Unit I

Basics of Transmission and Distribution

Introduction
The purpose of the electric transmission power plants or generating
stations with transmission lines is to supply power to the consumer. The
operating frequency is 60 Hz in the U.S. and 50 Hz in Europe, Australia,
and part of Asia. The three-phase system has three phase conductors. The
system voltage is defined as the rms voltage between the conductors, also
called line-to-line voltage. The voltage between the phase conductor and
ground, called line-to-ground voltage, is equal to the line-to-line voltage
divided by the square root of three. As per present terminology, voltages
less than 300 kV are termed as High Voltages. The voltages in the
range of 300 kV to 765 kV are known as Extra High Voltages (EHV).
The voltage which is above 765 kV are termed as Ultra High Voltage
(UHV).

Name Range
Low Voltage 50 – 1000 V
Medium Voltage 1 kV – 100 kV
High Voltage 100 kV – 300 kV
EHV Voltage 300 kV – 765 kV
UHV Voltage > 765 kV

Generating stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are

the main components of an electric power system. Generating stations
and a distribution system are connected through transmission lines, which
also connect one power system (grid, area) to another. A distribution
system connects all the loads in a particular area to the transmission lines.
For economical and technological reasons, individual power systems are
organized in the form of electrically connected areas or regional grids
(also called power pools). Each area or regional grid operates technically
and economically independently, but these are eventually interconnected
to form a national grid (which may even form an international grid) so
that each area is contractually tied to other areas in respect to certain
generation and scheduling features.

The siting of hydro stations is determined by the natural water power

sources. The choice of site for coal fired thermal stations is more flexible.
The following two alternatives are possible.

1. Power stations may be built close to coal mines (called pit head
stations) and electric energy is evacuated over transmission
lines to the load centers.
2. Power stations may be built close to the load centers and coal is
transported to them from the mines by rail road.
In practice, however, power station siting will depend upon many factors
technical, economical and environmental. As it is considerably cheaper to
transport bulk electric energy over extra high voltage (EHV) transmission
lines than to transport equivalent quantities of coal over rail road, the
recent trends is to build super (large) thermal power stations near coal
mines. Bulk power can be transmitted to fairly long distances over
transmission lines of 400 kV and above.

As nuclear stations are not constrained by the problems of fuel transport

and air pollution, a greater flexibility exists in their siting, so that these
stations are located close to load centers while avoiding high density
pollution areas to reduce the risks, however remote, of radioactivity
leakage.
Generation Stations

The generating station converts the stored energy of gas, oil, coal, nuclear
fuel, or water position to electric energy. The most frequently used power
plants are:

a) Thermal Power Plant: The fuel is pulverized coal or natural gas.

Older plants may use oil. The fuel is mixed with air and burned in a boiler
that generates steam. The high-pressure and high-temperature steam
drives the turbine, which turns the generator that converts the
mechanical energy to electric energy.

b) Nuclear Power Plant: Enriched uranium produces atomic fission that

heats water and produces steam. The steam drives the turbine and
generator.

c) Hydro Power Plants: A dam increases the water level on a river,

which produces fast water flow to drive a hydro-turbine. The hydro-
turbine drives a generator that produces electric energy.

d) Gas Turbine: Natural gas is mixed with air and burned. This
generates a high-speed gas flow that drives the turbine, which turns the
generator.

e) Combined Cycle Power Plant: This plant contains a gas turbine that
generates electricity. The exhaust from the gas turbine is high-
temperature gas. The gas supplies a heat exchanger to preheat the
combustion air to the boiler of a thermal power plant. This process
increases the efficiency of the combined cycle power plant. The steam
drives a second turbine, which drives the second generator. This two-
stage operation increases the efficiency of the plant.
The generator and the transformer are the main components of the
generating station. The generator converts the mechanical energy into
electrical energy. The mechanical energy comes from the burning of coal,
gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally the internal combustion
engine.

The transformer transfers the power with very high efficiency from one
level to another. The power transfer from the secondary is approximately
equal to the primary except for losses in the transformer. The step-up
transformer will reduce losses in the line which makes the transmission of
power over long distances.

