Unit I : Evolution of Structure of Power Systems

Definition: The power system is a network which consists generation, distribution and transmission
system. It uses the form of energy (like coal and diesel) and converts it into electrical energy. The
power system includes the devices connected to the system like the synchronous
generator, motor, transformer, circuit breaker, conductor, etc.

The power plant, transformer, transmission line, substations, distribution line, and distribution
transformer are the six main components of the power system.The power plant generates the power
which is step-up or step-down through the transformer for transmission.

The transmission line transfers the power to the various substations.Through substation, the power is
transferred to the distribution transformer which step-down the power to the appropriate value
which is suitable for the consumers.

Structure of Power System

The power system is the complex enterprise that may be subdivided into the following sub-
systems.The subsystems of the power system are explained below in details.

Generating Substation

In generating station the fuel (coal, water, nuclear energy, etc.) is converted into electrical energy.
The electrical power is generated in the range of 11kV to 25kV, which is step-up for long distance
transmission. The power plant of the generating substation is mainly classified into three types, i.e.,
thermal power plant, hydropower plant and nuclear power plant.
The generator and the transformer are the main components of the generating station. The generator
converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy. The mechanical energy comes from the
burning of coal, gas and nuclear fuel, gas turbines, or occasionally the internal combustion engine.

The transformer transfers the power with very high efficiency from one level to another. The power
transfer from the secondary is approximately equal to the primary except for losses in the
transformer. The step-up transformer will reduce losses in the line which makes the transmission of
power over long distances.

Transmission Substation

The transmission substation carries the overhead lines which transfer the generated electrical energy
from generation to the distribution substations. It only supplies the large bulk of power to bulk power
substations or very big consumers.

The transmission lines mainly perform the two functions

1. It transports the energy from generating stations to bulk receiving stations.

2. It interconnects the two or more generating stations.The neighbouring substations are also
interconnected through the transmission lines.
The transmission voltage is operating at more than 66kv and is standardised at 69kv, 115KV, 138KV,
161KV, 230KV, 345KV, 500KV, and 765KV, line-to-line. The transmission line above 230KV is usually
referred to as extra high voltage (EHV).

The high voltage line is terminated in substations which are called high voltage substations, receiving
substations or primary substations. In high voltage substation, the voltage is step-down to a suitable
value for the next part of flow toward the load. The very large industrial consumers may be served
directly to the transmission system.

Sub-transmission Substation

The portion of the transmission system that connects the high voltage substations through the step-
down transformer to the distribution substations is called the sub-transmission system.

The sub-transmission voltage level ranges from 90 to 138KV. The sub-transmission system directly
serves some large industries. The capacitor and reactor are located in the substations for maintaining
the transmission line voltage.

The operation of the sub-transmission system is similar to that of a distribution system. Its differ from
a distribution system in the following manner.

1. A sub-transmission system has a higher voltage level than a distribution system.

2. It supplies only bigger loads.
3. It supplies only a few substations as compared to a distribution system which supplies some
loads.
Distribution Substation

The component of an electrical power system connecting all the consumers in an area to the bulk
power sources is called a distribution system.The bulk power stations are connected to the generating
substations by transmission lines. They feed some substations which are usually situated at
convenient points near the load centres.

The substations distribute the power to the domestic, commercial and relatively small consumers.
The consumers require large blocks of power which are usually supplied at sub-transmission or even
transmission system.

Fig : Single line Diagram of power system

MICROGRID
A microgrid is a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources that acts as a single
controllable entity with respect to the grid. It can connect and disconnect from the grid to operate in
grid-connected or island mode. Microgrids can improve customer reliability and resilience to grid
disturbances.

Advanced microgrids enable local power generation assets—including traditional generators,

renewables, and storage—to keep the local grid running even when the larger grid experiences
interruptions or, for remote areas, where there is no connection to the larger grid. In addition,
advanced microgrids allow local assets to work together to save costs, extend duration of energy
supplies, and produce revenue via market participation.

