1) Developmental psychology – a branch of psychology that studies physical cognitive, and social

change throughout the lifespan

2) Three discussion points for developmental psychology
a. Nature and nurture – how does our genetic inheritance (nature) interact with experiences
(nurture) to influence our development
b. Continuity and stages – what parts of development are gradual and continuous and what
parts change abruptly in separate stages
i. EX) Piaget
c. Stability and change – which of our traits persist throughout life? How do we change as
we age?
3) Three main stage theories:
a. Lawrence Kohlberg
b. Erik Erikson
c. Jean Piaget
4) There are also theories of stability
a. One research team studied 1000 people from the age of 3 to 38
i. Consistency of temperament and emotionality across time
ii. Out of control 3-year-olds were the most likely to become teen smokers
b. Another longitudinal study of 306 college alums, 1 in 4 with a sadder yearbook
expression later divorces, as did only 1 in 20 who smiled.
5) Social attitudes are much less table than our temperament, especially during the impressionable
later adolescent years
6) Life requires both stability and change
7) Conception
a. The release of an egg from the mother’s ovary
b. One sperm penetrates the coating and enters through the egg’s surface blocking out the
other sperm cells
c. Creates a zygote, or a fertilized egg
8) Germinal stage – first 10 days to 2 weeks
a. Starts with conception
b. Period of rapid cell division
c. The cell then begins to differentiate to specialize in specific structure and function to
become different types of cells (like brain tissue, intestine tissue heart tissue, etc.)
d. Ends when the outer layer of the zygote detaches and attached to the uterine wall
i. Becomes an embryo
ii. Most of the inner cells become an embryo
iii. Many of the outer cells become the placenta
9) Embryonic stage (begins at the 2nd week)
a. 6 to 8 week leads to a detectable heartbeat
b. Around the 7th week, sex determination occurs
i. Caused by chemical exposure of hormones
c. By 16 weeks, the fetus is around 3 ounces
10) Fetal stage (begins at the 9th week)
a. During the sixth month, organs such as the stomach develop enough to give the fetus a
good chance of surviving and thriving if born prematurely
b. The developing fetus clearly has the ability to hear
i. If their mother spoke two languages during pregnancy, newborns display interest
in both languages.
11) Teratogens – agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during
prenatal development and cause harm
a. Ex) alcohol consumption, tobacco use, drug use, viruses, and certain medications
(treatment for bipolar, treatment for schizophrenia)
b. Alcohol use during pregnancy may prime the woman’s offspring to like alcohol and put
them at risk for heavy drinking and alcohol use disorder during their teen years.
i. Also puts the fetus at risk for a dangerously low birth weight, birth defects, future
behavior problems, and lower intelligence
ii. Can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
1. Most serious of all fetal alcohol spectrum disorders
12) Adaptive reflexes in newborns
a. Rooting reflex – when you touch a baby’s cheek and they turn their head and open their
mouth
13) Some synapses disappear as we get older
a. Called neural pruning
14) Sequence of motor development
a. Motor development begins near the brain and then move outward
b. Sit, crawl, walk, run
i. Rough timeframe for this, but it only occurs when the child is ready
ii. Nurture also plays a role in learning to walk
1. In some regions of Africa, the Caribbean, and India, caregivers often
massage and exercise babies, which can accelerate the process of
learning to walk
15) Non-verbal memory in infants
a. Carolyn Rovee-Collier got her colicky son to kick his feet and move his mobile in the
process, which allowed him to calm himself
i. The kid would only kick when in his own room
ii. Eventually found that other babies could learn this as well
b. Many children of British officials in other areas were introduced to other languages like
Hindi or Zulu
i. Even though most had little recollection of speaking the language, they were able
to relearn subtle sound contrasts in these languages that other English speakers
could not learn
16) Jean Piaget studied the development of cognition in children
a. His ideas opened a field of research dedicated to how we develop
b. Noticed that on the Benet-Stanford test, kids of a certain age were getting the same
questions wrong for the same reasons
i. They seemed to think the same way
c. His theories are based on case studies
i. Leads to questions on how well we can generalize information
d. Creates stage theories
i. Steps in development over time
e. Schema – a mold or framework that helps us understand aspects of the world around us
i. Prone to be revised
1. Can add new information in
2. Called assimilation
a. Adding new examples
ii. Accommodation – changing our schema to represent new information in the
world
 1. Increases cognitive understanding of the world
iii. Accommodation, assimilation, and development of schemas occurs throughout
life
17) Piaget’s theory of cognitive development stretches from birth to pre-teen and has four stages:
sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
a. Operational refers to mental abilities
b. Sensorimotor stage (from birth to age 2)
i. Born as a blank slate
ii. This stage involves starting to make sense of the universe
1. Need to interact with the world and form schemas
a. Need senses and movement
iii. Object permanence – the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not
perceived
1. Infants acquire this between 6 and 8 months
iv. Researchers believe Piaget and his followers underestimated young children’s
competence
1. Babies are far more aware of things and understanding the world
c. Preoperational stage – in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age)
i. Involves pretend play
1. The acting out of stories which involve multiple perspectives, the playful
