Introduction
to
Psychology
2023
Welcome
back
Second semester - let's go!
How to
succeed in
PSYC5122 Prepare
Keep track of where we are
in the module outline.
Engage
Do your best to be present in
every lecture, ask questions
Look at each textbook and make comments.
chapter before we cover it Take notes - use the main
and jot down the main themes you jotted down
themes. from the textbook and add
more information from
lectures.
Go the extra mile VC Learn activities
Read extra material, watch Complete the VC Learn
YouTube videos and browse activities for each Learning
websites related to the chapter Unit to review.
we are on to expand your Do the ICE activity at the
understanding. end of each Learning Unit.
The Three Ages of Woman (1905)
Gustav Klimt
The study of
human
development
considers
changes in
behaviour
that correlate
with growth
or maturation
Learning
outcome 1
Outline the major events of
the three stages of
prenatal development
(pp.430-433).
When can a
woman get
pregnant?
The course of
prenatal
development
Germinal stage: first phase of prenatal
development; first two weeks after conception.
• Creation of zygote, a microscopic mass of
multiplying cells that migrates along the mother’s
fallopian tube to the uterine cavity.
• Zygote implants itself in the uterine wall around
the 7th day.
• Placenta forms during the implantation process.
• The placenta is a structure that allows oxygen
and nutrients to pass into the foetus from the
mother’s bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass
out to the mother.
The course of
prenatal
development
Embryonic stage: second stage of prenatal
development.
•Week two until the end of the second month.
•Most vital organs and bodily systems begin to
form.
•Arms, legs, hands, feet, fingers, toes, eyes and
ears are discernible.
The course of
prenatal
development
Foetal stage: third stage, lasting from two months
through birth.
•Rapid bodily growth, as muscles and bones begin
to form in first two months.
•Organs continue to grow and begin to function.
•Brain cells multiply, a layer of fat is deposited
under skin for insulation, and the respiratory and
digestive systems mature.
Learning
outcome 2
Identify some of the
influences on
prenatal development
(pp.433-436).
Environmental factors and prenatal development
Nutrition Stress Drug use
A foetus needs a variety of Emotional reactions to stressful Most drugs pass through the
essential nutrients. Poor nutrition events can disrupt the delicate placenta and can cause problems
increases the risk of birth hormonal balance that fosters for foetuses and newborns.
complications and neurological healthy prenatal development.
deficits.
Environmental factors and
prenatal development
01 Foetal alcohol syndrome 03 Environmental toxins
A collection of congenital Exposure to toxins like
(inborn) problems associated phthalate chemicals can cause
with excessive alcohol use impairments.
during pregnancy.
02 Maternal illness 04 Foetal origins of adult
The placenta screens out many disease
infectious agents, but diseases Events during prenatal
like HIV can be transmitted to a development can cause
foetus and cause damage. vulnerabilities decades later.
FAS in South
Africa
Out of 187 countries, a study found that
South Africans have the highest rate of
FASD, at 111 per 1,000 people where the
global average is 7.7 per 1000.
The Foundation of Alcohol-Related
Research (FARR) established that over 3
million South Africans are affected by FAS,
and roughly 6 million affected by FASD.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Disorder (FASD)
has a massive impact on healthcare,
educational and correctional services. It is a
serious public health, social and economic
issue that affects millions of people in South
Africa placing incredible strain on the
taxpayer and public services.
DEBATE
ri n g pr e gn a nc y
ld d r ink in g d u
Shou lis ed to pr e ve nt
be cr im in a d er ?
s p ec tr u m d is or
fetal al co h o l
Learning
outcome 3
Explain the basic principles
in motor development
(pp.436-437)
Exploring the world
• Motor development: progression of muscular coordination required for
physical activities.
• Maturation: development that reflects the unfolding of one’s genetic
blueprint.
• Developmental norms: typical age at which individuals display various
behaviours and abilities.
Early
emotional
attachment
Attachment Separation anxiety
close emotional bonds of affection emotional distress in infants when
between infants and their caregivers. they are separated from caregivers.