Capabilities
 Microgrid system modeling and simulation on timescales of electromagnetic transients and
dynamic and steady-state behavior
 Development of power electronic converters and control algorithms for microgrid integration
 Controller hardware-in-the-loop testing, where the physical controller interacts with a model
of the microgrid and associated power devices
 Power hardware-in-the-loop testing of microgrid hardware
 Programmable AC power supplies (grid simulators) to emulate the grid-tie as well as select
electrical nodes on the microgrid
 Programmable DC power supplies to emulate photovoltaic (PV) arrays and battery banks
 Hybrid microgrid testing, including the distribution integration of wind turbines, PV,
dynamometers, loads, and energy storage
 I. Introduction to Smart Grid

Evolution of Electric Grid, Concept, Definitions and Need for Smart Grid, Smart grid
drivers, functions, opportunities, challenges and benefits, Difference between conventional
& Smart Grid, Concept of Resilient & Self-Healing Grid, Present development &
International policies in Smart Grid, Diverse Prospective from experts and global Smart Grid
initiatives
1.1 Evolution of Electric Grid

Figure 1.1 Existing Electric Grid.

1.2 Disadvantages of Existing Electric Grid

1. Over strained and interregional bulk power transfer is limited

2. Cannot fully support the integration of renewable energy
3. Low reliability of power and outages
4. Fluctuating Power quality
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 5. Lack of Consumer Discipline
6. Increasing levels of Green house gases
7. Almost Zero Customer Participation
8. Low billing and collection
9. Less Efficiency

1.3 Concept, Definitions and Need for Smart Grid

A Smart Grid is an electricity Network based on Digital Technology that is used to supply
electricity to consumers via Two-Way Digital Communication. This system allows for
monitoring, analysis, control and communication within the supply chain to help improve
efficiency, reduce the energy consumption and cost and maximise the transparency and
reliability of the energy supply chain.
The term “Smart Grid” was coined by Andres E. Carvallo on April 24, 2007 at an IDC energy
conference in Chicago.
Definition: Smart grid is integration of an electric power system, communication network,
advanced Sensing, metering, measurement infrastructure, complete decision support and
human interfaces software and hardware to monitor, control and manage the creation,
distribution, storage and consumption of energy.
The areas of application of smart grids include: smart meters integration, demand
management, smart integration of generated energy, administration of storage and renewable
resources, using systems that continuously provide and use data from an energy network.
A Smart Grid is an electricity network that can intelligently integrate the actions of all users
connected to it – generators, consumers and those that do both – in order to efficiently deliver
sustainable, economic and secure electricity supplies.
➢ System (Generation, Transmission, Distribution) with an advanced two- way
communications system
➢ Enables real-time monitoring and control
➢ Provide greater visibility and transparency
➢ Consequently, enables cost reduction and efficiency improvement

Smart Grid is based on Digital Technology that is used to supply electricity to consumers
via Two-Way Digital Communication. This system allows for monitoring, analysis, control
and communication within the supply chain to help improve efficiency, reduce the energy
consumption and cost and maximise the transparency and reliability of the energy supply
chain.

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The flow of electricity from utility to consumer becomes a two-way conversation, saving
consumers money, energy, delivering more transparency in terms of end-user use, and
reducing carbon emissions.
A smart grid distribution system, whose objective is to develop a power grid more efficient
and reliable, improving safety and quality of supply in accordance with the requirements of
the digital age.

✓ Higher Penetration of renewable resources or distributed generation

✓ Extensive and effective communication overlay from generation to consumers
✓ Use of advanced sensors and high speed control
✓ Higher operating efficiency.
✓ Greater resiliency against attacks and natural disasters
✓ Automated metering and rapid power restoration
✓ Provided greater customer participation

Presently the Indian Electricity System faces a number of challenges such as:
✓ Shortage of power
✓ Power Theft
✓ Poor access to electricity in Rural areas
✓ Huge losses in the Grid
✓ Inefficient Power Consumption
✓ Poor reliability
To overcome these problems; smart grid is needed.