manipulation of ideas and emotions, and the use of symbols
2. Kids also treat inanimate objects like they are real/living
ii. Ability to recognize symbols also develops in this stage
iii. Conservation – the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete
operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain
the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
1. Does not yet exist in this stage
iv. Egocentrism – in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking
another’s point of view
v. Theory of mind – people's ideas about their own and others’ mental states –
about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might
predict
1. Influences things like empathy, and allows society to function properly
2. People with autism struggle with this
d. Concrete operational state – in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from
about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable
them to think logically about events
i. Kids become very good at organization and classification
ii. Begin to understand jokes
e. Formal operational stage – in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development
(normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about
abstract concepts
f. Lev Vygotsky is another developmental psychologist who studied social interaction and
social development
i. His work is very relevant to teaching
ii. Believed social interaction is key to learning
iii. Scaffolding – a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop
higher levels of thinking
1. Helps through the zone of proximal development
 a. The zone between what a child can and can’t do
g. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) - a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by
significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated
interests and repetitive behavior
i. 1 in 68 American children get diagnosed with the disorder
1. 4 times higher rates in New Jersey than Alabama
ii. The source of ASD appears to be an issue in the brain, where poor
communication occurs between different regions of the brain that often work
together in these processes
iii. Doesn’t develop a theory of mind
iv. Differing levels of severity
v. Factors that contribute to ASD
1. The prenatal environment matters
2. Biological factors, like genetic influences and abnormal brain
development, also contribute
3. Childhood vaccinations do NOT contribute to ASD
vi. For every one girl diagnosed, three boys are diagnosed
1. Simon Baron-Cohen believe this is because boys are often “systemizers”
while girls are more “empathizers)
2. However, the test is also geared towards and based on men, and women
may exhibit autism in different ways
vii. Baron-Cohen created a TV program that put faces on trains
1. Children have to pick out what the proper face was for the situation
18) Attachment theory
a. Attachment – an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their
seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation
b. Infants prefer familiar faces and voices, then coo and gurgle when given a parent’s
attention
c. Centers around the work of John Boydy
d. Stranger anxiety – the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by
about 8 months of age
e. Separation anxiety
i. Peaks around 13 months, then gradually declines
f. 1950s – Harry Harlow and Margaret Harlow bred monkeys for their learning studies
i. To equalize experiences, they separated the infant monkey form their mothers
shortly after birth and raised them in individual cages, each including a
cheesecloth
ii. Argued that attachment was not about nourishment, but, instead, contact
g. Familiarity is also important to attachment
i. Attachments have a critical period
h. Konrad Lorenz studied imprinting
i. Imprinting – the process by which certain animals form strong attachments
during early life
ii. Children do not imprint
1. Still, children do become attached during a sensitive period
i. Mary Ainsworth designed the strange situation experiment to measure attachment
i. Mothers and their children would go into a playroom
ii. Observers were watching how the child behaved the entire time
iii. After a period of time, a stranger (research) walks in and sits down
 1. Increased the stress on the child
2. The researcher tries to interact with the child
iv. Then, there is a knock on the door, and the mother gets up and leaves
1. Even more stressful for the child
v. Eventually the mother comes back, and they observe the reunion
vi. Then there is a second knock and the mother leaves
1. Then the stranger comes back in
2. Then the stranger gets up and leaves
vii. The mother eventually returns, and the reunion is observed
viii. Results:
1. Sensitive, responsive mothers had infants who were securely attached
a. 60% of children
i. Comfortably explored environments int he presence of
their caregiver
ii. Only temporarily distressed when the mother leaves
iii. Successfully interacted with the stranger
iv. Genuinely happy to see their parent when they return
2. Insensitive, unresponsive mothers had infants who were insecurely
attached
a. 40% of children
b. Either very clingy to the parent, or ignored them
c. Anxious attachment at one extreme and avoidant attachment at
the other
i. Anxious attachment – very clingy to the parent
1. Very unhappy when their parent left
2. Constantly crave acceptance but remain vigilant
to signs of possible rejection
ii. Avoidant attachment – children did not respond
1. When the parent left and came back, they barely
noticed
2. Also did not interact with the stranger
3. Experience discomfort getting close to others
and use avoidant strategies to maintain distance
from others
19) Temperament – a person’s innate and inborn characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
a. EX) some kids cry a lot, others don’t
b. Temperament affects attachment style
c. Temperament is based on heredity
i. The nature part of the nature-nurture issue
d. Affects parenting styes