Transmission Substation

The transmission substation carries the overhead lines, which transfer the
generated electrical energy from generation to the distribution
substations. It only supplies the large bulk of power to bulk power
substations or very big consumers.

The transmission lines mainly perform the two functions

1. It transports the energy from generating stations to bulk receiving

stations.
2. It interconnects the two or more generating stations. The
neighbouring substations are also interconnected through the
transmission lines.

The transmission voltage is operating at more than 66kV and is

standardised at 69kV, 115KV, 138KV, 161KV, 230KV, 345KV, 500KV,
and 765KV, line-to-line.
The high voltage line is terminated in substations which are called high
voltage substations, receiving substations or primary substations. In
high voltage substation, the voltage is step-down to a suitable value for
the next part of flow toward the load. The very large industrial consumers
may be served directly to the transmission system.

Sub-transmission System

The portion of the transmission system that connects the high voltage
substations through the step-down transformer to the distribution
substations is called the sub-transmission system.

The sub-transmission voltage level ranges from 90 to 138KV. The

sub-transmission system directly serves some large industries. The
capacitor and reactor are located in the substations for maintaining the
transmission line voltage.

The operation of the sub-transmission system is similar to that of a

distribution system. It differs from a distribution system in the following
manner.

1. A sub-transmission system has a higher voltage level than a

distribution system.
2. It supplies only bigger loads.
3. It supplies only a few substations as compared to a distribution
system, which supplies some loads.
Distribution Substation

The component of an electrical power system connecting all the

consumers in an area to the bulk power sources is called a distribution
system. The bulk power stations are connected to the generating
substations by transmission lines. They feed some substations, which are
usually situated at convenient points near the load centres.

The substations distribute the power to the domestic, commercial and

relatively small consumers. The consumers require large blocks of power,
which are usually supplied at sub-transmission or even transmission
system.

1.1 Structure of Electric Power System

The generating station produces the electric energy. The generator

voltage is around 15 to 25 kV. This relatively low voltage is not
appropriate for the transmission of energy over long distances. At the
generating station a transformer is used to increase the voltage and reduce
the current. The voltage is increased to 500 kV and an extra-high-voltage
(EHV) line transmits the generator-produced energy to a distant
substation. Such substations are located on the outskirts of large cities or
in the center of several large loads.

The voltage is reduced from 500 kV to 220 kV at the EHV substation to

the high-voltage level and high- voltage lines transmit the energy to high-
voltage substations located within cities.

At the high-voltage substation the voltage is reduced to 69 kV. Sub-

transmission lines connect the high-voltage substation to many local
distribution stations located within cities. Sub-transmission lines are
frequently located along major streets.

The voltage is reduced to 12 kV at the distribution substation. Several

distribution lines emanate from each distribution substation as overhead
or underground lines. Distribution lines distribute the energy along streets
and alleys. Each line supplies several step-down transformers distributed
along the line. The distribution transformer reduces the voltage to 230V,
which supplies houses, shopping centers, and other local loads. The large
industrial plants and factories are supplied directly by a sub-transmission
line or a dedicated distribution line.

High voltage and extra-high-voltage (EHV) transmission lines

interconnect power plants and loads, and form an electric network. This
system contains 500-kV, 345-kV, 230-kV, and 115-kV lines.

As the transmission capability of a line is proportional to the square of its

voltage, research is continuously being carried out to raise transmission
voltages. Some of the countries are already employing 765 kV. The
voltages are expected to rise to 800 kV in the near future.

For very long distances (over 600 km), it is economical to transmit bulk
power by DC transmission. It also obviates (prevents) some of the
technical problems associated with very long distance AC transmission.
The DC voltages used are 400 kV and above, and the line is connected to
the AC systems at the two ends through a transformer and
converting/inverting equipment (silicon controlled rectifiers are employed
for this purpose).
 Fig.1.1 Schematic Diagram Depicting Power System Structure

The first step down of voltage from transmission level is at the bulk
power substation, where the reduction is to a range of 33 to 132 kV,
depending on the transmission line voltage. Some industries may require
power at these voltage levels. This step down is from the transmission
and grid level to sub-transmission level.