1.4 Smart grid drivers & functions

❖ Increasing demand: Information and communications technology, Measurement

and control Demand response, Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)
❖ High Aggregate Technical &Non-Technical, Losses:18%-62%
❖ Ageing Assets: Transformers, Feeders etc.,
❖ Grid to carry more power: Need for, Reliability and greater Security
❖ Billing and collections: Profitability of distribution companies
❖ Energy mix: Need for Renewable Energy [Hydro Power, Solar Thermal Energy,
Wind, Biomass, Biogas ] to reduce carbon footprint

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 ❖ Deliver sustainable energy: Voltage & VAR control, Resource planning, analysis,
and forecasting tools, Fault Detection, Identification, and Restoration (FDIR)
❖ Increased efficiency: Direct load control, Distributed energy resources, Distributed
energy resources integration, Energy storage, Advanced metering infrastructure
(AMI)
❖ Empower consumers: Consumer education and awareness, Residential consumer
energy management, Information and communications technology
❖ Improve reliability: System wide monitoring, Measurement and control,
Distributed energy resources, Distributed energy resources integration, Energy
storage, Advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)

1.5 Challenges of Smart Grid

✓ Policy and regulation
✓ Ageing and outdated Infrastructure
✓ Lack of integrated communication platform
✓ High Capital and operating costs
✓ Big Data Handling
✓ Compatibility of older equipment
✓ Lack of standards for interoperability
✓ Smart Grid Cybersecurity
✓ Lack of Smart consumers

Technology Challenges Obligations

Exposed to internet attacks (Spasm, Worms,virus etc.), question

Self-Healing Security of National security
Action
Failure during natural calamities, system outagesand total
Reliability blackout

Long-term and un-predictable intermittent sources of energy,

Wind/Solar unscheduled power flow and dispatch
Generation
Renewable
Energy
Power Flow Transmission line congestions and huge
Integration
Optimization investments

Decoupling causes system stability issues causes reduced inertia

Power System due to high level of windpenetration
Stability

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 Expensive energy storage systems like Ultra-capacitors, SMES,
Cost CAES etc.
Energy
Storage
Systems Complexity Complex customary design module and networks

Non- Unique designs for all individual networks notease adaptation.

Flexibility

Malware, data intercepting, data corruption,Illegal power

Security handling and Smuggling
Consumers
Motivation
Privacy Sharing of data cause privacy invasion, etc.,

Corruption and system threats like security andprivacy issues

Consumer awareness

Need of strong data routing system, with secure and private network
Grid Automation for reliable protection, control and communication
Reliability

Grid Generation demand equilibrium and power systemstability with

Reconfiguration grid complexity

Disturbance Grid disturbances due to local faults in grids, loadcentres or

Identification sources
Power
Quality
Harmonics System instability during sags, dips or voltage
Suppression variation such as over-voltages, under-voltages,voltage flickers,
etc.

1.6 Benefits of Smart Grid

➢ Self-Healing :A smart grid automatically detects and responds
to routineproblems and quickly recovers if they occur,
minimizing downtime and financial loss.
➢ Resists Attack: A smart grid has security built in from the ground up.
➢ Motivates and Includes the Consumer: A smart grid gives all
consumers industrial, commercial, and residential-visibility in to
real-time pricing, and affords them the opportunity to choose the
volume of consumption and price that best suits their needs.
➢ Reduction in AT & C losses
➢ Reduction in CO2 Emission
➢ Enabling Energy Audit
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 ➢ Reduction in Cost Billing
➢ Remote Load Control
➢ Shifting of Peak requirement to non-peak time [Peak Shaving]
➢ Integration of Renewable Energy
➢ Clean Energy Development.
➢ Provides Power Quality
➢ Optimizes Assets and Operates Efficiently
➢ Safety, Reliable and Efficient
➢ Improved National Security
➢ Improved Environmental Conditions
➢ Improved Economic Growth

1.7 Difference between conventional & Smart Grid,

Sl.No. Smart Grid Conventional Grid

1. Self-Healing Manual Restoration
2. Digital Electromechanical
3. Pervasive Control Limited Control
4. Two-Way Communication One-Way Communication
5. Distributed Generation Centralized Generation
6. Network Hierarchical
7. Adaptive and Islanding Failures and Blackouts
8. Sensors Throughout Few Sensors
9. Remote Check/Test Manual Check/Test
10. Self-Monitoring Blind
11. Many Customer Choices Few Customer Choices
12. Extensive real time monitoring Lack of real time monitoring
13. Extremely quick reaction time Slow Reaction time
14. Energy Storage No energy Storage
15. Increased customer participation Total control by Utility

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OVERHEAD AND UNDERGROUND TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
Electrical power is produced at the power generating plants which are located far away from the load
centers. Therefore, we need to transport the electrical power generated at the power generating plant
to the points of utilization or load points. For this purpose, two major systems of conductors are
developed called transmission system and distribution system.
Both transmission and distribution systems are further classified into two types namely,
 Overhead system
 Underground system

In the overhead system of transmission and distribution, the overhead line wires supported by poles
are used for power transportation; while in the underground system, insulated underground
cables are employed for the transportation of electric power.

