network
technologies (WiMax, LTE).
• Speed is effected by interference and distance from router.
• Easy setup.
3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks.
WiMax (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access):
• It is similar to Wi-Fi, but it can enable usage at much greater distances.
• Provides a wireless alternative to cable, DSL, and satellite Internet service. It is essentially a wireless broadband.
• ISPs can deliver Internet connections without running expensive cables to every home, and speeds often run
between 5-10Mbps.
• Primarily due to its much higher cost, WiMAX is not a replacement for Wi-Fi home networking or Wi-Fi hotspot
technologies.
• Current WiMax availability is limited.
• The fastest WiFi connection can transmit up to 54 megabits per second under optimal conditions. WiMAX should
be able to handle up to 70 megabits per second.
• WiMax lost out to the competing LTE technology in the cell phone industry.
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/wimax1.htm
3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks.
LTE (Long Term Evolution):
• Technology adopted by majority of mobile carriers.
• Uses packet switching technology for both data and voice.
• Capable of 300Mbps download speeds and 75Mbps upload speeds.
• Most 4G networks use this technology.

WiMAX LTE-Adva WiMax Rel

Standard HSPA+ LTE "True 4G"
Rel 1 nced 2
Download 84 Mbps 128 Mbps 100 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps 1000 Mbps
Upload 22 Mbps 56 Mbps 50 Mbps 500 Mbps 500 Mbps 500 Mbps
3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks.
3G mobile:
• "3rd Generation" cell phone technology first avaliable in cell phones in 2003.
• Depending upon carrier 3G networks use either EDGE, EV-DO or HSPA data
protocols.
• Speeds range between 400 kilobits and 2Mbps, depending on the carrier and region.
3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks.
4G mobile:
• "4rd Generation" cell phone technology first avaliable in cell phones in 2008.
• Depending upon carrier 4G networks use either Wi-Max, HSPA+ or LTE data
protocols.
• Most carriers have moved or are moving to LTE.
• Speeds currently range between 3.5Mbps and 19Mbps, depending on the carrier and
region.
• There is currently very little standardization in 4G technologies. In some cases, one
company's 4G speeds could be inferior to another carrier's older 3G network.
3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks.
Future Networks:
• LTE-Advanced (Long Term Evolution-Advanced) is the next generation cellular
networking standard that offers higher throughput than its predecessor, LTE
standard.
• LTE-Advanced networks can deliver up to 1 GBps of data, compared to a maximum
of 300 MBps over LTE networks.
• Uses multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) technology to deliver data faster via
more than one signal. MIMO requires multiple antennas to receive those signals,
which can limit its use in compact mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
3.1.14 Describe the characteristics of wireless
networks.
GPRS (114Kbps) < EDGE (368Kbps) < 3G(3.1Mbps) < HSPA (14Mbps) <
HSPA+(168Mbps) < 4G/LTE/WiMAX( above 500Mbps)
3.1.15 Describe the different methods of
network security.
There are several methods used to provide security for a wireless networking. The most common ones are encryption,
authentication, and MAC address filtering.
Encryption
Encryption is the process of encoding data sent wirelessly between your device and the router, essentially scrambling the
information and restricting open access. There are three main types of encryption: WEP, WPA, and WPA2.
• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) - is an older network security method from the late 1990's that is still available to
support older devices, but it is no longer recommended. When you enable WEP, you set up a network security key. This
key encrypts the information that one computer sends to another computer across your network. However, WEP security
is relatively easy to crack.
• Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) - first used in 2003 to improve on or replace the flawed WEP encryption. WPA provides
much stronger encryption than WEP and addresses a number of WEP weaknesses.
• WPA2 - in 2006 WPA2 replaced WPA to again improve security by requiring use of stronger wireless encryption than
what WPA requires. Specifically, WPA2 does not allow use of an algorithm called TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol)
that has known security holes (limitations) in the original WPA implementation. WPA2 uses the AES (Advanced
Encryption Standard), which provides government-grade encryption capabilities that are stronger than the TKIP
(Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) used by WPA. In fact, AES is thought to be uncrackable by even the most skilled hacker.
3.1.15 Describe the different methods of
network security.
Authentication
Authentication is the process of determining whether someone or something is, in fact, who or what it is declared
to be. In a wireless network authentication is commonly done through the use of logon passwords or passphrases.
WPA/WPA2 utilize two different protocols for network authentication.
• WPA2-PSK is intended for home and very small office networks. Each wireless device is authenticated by the
same 256-bit key. With this mode, you set an encryption passphrase that must be entered by each user when
connecting to the network. This passphrase can be stored on each computer, but it must be entered for each
device. All users share a locally stored passphrase, which can be found and copied from a computer by anyone.
This makes WPA2-PSK less secure than the WPA2-ENT mode.
• WPA2-ENT is made for the enterprise network, but it's a smart choice for any business network. It provides
security against more attacks than WPA2-PSK and separates users from the router's passphrase to the network.
WPA2-ENT creates new encryption keys each time users log on to the network with their unique passwords, and
the passphrase to the network is not stored locally. It also allows for centralized control over users' access to the
wireless network, which makes management easier than with the WPA2-PSK mode.
3.1.15 Describe the different methods of
network security.
MAC Address Filtering
• A MAC address (Media Access Control address) is a unique identifier assigned to a network adapter by the
manufacturer for identification.
• MAC address filtering allows only machines with specific MAC addresses access to a network. You specify which
addresses are allowed in the router software.

Wireless networks have led to concerns about the security of the user's data.
3.1.16 Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of
each method of network security.
MAC Address filtering will discourage the casual user from accessing your network but it will do very
little to deter knowledgeable hackers who can use software to scan for MAC Addresses of legitimate
devices currently accessing your network and then spoof their own MAC into a validated one.
The best way to secure a wireless network is combine both encryption and authentication technology
using the WPA2 standard. However, for authentication to be effective a strong password must be used.

http://ipoint-tech.com/wireless-networking-wi-fi-advantages-and-disadvantages-to-wireless-networking/
http://networking.answers.com/wifi/necessary-hardware-for-a-wireless-network
References:
Computer Science Illuminated, Nell B. Dale, John Lewis, 4th Edition
Complete Computer Science for Cambridge IGCSE & Level 0, Allison Page, David Waters,

http://www.ehow.com/facts_7351195_network-protocols-important_.html
http://www.netguru.net/ntc/NTCC6.htm
http://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/OSI_Layers.asp
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/osi.htm
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/vpn2.htm
http://bwagner.org/
http://compnetworking.about.com/od/networkprotocols/g/protocols.htm
http://www.techopedia.com/
http://ecomputernotes.com/computernetworkingnotes/communication-networks/what-i
s-error-correction-and-detection
http://www.wvu.edu/~lawfac/mmcdiarmid/digital%20signatures.htm
http://compnetworking.about.com/od/basicnetworkingconcepts/a/causes-of-lag-on-com
puter-networks-and-online.htm
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ip-telephony3.htm
http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/48751/packet-switching