The next step down in voltage is at the distribution substation. Normally,

two distribution voltage levels are employed:

1. The primary or feeder voltage (11 kV)

2. The secondary or consumer voltage (415 V three phase/230 V
single phase).
 The distribution system, fed from the distribution transformer stations,
supplies power to the domestic or industrial and commercial consumers.

Thus, the power system operates at various voltage levels separated by

transformer. Figure 1.1depicts schematically the structure of a power
system.

1.2 Types of Transmission Systems

Types of transmission systems are AC systems and DC systems.

Difference between AC and DC Transmission Systems

The electric power can be transmitted either by using AC transmission

system or DC transmission system. Each transmission system has its own
advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, to choose the right system for
electric power transmission, we need to compare the two systems.

The following table compares and contrasts the AC transmission system

and DC transmission system based on different parameters:

Parameter AC Transmission DC Transmission System

System

Definition An electric power An electric power transmission system which

transmission transmits the electric power in the form of DC
system that uses supply, is called the DC transmission system.
alternating current
to transmit the
power is called
the AC
 Parameter AC Transmission DC Transmission System
System

transmission
system.

Construction of The construction of The construction of DC transmission lines is less

Transmission Line AC transmission complicated.
lines is more
complicated.

Generation In the AC In the DC transmission system, electric power

transmission cannot easily be generated at high voltage due to
system, electric commutation problems.
power can be
generated easily at
high voltages.

Number of Conductors For the AC For DC transmission, only two conductors

transmission, three (positive and negative) are required.
conductors are
required, (for red
phase, yellow phase
and blue phase).

Need of Transformer In the AC In DC transmission, the transformer cannot be

transmission, used as the transformer does not work with the D
transformer is used supply.
for stepping-up or
 Parameter AC Transmission DC Transmission System
System

down the voltage.

Insulation Material The AC The DC transmission requires less insulation

transmission material due to less number of conductors.
requires more
insulation material
due to more
number of
conductors.

Stability and Surges Effects of stability The DC transmission is free from the effects of
and surges are stability and surges.
found in the AC
transmission.

Factor Present In AC transmission In DC transmission lines, the capacitance,

lines, the inductance and phase displacement do not presen
capacitance,
inductance and
phase displacement
are present.

Effect of Capacitance In AC transmission In DC transmission lines, no capacitance is presen

lines, the presence thus
of capacitance no power loss.
causes a continuous
 Parameter AC Transmission DC Transmission System
System

power loss.

Effect of Inductance Inductance is Inductance is not present in the DC transmission

present in the AC lines, hence the voltage drop is less. Therefore, it
transmission lines has good voltage regulation.
causes more
voltage drop.
Therefore, it has
poor voltage
regulation.

Change in Voltage In AC transmission In DC transmission system, booster and chopper

Level system, the are used for increasing or reducing the voltage lev
transformer is used
for increasing or
decreasing the
voltage level.

Skin Effect The skin effect In case of DC transmission system, the skin effec
occurs in the AC does not occur.
transmission
system.

Corona Effect Corona most exists Corona rarely exists in DC transmission system.
in AC transmission
system.

Required Components The main The main components of DC transmission system

 Parameter AC Transmission DC Transmission System
System

components of AC are rectifier, conductors, insulators and inverter.

transmission
system are
transformer,
conductors and
insulators.

Cost The construction The construction and maintenance of DC

and maintenance of transmission system is expensive.
the AC
transmission
system is cheap.

Repair and Maintenance The repair and The repair and maintenance of DC transmission
maintenance of AC system is difficult as compared to AC transmissio
transmission system.
system is simple
and easy.

Length of Conductors The AC The DC transmission is used for transmission of

transmission electric power for long distances.
system is used for
short distance
transmission.

Interference The AC The DC transmission lines do not interfere the

transmission lines communication lines.
interfere the nearby
 Parameter AC Transmission DC Transmission System
System

communication
lines.