What is Overhead Line?

Overhead lines or overhead transmission lines are the bare conductors supported on poles and
towers. In overhead system, the line conductors are hanged in air with the help of transmission line
supports installed at a certain distance.
An overhead line consists of conductors, supports, line insulators, cross arms, and many other auxiliary
components. The conductors are the bare metallic conductors that carry electric power from the
sending end to the utilization end. The supports may be poles or steel towers that keep the line
conductors at a suitable level above the ground. Since the conductor and support both are conductors
of electricity, therefore insulators are used to insulate the line conductors from the support and hence
from the ground which may otherwise cause fault and danger for living beings.
The cross-arm is the part of an overhead line which provides housing and support to the line insulators.
Other auxiliary component of an overhead line are lightning arrestors, anti-climbing wires, phase and
danger plates, stay rod, etc.
Due to some technical and economic reasons, the overhead lines are extensively used in power
transmission and distribution.
What is Underground Cable?
Underground cables or undergrounds lines are the insulated electric cables which are buried under
the earth surface for the transmission and distribution of electric power. However, the power
transmission using underground cables is relatively more expensive method, hence it is less frequently
used method.
Mostly, the underground cables are used in such cases where it is possible to install overhead lines. A
typical underground cable consists of one or more (two, three or four) central cores of stranded
conductors (copper or aluminium) and these are insulated from each other by paper or varnished
cambric or impregnated paper. In order to protect this insulation against moisture and mechanical
damages, a metallic sheath of lead or alloy of aluminium is provided around it. Finally, an insulation
cover is provided.
The type of underground cable used for power transmission and distribution depends on the voltage
and service requirements.
Difference between Overhead Lines and Underground Cables
Since overhead lines and underground cables both are used in the electric power transmission and
distribution. However, there are several differences between overhead lines and underground cables
that are given in the following table −
Difference between HVAC and HVDC Transmission
Both HVAC and HVDC are extensively being used in power transmission. However, there are several
differences between HVAC and HVDC transmission that are highlighted in the following table −
Electrical Substation Components & their Workings

The electricity substation is a network of electrical equipment which is connected in a structured way
in order to supply electricity to end consumers. There is numerous electrical substation
components like outgoing and incoming circuitry each of which having its circuit breakers, isolators,
transformers, and busbar system etc for the smooth functioning of the system. The power system is
having numerous ingredients such as distribution, transmission, and generation systems and
Substations act as a necessary ingredient for operations of the power system. The substations are
entities from which consumers are getting their electrical supply to run their loads while required power
quality can be delivered to the customers by changing frequency and voltage levels etc..

The electricity substation designs are purely dependent on the need, for instance, a single bus or
complex bus system etc. Moreover, the design is also dependent on the application as well, for instance,
indoor substations, generation substations, transmission substations, pole substations, outdoor
substation, converter substation, and switching substation etc. There is a need of collector substation
as well in cases of large power generating systems e.g. multiple thermal and hydropower plants
connected together for transfer of power to a single transmission unit from numerous co-located
turbines.

The following are major electrical components of substations and their working. Each component
functions are explained in detail with machinery, substation components diagram is also given above
for your reference.
List of Electrical Substation Equipment :
1. Instrument Transformers
2. Current Transformer
3. Potential Transformer
4. Conductors
5. Insulators
6. Isolators
7. Busbars
8. Lightning Arrestors
9. Circuit Breakers
10. Relays
11. Capacitor Banks
12. Batteries
13. WaveTrapper
14. SwitchYard
15. Metering and Indication Instruments
16. Equipment for Carrier Current
17. Prevention from Surge Voltage
18. The Outgoing Feeders

Instrument Transformers:
The instrument transformer is a static device utilized for reduction of higher currents and voltages for
safe and practical usage which are measurable with traditional instruments such as digital multi-
meter etc. The value range is from 1A to 5A and voltages such as 110V etc. The transformers are also
used for actuation of AC protective relay through supporting voltage and current. Instrument
transformers are shown in the figure below and its two types are also discussed underneath.