Theories of
attachment
• Behaviourists: Develops because
mothers are associated with the
reinforcing event of being fed.
Learning
outcome 4
Discuss attachment in
early emotional
development (pp.438-
440).
Mary Ainsworth and
the Strange Situation
To test the quality of an infant's
attachment to their primary caregiver,
Ainsworth created an experiment that
came to be known as the "strange
situation".
The experiment took place in a room
and then a fixed sequence of events was
orchestrated with the infant's reactions
observed and recorded.
Patterns of attachment
01 Secure 03 Avoidant
play and explore with mother seek little contact with their
present mothers,
become upset when they leave often are not distressed
quickly calmed by their return when they leave.
02 Anxious-ambivalent 04 Confused
anxious even when mothers are appear confused about
near approaching their mothers
protest when they leave are especially insecure .
not comforted when they
return.
Learning
outcome 5
Illustrate how individuals
learn to communicate
(p.440)
Learning to
communicate
• Language development is determined by biological
maturation.
• Toddlers typically can say between three and 50 words
by 18 months.
• Fast mapping: Children map a word onto an underlying
concept after only one exposure.
• Overextension: Child incorrectly uses a word to describe
a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to
• Underextension: Child incorrectly uses a word to
describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is
meant to.
Language development
01 02 03
Combining words Telegraphic speech Overregularisation
Typically occurs near end of A child’s early sentences, Occurs when a child
second year. which consist mainly of incorrectly generalises
content words; articles, grammatical rules to
prepositions and other less irregular cases where they
critical words are omitted. do not apply.
Learning
outcome 6
Use Erikson’s theory to
explain the stages of
childhood personality
development (pp.442-444)
Erikson's stage
theory
• Erikson divided the life span into eight
stages.
• Each stage brings a psychosocial crisis
involving transitions in social relationships.
• Considered to be the most influential of
several competing theories that explain
how youngsters develop a sense of right
and wrong.
• This theory focuses on moral reasoning
rather than overt behaviour.
Erikson’s stage theory: Each of the eight stages brings a psychosocial
crisis involving transitions in important social relationships
Learning
outcome 7
Provide an overview of
Piaget stage theory to
understand the stages of
cognitive development
(pp.444-448).
Jean Piaget
One of the classic theories about the development
of cognition was proposed by Swiss psychologist
Jean Piaget. While working with Theodore Simon,
he became more interested in the errors made by
children than in their correct responses. He
believed that these errors were representative of
growth in the child's ability to reason. Later,
Piaget's views were challenged and revised by
psychologists who believed he underestimated the
capabilities of children at particular ages.
The growth of
thought
Cognitive development: Transitions in children's
patterns of thinking, including reasoning,
remembering and problem solving.
Piaget’s stage theory
• Sensorimotor period lasts from birth to about age
2. A child develops the ability to coordinate
sensory input with motor actions.
• Object permanence develops when a child
recognises that objects continue to exist even
when they are no longer visible.
The growth of
thought
Preoperational period: Extends roughly from age 2 to 7.
• Conservation: Awareness that physical quantities
remain constant.
• Concentration: Ability to focus on just one feature.
• Irreversibility: Inability to envision reversing and
action.
• Egocentrism: Limited ability to share another person’s
point of view.
• Animism: Belief that all things are living.
The growth of
thought
Concrete operational period: Extends roughly ages
seven to 11.
• Child can perform operations only on images of
tangible objects and events.
• Gradual mastery of conservation.
Formal operational period: Begins around age 11.
• Final stage.
• Begin to enjoy abstract concepts in addition to
concrete concepts.
Learning
outcome 8
Explain Vygotsky’s
sociocultural
theory and contemporary
research on cognitive
development (pp.448-
449).
Vygotsky's
Sociocultural theory
Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by social
and cultural factors.
Children need to learn skills and values
Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more
capable persons
Zone of Proximal Development refers to the range of tasks a
child cannot yet master alone, but that she or he can
accomplish with the guidance of a more capable partner
Scaffolding - adjusting instruction so that it is responsive to a
beginner’s behaviour and supports the beginner’s efforts to
understand a problem or gain a mental skill
Vygotsky's
Sociocultural theory
Cognitive development fuelled by social interactions with
parents, teachers and older children who can provide
invaluable guidance.