Dielectric Loss The AC The DC transmission lines do not have dielectric

transmission losses.
lines have dielectric
losses.

1.3 Requirements of a Good Distribution System

The necessary requirements of a good distribution system are,

1. The continuity in the power supply must be ensured. Thus system
should be reliable.
2. The specified consumer voltage must not vary more than the
prescribed limits. As per Electricity Rules, the variation must not be
beyond ± 5 % of the specified voltage.
3. The efficiency of the lines must be as high as possible.
4. The system should be safe from consumer point of view. There
should not be leakage.
5. The lines should not be overloaded.
6. The layout should not affect the appearance of the site or locality.
7. The system should be economical.

Though the a.c. transmission and distribution is used, still for certain
applications such as d.c. motors, electrochemical work, batteries, electric
traction etc. the d.c. supply is must. Hence along with a.c., d.c. distribution is
also equally important. In a d.c. distribution, d.c. generators are used in the
generating stations or a.c. is converted to d.c. using the converters like
mercury are rectifiers, rotary converters etc. at the substations. Then the d.c.
supply is distributed to the consumers as per the requirement.

1.4 Types of Distribution System

The distribution system is one of the fundamental parts of the power system.
This system helps to deliver the desired power supply from substations to
consumers.
According to the study, there are different kinds of distribution systems that
are constructed and used.

Based on the Power Line Construction

1. Overhead distribution system

2. Underground distribution system
Widely, the overhead system is used over the underground system.

Based on the Network Connection

1. Radial distribution system

2. Ring or Loop distribution system
3. Interconnected distribution system
An interconnected distribution system increases the reliability of
the power supply with minimum losses and gives more efficiency as
compared to the radial and ring systems.

Based on the Nature of Electric Current

1. AC distribution system
2. DC distribution system
From these distribution systems, the AC distribution system is mostly
used over the DC distribution system.

Based on the Wire or Conductor

1. Two-wire DC connection of distribution system

2. Two-wire AC connection of distribution system
3. Three-wire DC connection of distribution system
4. Three-wire (delta) AC connection of distribution system
5. Four-wire (star) AC connection of distribution system

Based on Power Service

1. Domestic Power
2. Commercial Power (like street lighting, railway line, etc )
3. Industrial Power

1.5 Extra High Voltage AC (EHVAC) Transmission

As per present terminology, voltages less than 300 kV are termed as High
Voltages. The voltages in the range of 300 kV to 765 kV are known as
 Extra High Voltages (EHV). The voltage, which is 765, kV are termed as
Ultra High Voltage (UHV).

Name Range
Low Voltage 50 – 1000 V
Medium Voltage 1 kV – 100 kV
High Voltage 100 kV – 300 kV
EHV Voltage 300 kV – 765 kV
UHV Voltage > 765 kV

Generally, EHV and HV are used for energy transmission to decrease the
current in the line. EHV lines are used to move large amounts of power
across long distances. The higher the voltage, the lower the losses. In
addition, by being able to move more power across one line, fewer
overall lines are needed for transmission.
Electrical energy is generated at a voltage of about 11 kV. Then it is
stepped up to 132, 220 or 400 kV for transmission. Electrical
power transmission is preferred at high voltages because it has many
advantages.
The advantages of extra high voltage transmission will be obvious
from the following discussion.
Power transmitted is given by
P = √3 V I cos φ
Where, V = transmission voltage, I = load current, cos φ = load power
factor.
or Load current, I = P/( √3 V cos φ)

From above expression, it is clear that for a constant power and power
factor, the load current is inversely proportional to the transmission
voltage. In simple words, as the transmission voltage is increased, the
load current decreases.

1.5.1 Necessity of Extra High Voltage AC (EHVAC)

Transmission
Modern trend is to use extra high voltage (EHV) and ultra-high
voltage (UHV) for transmission of huge blocks of power over long
distances.