Instrument transformers
Current Transformer:

A current transformer is a gadget utilized for the transformation of higher value currents into lower
values. It is utilized in an analogous manner to that of AC instruments, control apparatus, and meters.
These are having lower current ratings and are used for maintenance and installation of current relays
for protection purpose in substations.

Current Transformer
Potential Transformer:

The potential transformers are similar in characteristics as current transformers but are utilized for
converting high voltages to lower voltages for protection of relay system and for lower rating
metering of voltage measurements.

Potential Transformer
Conductors:

Conductors are the materials which permit flow of electrons through it. The best conductors are
copper and aluminum etc. The conductors are utilized for transmission of energy from place to place
over substations.

Insulators:

The insulators are the materials which do not permit flow of electrons through it. Insulators are
resisting electric property. There are numerous types of insulators such as shackle, strain type,
suspension type, and stray type etc. Insulators are used in substations for avoiding contact with
humans or short circuit.

Insulator
Isolators:

The isolators in substations are mechanical switches which are deployed for isolation of circuits when
there is an interruption of current. These are also known with the name of disconnected switches
operation under no-load conditions and are not fortified with arc-quenching devices. These switches
have no specific current breaking value neither these have current making value. These are
mechanically operated switches.

Isolator
Busbars:

The busbar is among the most important elements of the substation and is a conductor which carries
current to a point having numerous connections with it. The busbar is a kind of electrical junction
which has outgoing and incoming current paths. Whenever a fault occurs in the busbar, entire
components connected to that specific section should be tripped for giving thorough isolation in a
small time, for instance, 60ms for avoiding danger rising due to conductor’s heat. These are of
different types such as ring bus, double bus, and single bus etc. A simple bus bar is shown in the figure
below which is considered as one of the most vital electrical substation components.

Busbar in Substation
The Lightning Arresters:

The lightning arresters can be considered as the first ever components of a substation. These are
having a function of protecting equipment of substation from high voltages and are also limiting the
amplitude and duration of the current’s flow. These are connected amid earth and line i.e. connected
in line with equipment in the substation. These are meant for diversion of current to earth if any
current surge appears hence by protecting insulation as well as conductor from damages. These are of
various types and are distinguished based on duties.

Lightning Arrester
Circuit Breakers:

The circuit breakers are such type of switches utilized for closing or opening circuits at the time when
a fault occurs within the system. The circuit breaker has 2 mobile contacts which are in OFF condition
in normal situations. At the time when any fault occurs in the system, a relay is sending the tripped
command to the circuit breaker which moves the contacts apart, hence avoiding any damage to the
circuitry.

Circuit Breaker in Substation

Relays:

Relays are a dedicated component of electrical substation equipment for the protection of system
against abnormal situations e.g. faults. Relays are basically sensing gadgets which are devoted for
sensing faults and are determining its location as well as sending interruption message of tripped
command to the specific point of the circuit. A circuit breaker is falling apart its contacts after getting
the command from relays. These are protecting equipment from other damages as well such as fire,
the risk to human life, and removal of fault from a particular section of the substation. Following is
the substation component diagram is known as a relay.

Relays
Capacitor Banks:

The capacitor bank is defined as a set of numerous identical capacitors which are connected either in
parallel or series inside an enclosure and are utilized for the correction of power factor as well as
protection of circuitry of the substation. These are acting like the source of reactive power and are
thus reducing phase difference amid current and voltage. These are increasing the capacity of ripple
current of supply and avoid unwanted selves in the substation system. The use of capacitor banks is
an economical technique for power factor maintenance and for correction of problems related to
power lag.