Language acquisition: Crucial in fostering cognitive
development.
Children use private speech to plan their strategies, regulate
their actions and accomplish their goals.
As children grow older, private speech is internalised and
becomes the normal verbal dialogue that people have with
themselves.
Learning
outcome 9
Outline Kohlberg’s theory
of moral development
(pp.450-452).
The development of moral
reasoning
Kohlberg’s
model attempts
to explain how
children
develop a sense
of right and
wrong.
Heinz's dilemma
In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One
drug might save her, a form of radium that a druggist
in the same town had recently discovered. The
druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug
cost him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz,
went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but
he could only get together about half of what it cost.
He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked
him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the
druggist said, “No.” The husband got desperate and
broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his
wife. Should the husband have done that? Why?
Learning
outcome 10
Describe the stages of
adolescence
(pp.453-455).
Physiological
changes
• Adolescence: a unique, intermediate
period in which the individual is no
longer a child, but not yet fully
matured.
• Characterised by physical changes
and an increase in sexual hormones as
sexual maturity is reached.
Adolescent high-
risk behaviour
• Risk behaviour: any behaviour that places a person
at risk for negative physical, psychological or social
consequences.
• The rate of risk behaviour tends to peak between
the late teens and early 20s.
Include:
−substance use
−sexual behaviour
−traffic safety
−eating behaviours
−violence
Learning
outcome 11
Explain the components of
Adolescence (pp.455-456).
Components of
adolescence
Self-esteem
Moral development
Socialising processes
Cognitive maturation
Physical development
Learning
outcome 12
Explain personality
development in
adulthood by applying
Erikson’s theory of adult
development (pp.458-459)
Emerging adulthood as a new
developmental phase
Discussion
questions
Do you agree with Arnett that
we ought to recognise the
existence of a new
developmental stage, which he
calls emerging adulthood?
Why or why not?
Most college students fall in
the 18–25-year-old category.
As a student, how would you
answer the question 'Do you
feel like you have reached
adulthood?' Why do you feel
this way?
Learning
outcome 13
Identify the physiological
changes that accompany
aging (pp.459-460).
Ageing and physiological changes
Physical changes Sensory changes Hormonal changes
Hair may thin and grey. Farsightedness and difficulty Menopause in women.
Loss of hair in men. seeing in low light more common. Chronic diseases increase.
Amount of body fat tends to Decline in hearing sensitivity Hormones help diminish the
increase. more noticeable after age 50. effects of ageing.
Learning
outcome 14
Explain aging and neural
cognitive changes (pp.461-
462).
Ageing and neural
changes
Brain tissue and the brain’s weight decline gradually in
late adulthood.
Dementia: An abnormal condition marked by multiple
cognitive deficits that include memory impairment.
Alzheimer’s disease accounts for 60%–80% of all cases of
dementia.
• Profound and widespread loss of neurons and brain
tissue occurs, especially in the hippocampal region known
to play a key role in memory.
• Genetic factors contribute.
Ageing and cognitive
changes
•Protective factors: regular exercise, lower cardiovascular
risk factors, frequent participation in stimulating cognitive
activities, maintenance of active social engagement with
friends and family.
• Numerous studies report decreases in older adults’
memory capabilities.
• Speed in learning, solving problems and processing
information tends to decline with age.
• Evidence supports the notion that high levels of mental
activity in late adulthood can delay the typical age-related
declines in cognitive functioning.
Learning
outcome 15
Explain the psychosocial
aspects of aging (pp.462-
463).
Death and dying
Anxiety about death typically declines from
early to late adulthood.
Kübler-Ross identified five stages of
confronting death:
Denial
Anger
Bargaining (with God for more time)
Depression
Acceptance
As people age, they often face the loss of both physical, neural and cognitive
function. As a class, brainstorm ideas that address the following:
Can you identify steps and practices you can incorporate now to be proactive
about your health, so that you can maintain good health as you age?