The reasons for adopting of EHV/UHV range for transmission

purposes are given below:

1. Reduction of Electrical Losses, Increase in Transmission

Efficiency, Improvement of Voltage Regulation and Reduction in
Conductor Material Requirement:

For transmission of given amount of power over a given distance

through the conductors of a given material and at a given power factor
as the transmission voltage increases,

(a) Line losses are reduced since line current is reduced,

(b) Transmission efficiency increases because of reduction in line

losses,

(c) Voltage regulation is improved because of reduction of percentage

line drop, and

(d) Lesser conductor material is required which is being inversely

proportional to the square of transmission voltage.
1.5.2 Advantages of EHV AC Transmission

This decrease in load current results in following advantages:

 As current gets reduced, size and volume of conductor required

also reduces for transmitting the same amount of power.
 Voltage drop in line (3IR) reduces and hence voltage regulation of
the line is improved.
 Line losses (3I2R) gets reduced which results in the increase
in transmission line efficiency.
Some other advantages of extra high voltage transmission are as
under:
 Power handling capacity of the line increases as we increase the
transmission voltage. It is proportional to the square of operating
voltage. The cost related to tower, insulators and different types of
equipment are proportional to voltage rather than the square of
voltage. Thus the net capital cost of transmission line decreases as
voltage increases. Therefore, a large power can be transmitted with
high voltage transmission lines economically.
 The total line cost of per MW per km decreases considerably.
 The operation of EHV AC system is simple, reliable and can be
adopted easily.
 The lines can be easily tapped and extended.
1.5.3 Disadvantages of EHV AC Transmission

 Corona loss is a big problem at higher voltages. This may further

increase in bad weather conditions.
 It increases radio interference.
 The height of towers and insulation increases with increase in
transmission voltage.
  The cost of different types of equipment and switchgear required
for transmission increases with increase in transmission voltage.
 The high voltage lines produce electrostatic effects which are
injurious to human beings and animals.

1.6 High Voltage Direct current Transmission (HVDC)

Definition: High Voltage Direct Current transmission, abbreviated as

HVDC is a bulk power transfer technology using Direct current for
transmission of electricity, in contrast to HVAC power systems, which
operate on Alternating current. Super highway or Power Super highway is
the electrical name that is often used for HVDC.

In AC Transmission, direction of voltage and current changes

continuously which causes overheating in the lines, thus resulting in
significant power loss. Unlike AC transmission, current and voltage flow
in one direction only in DC Transmission. So, when we convert HVAC
into HVDC we observe significant reduction in power loss hence
increasing the efficiency of the transmission lines.

HVDC Transmission system is the combination AC and DC system, first

the generated AC voltage is converted into DC at the transmission end,
when it reaches the receiving end DC is inverted to AC for distribution
purposes. So, in order to carry out this operating, we need conversion
devices at both ends of transmission line. However, HVDC Transmission
is economical only for long distance transmission; overhead lines having
a length more than 600km and underground cables of length more than
50km. Further we are going to discuss components, working,
classification, comparison with HVAC system, advantages &
disadvantages of a HVDC Transmission system.
1.6.1 Components of HVDC System

i) Converter: converts AC to DC and DC to AC. It consists of rectifiers

and inverters.

Rectifier: A device that converts alternating current to direct current

which flows only in one direction.

Inverter: A device that converts direct current into alternating current.

ii) Electrodes: Conductors that are used to connect the system to the
earth.

iii) Smoothing Reactors: Smoothing reactors consist of inductors

connected in series with the pole of each converter station. It prevents
commutation failures experienced by inverters, reduces harmonics, and
avoids breaking off the current.

iv) DC Lines: Cables or overhead lines that carry power.

v) Harmonic Filters: Used to minimize the harmonics in voltage and

currents of the converters used.

vi) Reactive Power Supplies: Converters at the terminals consume

reactive power from the supply, thus shunt capacitors are used to provide
this reactive power compensation.

vii) AC Circuit Breaker: Used for electrical safety; like fault in

transformers, disconnection of the DC link.
How does HVDC Transmission System Work?