Capacitor Bank in Substation

Batteries:

Some of the important substation parts such as emergency lighting, relay system, and automated
control circuitry are operated through batteries. The size of the battery bank is depending on the
voltage required for operation of the DC circuit respectively. The storage batteries are of two basic
types i.e. acid-alkaline batteries and lead-acid batteries. The lead acid batteries are of the most
common type and used in substations in abundance as these provide high voltages and are cheaper in
cost.

Substation Batteries
Wave Trapper:

The wave trapper is one of the substation components which is placed on the incoming lines for
trapping of high-frequency waves. The high-frequency waves which are coming from nearby
substations or other localities are disturbing the current and voltages, hence its trapping is of great
importance. The wave trapper is basically tripping high-frequency waves and is then diverting the
waves into telecom panel.

Wave Trapper in Substation

Switchyard:

The switchyards, switches, circuit breakers, and transformers for the connection and disconnection of
transformers and circuit breakers. These are also having lighting arrestors to protect the substation or
power station from strokes of natural lighting.

SwitchYard
Metering and Indication Instruments:

There are numerous instruments for metering and indication in each substation such as watt-meters,
voltmeters, ammeters, power factor meters, kWh meters, volt-ampere meters, and KVARH meters
etc. These instruments are installed at different places within substation for controlling and
maintaining values of current and voltages. For instance, 33/11KV substation equipment will
comprise digital multi-meters for various readings of currents and voltages.

Prevention from Surge Voltage:

The transient of overvoltages substation system is because of inherent and natural characteristics.
There are several reasons for overvoltages which may be caused due to a sudden alteration in
conditions of the system e.g. load rejection, faults, or switching operations etc. or because of lighting
etc. The types of overvoltages can be classified into two i.e. switching generated or lightning
generated. However, the scale of overvoltages could be over maximum allowable voltage levels,
hence these are required to be protected and reduced for avoiding damage to instruments,
equipment, and lines of a substation. In this way, the performance of the substation system can be
enhanced.

The Outgoing Feeders:

There are numerous outgoing feeders which are connected to that of substations. Basically, the
connection is with a bus of the substation for carrying power from the substation to service points.
The feeders can hug overhead streets, underground, underneath streets, and are carrying electrical
power to that of distribution transformers at near or farther premises. The isolator in substation and
breaker of the feeder are considered as entities of the substation and are of metal-clad typically.
Whenever a fault is occurring in the feeder, the protection is detecting and the circuit breaker is
opened. After detection of fault through manual or automatic way, there are more than one attempts
for re-energizing the feeder.

Elements of a Substation

Elements of a substation A: Primary power lines’ side B: Secondary power lines’ side

1. Primary power lines

2. Ground wire
3. Overhead lines
4. Transformer for measurement of electric voltage
5. Disconnect switch
6. Circuit breaker
7. Current transformer
8. Lightning arrester
9. Main transformer
10. Control building
11. Security fence
CONNECTION SCHEMES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant voltage system. In practice, the
following distribution circuits are generally used :
( i) Radial System.
In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single substation and feed the distributors
at one end only. Fig. shows a single line diagram of a radial system for d.c. distribution where a
feeder OC supplies a distributor A B at point A . Obviously, the distributor is fed at one end only
i.e., point A is this case. Fig ( ii) shows a single line diagram of radial system for a.c.
distribution. The radial system is employed only when power is generated at low voltage and the
substation is located at the centre of the load.
 This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost. However, it suffers
from the following drawbacks :
( a) The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded.
( b) The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor. Therefore,
any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the consumers who are on the side of the
fault away from the substation.
( c) The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to serious
voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor changes.
Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only.
( ii) Ring main system.
In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a loop. The loop circuit
starts from the substation bus-bars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and returns to the
substation. Fig. 12.9 shows the single line diagram of ring main system for a.c. distribution
where substation supplies to the closed feeder LMNOPQRS.
 The distributors are tapped from different points M, O and Q of the feeder through
distribution transformers. The ring main system has the following advantages :
( a) There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s terminals.
( b) The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via *two feeders. In the event of
fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained. For example, suppose
that fault occurs at any point F of section SLM of the feeder. Then section SLM of the feeder can
be isolated for repairs and at the same time continuity of supply is maintained to all the
consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.
( iii) Interconnected system.
When the feeder ring is energised by two or more than two generating stations or
substations, it is called inter-connected system. Fig. 12.10 shows the single line diagram of
interconnected system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by two substations S and
S at points D and C respectively.

Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution
transformers. The interconnected system has the following advantages :
( a) It increases the service reliability.
( b) Any area fed from one generating station during peak load hours can be fed from the
other generating station. This reduces reserve power capacity and increases efficiency of the
system.

REQUIREMENTS OF A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an electric power supply within
the requirements of various types of consumers. Some of the requirements of a good distribution
system are : proper voltage, availability of power on demand and reliability.
( i) Proper voltage.
One important requirement of a distribution system is that voltage variations at
consumer’s terminals should be as low as possible. The changes in voltage are generally caused
due to the variation of load on the system. Low voltage causes loss of revenue, inefficient
lighting and possible burning out of motors. High voltage causes lamps to burn out permanently
and may cause failure of other appliances. Therefore, a good distribution system should ensure
that the voltage variations at consumers terminals are within permissible limits. The statutory
limit of voltage variations is ± 6% of the rated value at the consumer’s terminals. Thus, if the
declared voltage is 230 V, then the highest voltage of the consumer should not exceed 244 V
while the lowest voltage of the consumer should not be less than 216 V.

( ii) Availability of power on demand.

Power must be available to the consumers in any amount that they may require from time to
time. For example, motors may be started or shut down, lights may be turned on or off, without
advance warning to the electric supply company. As electrical energy cannot be stored, therefore,
the distribution system must be capable of supplying load demands of the consumers. This
necessitates that operating staff must con-tinuously study load patterns to predict in advance
those major load changes that follow the known schedules.

( iii) Reliability.
Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its operation. Homes and office
buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and ventilated by electric power. This calls for reliable
service. Unfortunately, electric power, like everything else that is man-made, can never be
absolutely reliable. However, the reliability can be improved to a considerable extent by ( a)
interconnected system ( b) reliable automatic control system ( c) providing additional reserve
facilities.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is probably the most important factor
responsible for delivering good service to the consumers. For this purpose, design of feeders and
distributors requires careful consideration.
( i) Feeders.
A feeder is designed from the point of view of its current carrying capacity while the voltage
drop consideration is relatively unimportant. It is because voltage drop in a feeder can be
compensated by means of voltage regulating equipment at the substation.
( ii) Distributors.
A distributor is designed from the point of view of the voltage drop in it. It is because a
distributor supplies power to the consumers and there is a statutory limit of voltage variations at
the consumer’s terminals (± 6% of rated value). The size and length of the distributor should be
such that voltage at the consumer’s terminals is within the permissible limits.

A.C. DISTRIBUTION -INTRODUCTION

In the beginning of electrical age, electricity was generated, transmitted and distributed as
direct current. The principal disadvantage of d.c. system was that voltage level could not readily
be changed, except by the use of rotating machinery, which in most cases was too expensive.
With the development of transformer by George Westinghouse, a.c. system has become so
predominant as to make d.c. system practically extinct in most parts of the world. The present
day large power system has been possible only due to the adoption of a.c. system Now-a-days,
electrical energy is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alter- nating current as
an economical proposition. The electrical energy produced at the power station is transmitted at
very high voltages by 3-phase, 3-wire system to step-down sub-stations for distribution. The
distribution system consists of two parts viz. primary distribution and secondary distribution. The
primary distribution circuit is 3-phase, 3-wire and operates at voltages (3·3 or 6·6 or 11kV)
somewhat higher than general utilization levels. It delivers power to the secondary distribution
circuit through distribution transformers situated near consumers’ localities. Each distribution
transformer steps down the voltage to 400 V and power is distributed to ultimate consumers’ by
400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system. In this chapter, we shall focus our attention on the various
aspects of a.c. distribution.