In generating substation, AC power is generated, which is converted into

DC using a rectifier. The DC flows through the overhead line, and then
again at the user end, DC is converted into AC using inverters and then
AC is supplied to the load. Rectifiers and inverters are placed inside the
converter stations at the sending and receiving ends.

As DC flows through overhead lines, the input power is equal to the

output power, decreasing the losses and improving efficiency.
The diagram above shows two converter stations and one transmission
line, so this type of system is known as the 'Point-to-point system' or
'Two terminal DC system.' Likewise, if there are more than two
converters and the interconnecting DC terminal lines in a substation,
it is named 'Multi terminal DC substation.'

1.6.2 HVDC Links Types

HVDC links are used for connecting two networks or a system. They are
classified into three types:

a) Monopolar Link: Mono means '1', so it has only one conductor of

negative polarity, and return path is provided by earth and sea. Operation
with negative polarity with respect to the ground reduces the corona
loss and radio interference in the line. Monopolar links consist of two
converters placed at the end of each pole along with earth electrodes
attached to the converters. They are placed approximately 15 to 55km
away from respective terminal stations. Monopolar HVDC links were
used only for low power rating and mainly for cable transmission, but it is
not often used now because of several disadvantages.
b) Bipolar Link

Bi means '2', so bipolar link has two conductors one is positive, and one
is negative to the earth. It also consists of a converter station at each end
and electrodes connected at the midpoints of the converter station for
earthing, allowing each pole to operate independently. Moreover, if any
of the bipolar links stops working, the link automatically converts to
monopolar mode because of the ground return system; as a result, half of
the system continues to supply the power. Bipolar link is widely used in
long-distance HVDC transmission.

c) Homopolar Link

A homopolar link consists of two conductors of the same polarity

usually negative, and always uses the earth as the return conductor. As
the poles in this link are operated in parallel, it reduces the installation
cost. This type of link has limited applications and is very complicated.
Thus it is not currently used.

1.6.3 Advantages of HVDC Transmissions

This transmission requires fewer conductors and insulators, thus reduces

the cost of the overall system. It requires less phase to phase and ground
to ground clearance. Towers of HVDC transmission are inexpensive.
Corona loss in HVDC transmission is lesser compared to the loss in
power transmission lines of HVAC. Fewer lines are used for transmission
of power. Therefore power loss is reduced. The HVDC system uses earth
return in case of a fault in one pole. The pole with ‘earth returns’ behaves
like an independent circuit, hence enhancing the system's flexibility.
HVDC system is used to interconnect two substations with different
frequencies. It has an asynchronous connection between two AC stations
connected using the HVDC link; thus the transmission of power is
independent of sending and receiving end frequencies. Proximity and skin
effect do not transpire in the system due to the absence of frequency in
HVDC lines. Reactive power compensation is not needed as there is no
generation or absorption of any reactive power. Power flowing through
DC link is very précised and lossless.

1.6.4 Disadvantages

Due to installation of converter substation at both the ends, conversion

from AC to DC and vice versa becomes quite expensive. Harmonics are
produced by rectifiers and inverters, which are reduced by using active
filters, hence cost of system is increased. HVDC substation has a chance
of power failure if a fault occurs in the nearby AC substation. The
overload capacity of inverters used in converter substations is restricted.
The circuit breakers used in HVDC are very costly. Transformers are
unavailable for changing the voltage levels. Heat loss occurs in converter
substations. HVDC link itself is also very complicated.

1.7 Comparison of HVDC and HVAC Transmission

High Voltage Direct Current High Voltage Alternating

(HVDC) Transmission Current (HVAC) Transmission

i) Losses are quite low. Losses are high due to corona

discharge and skin effect.

ii) More power is transmitted over Less power is transmitted.

long distances.

iii) Voltage regulation and control Low voltage regulation and control
ability is high. ability.

iv) It has fewer conductors hence High line cost.

line cost decreases.

v) Towers are simple and cheaper. Huge towers as compared to

HVDC.

vi) It needs less Insulation. Requires more insulation.

vii) High reliability. Reliability is low.

viii) Asynchronous interconnection Asynchronous interconnection is

can be done. not possible.

This graph shows the comparison between cost of AC and DC

Transmission with respect to the distance. According to the graph, initial
cost of HVDC transmission is high as compared to the HVAC
Transmission due to a significant difference between DC and AC
terminal cost (converter stations at terminals of HVDC Transmission
system are very costly). However, at a specific distance cost of HVDC
Transmission is equal to the cost of HVAC system, that point is called
breakeven distance. After this point, overall cost of HVDC
Transmission becomes low than HVAC Transmission (there are huge
power losses in HVAC Transmission for long distances), hence proving
the fact that HVDC Transmission system is economical for long distance
transmission. The breakeven distance is around 600km for overhead
transmission lines.

1.8 Introduction to Flexible AC Transmission System

(FACTS)

A Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS)

is a system composed of static equipment used for the
alternating current (AC) transmission of electrical energy. It is
generally a power electronics based system.

FACTS devices are static power-electronic devices installed in

AC transmission networks to increase power transfer capability,
stability, and controllability of the networks through series
and/or shunt compensation. These devices are also employed to
increase the power transfer capability of transmission line and it
will increase the voltage stability, transient stability, voltage
regulation, reliability, thermal limits of the transmission network.
Also used for congestion management and loss optimization.
Before the invention of power electronics switches, these problems
were solved by connecting capacitor, reactor, or synchronous
generator with the help of mechanical switches. But there is a lot of
problems to use the mechanical switches. It has a very slow
response and there is a problem of wear and tear of mechanical
switches. So, these are not reliable ways to increase the
controllability and stability of the transmission line.
After the invention of power electronics switch like thyristor that
can be used for the high voltage applications, power electronics
based FACTS controllers are developed.

1.8.1 Types of Compensation Techniques

According to the type of connection of compensation devices with the

power system network, the compensation techniques are classified into
two types;

i) Series Compensation

ii) Shunt Compensation

i) Series Compensation

In series compensation, the FACTS devices are connected in series with

the power system network. This device can be a variable impedance like
a capacitor or an inductor. Generally, the capacitor is connected in series
with the transmission line. It is mostly used to improve the power transfer
capability of EHV/UHV transmission lines.

The power transfer capacity of a transmission line without using

compensation device;
Where,
V1 = Sending end voltage
V2 = Receiving end voltage
XL = Inductive reactance of transmission line
δ = Phase angle between V1 and V2
P = Power transferred per phase

Now, we connect a capacitor in series with the transmission line. The

capacitive reactance of this capacitor is X C. So, the total reactance is X L-
XC. So, with a compensation device, the power transfer capacity is given
by;

The factor k is known as the compensation factor or degree of

compensation. Generally, the value of k is lies between 0.4 to 0.7. Let’s
assume the value of k is 0.5.

Hence, it is clear that, if we use the series compensation devices,

approximately 100% more power can be transferred.

By using the series capacitor, the angle between voltage and current (ϴ)
is less compared to the uncompensated line. The lower value of ϴ will
give better system stability. Hence the compensated line will give better
stability compared to the uncompensated line.
ii) Shunt Compensation

In a high voltage transmission line, the magnitude of receiving end

voltage depends on the loading condition. The capacitance performs an
important role in the high voltage transmission line.

When the line is loaded, the load needs reactive power. This reactive
power demand fulfills by the line capacitance. When the load is more
than SIL (surge impedance loading), then high demand for reactive power
will result in a large voltage drop at receiving end of a transmission line.
Therefore, the capacitor bank is connected in parallel with a transmission
line at the receiving end to feed the demand for reactive power. So, it
reduces receiving end voltage drop.

If the capacitance of the line increases, the receiving end voltage will
increase.

When the line is lightly loaded (less than SIL), the reactive power
demand is less compared to the line capacitance. In this condition, the
magnitude of receiving end increases than the magnitude of sending end
voltage. This effect is known as the Ferranti effect. To avoid this
condition, the shunt reactor is used to connect with the transmission line
at the receiving end. The shunt reactor will absorb extra reactive power
from line and maintain receiving end voltage at rated value.

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