A.C. DISTRIBUTION CALCULATIONS

A.C. distribution calculations differ from those of d.c. distribution in the following
respects :
( i) In case of d.c. system, the voltage drop is due to resistance alone. However, in a.c. system,
the voltage drops are due to the combined effects of resistance, inductance and capacitance.
( ii) In a d.c. system, additions and subtractions of currents or voltages are done arithmetically
but in case of a.c. system, these operations are done vectorially.
( iii) In an a.c. system, power factor (p.f.) has to be taken into account. Loads tapped off
form the distributor are generally at different power factors. There are two ways of referring
power factor viz
( a) It may be referred to supply or receiving end voltage which is regarded as the
reference vector.
( b) It may be referred to the voltage at the load point itself.
There are several ways of solving a.c. distribution problems. However, symbolic notation
method has been found to be most convenient for this purpose. In this method, voltages, currents
and impedances are expressed in complex notation and the calculations are made exactly as in
d.c. distribution.

METHODS OF SOLVING A.C. DISTRIBUTION PROBLEMS

In a.c. distribution calculations, power factors of various load currents have to be
considered since currents in different sections of the distributor will be the vector sum of load
currents and not the arithmetic sum. The power factors of load currents may be given ( i) w.r.t.
receiving or sending end voltage or ( ii) w.r.t. to load voltage itself. Each case shall be discussed
separately.

( i) Power factors referred to receiving end voltage.

Consider an a.c. distributor A B with concentrated loads of I1 and I2 tapped off at points
C and B as shown in Fig. Taking the receiving end voltage VB as the reference vector, let
lagging power factors at C and B be cos φ1 and cos φ 2 w.r.t. VB . Let R1 , X1 and R2 , X2 be the
resistance and reactance of sections A C and CB of the distributor.
The vector diagram of the a.c. distributor under these conditions is shown in Fig. Here, the
receiving end voltage VB is taken as the reference vector. As power factors of loads are given
w.r.t. VB , therefore, I1 and I2 lag behind VB by φ1 and φ2 respectively.

( ii) Power factors referred to respective load voltages.

Suppose the power factors of loads in the previous Fig. are referred to their respective load
voltages. Then φ1 is the phase angle between Vc and I1 and φ2 is the phase angle between VB
and I2 . The vector diagram under these conditions is shown in Fig
 TYPES OF D.C. DISTRIBUTORS
The most general method of classifying d.c. distributors is the way they are fed by the
feeders. On this basis, d.c. distributors are classified as:
( i) Distributor fed at one end
( ii) Distributor fed at both ends
( iii) Distributor fed at the centre
( iv) Ring distributor.

( i) Distributor fed at one end.

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply at one end and loads are taken at
different point along the length of the distributor.

Fig. shows the single line diagram of a d.c. distributor A B fed at the end A (also known as
singly fed distributor) and loads I1 , I2 and I3 tapped off at points C, D and E respectively.

The following points are worth noting in a singly fed distributor:

( a) The current in the various sections of the distributor away from feeding point goes on
decreasing. Thus current in section AC is more than the current in section CD and current in
section CD is more than the current in section DE.
( b) The voltage across the loads away from the feeding point goes on decreasing. Thus
in Fig. the minimum voltage occurs at the load point E.
 ( c) In case a fault occurs on any section of the distributor, the whole distributor will have
to be disconnected from the supply mains. Therefore, continuity of supply is interrupted.

( ii) Distributor fed at both ends.

In this type of feeding, the distributor is connected to the supply mains at both ends and loads are
tapped off at different points along the length of the distributor. The voltage at the feeding points
may or may not be equal. Fig. shows a distributor A B fed at the ends A and B and loads of I1 ,
I2 and I3 tapped off at points C, D and E respectively.

Here, the load voltage goes on decreasing as we move away from one feeding point say A ,
reaches minimum value and then again starts rising and reaches maximum value when we reach
the other feeding point B. The minimum voltage occurs at some load point and is never fixed. It
is shifted with the variation of load on different sections of the distributor.

Advantages
( a) If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
( b) In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the continuity of supply is
maintained from the other feeding point.
( c) The area of X-section required for a doubly fed distributor is much less than that of a
singly fed distributor.

( iii) Distributor fed at the centre.

In this type of feeding, the centre of the distributor is connected to the supply mains as shown in
Fig. It is equivalent to two singly fed distributors, each distributor having a common feeding
point and length equal to half of the total length.
 ( iv)Ring mains.
In this type, the distributor is in the form of a closed ring as shown in Fig.It is
equivalent to a straight distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages, the two ends
being brought together to form a closed ring. The distributor ring may be fed at one or

more than one point.