i. Children with difficult temperaments elicit and react more to negative parenting
20) Temperament and parenting both play a role in attachment styles

PART 2:
1) Sex – the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
2) Gender – the socially influence characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman
3) Overall, we are very similar
 a. 45 of our 46 chromosomes are the same, no matter our sex
4) Differences:
a. Girls enter puberty about a year earlier than the average boy
b. A woman’s life span is 5 years longer
c. Women are freer to express emotions
i. Also, better at detecting fainter odors
ii. 2x the risk of developing depression and anxiety, and 10x the risk of developing
an eating disorder
iii. Women are more likely to attempt suicide
iv. Higher levels of relational aggression
1. An act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's
relationship or social standing
d. Men:
i. More likely to die by suicide or to develop an alcohol use disorder
ii. More likely to be diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, color-deficient
vision, and ADHD
iii. Also, more at risk for antisocial personality disorder
iv. Men also tend to be more aggressive
1. Any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or
emotionally
e. Men and women tend to have around the same sense of self-esteem
f. There are perceived gender differences in power
i. Women tend to be more interdependent
1. Girls usually play in small groups, often with one friend
2. Bonds and feelings of support are stronger among women than among
men
3. More likely to turn to others in times of stress
ii. Men tend to form large play groups that brim with activity and competition
g. Men are more likely to offer opinions, while women are more likely to express support
5) Role – a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position
ought to behave
6) Gender roles – a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females
7) Gender identity – our sense of being male, female, some combination of the two, or gender-
neutral
8) Social learning theory – the theory that we learn social gender behavior by observing and
imitating and by being rewarded or punished
9) Gender typing – the acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine role
a. Parents do help to transmit their culture’s views on gender
10) Androgyny – a blend of male and female roles
a. In reference to parenting
b. Benefits:
i. People are more adaptable
ii. Also more flexible in their actions and their choices
iii. Tend to be more resilient and self-accepting, and experience less depression
11) Children are very good with detecting gender differences
12) Stimulating environments really helps with children’s brain development
a. Ex) when rats are in an enriched environment, they usually develop a heavier and thicker
brain cortex
b. Stimulation increases cognitive development
13) “Parents should be given less credit for kids who turn out great and blamed less for kids who
don’t”
a. Peer groups are also incredibly important
b. Parents can influence peer relationships
i. Where they choose to live, where they choose to send you to school, etc.
14) Adolescence – the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to
independence
a. Teens often crave social acceptance
15) Puberty – the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
a. Menarche – the first menstrual period in girls
b. Also a match period of neural rewiring and pruning
i. Less conscious control over your limbic system than in the future
1. Makes people more emotional
c. Frontal lobe and myelin are continuing to develop
d. During this period, reasoning is often very self-focused
16) The timelines of maturation impacts teens
a. Early developing boys are often more popular, self-assured, and independent
b. Early developing girls have a harder time because they draw unwanted attention from
others
c. Late developing boys will often be made fun of
d. Late developing girls tend to fare the best
17) Adolescence is the formal operational stage
18) Lawrence Kohlberg proposed stages of moral development: preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional
a. Preconventional morality
i. Self-interest: obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete rewards
1. Ex) if you save your wife, you’ll be a hero
b. Conventional:
i. Uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order
1. Ex) if you steal the drug for her, everyone will think you’re a criminal
c. Postconventional morality
i. Actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles
19) Criticisms of Kohlberg’s stages
a. His postconventional stage is culturally limited, appearing mostly among people from
large societies that prize individualism
b. Biased towards men
i. Women will score more with conventional morality, because they are
relationship-oriented, and focused on social harmony
20) Jonathan Haidt believes morality is based on moral intuitions
a. “Quick gut feelings, or affectively laden intuitions”
21) Erik Erikson was a psychodynamic theorist who created stages of development
a. Major issue that needs to be resolved in each stage
b. Infancy (to 1 year) - trust vs. Mistrust
i. Child’s needs must be met in a prompt, reliable, consistent manner
c. Toddlerhood (1 to 3) - autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
i. Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for themselves, or they doubt
their abilities
d. Preschool (3 to 6) – initiative vs. Guilt
 i. Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about
their efforts to be independent.
e. Elementary school (6 years to puberty) – competence vs. Inferiority
i. Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
f. Adolescence (teen years into 20s) - identity vs. Role confusion
i. Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating
them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are
g. Young adulthood (20s to early 40s) - intimacy vs. Isolation
i. Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for
intimate love, or they feel socially isolated.
h. Middle adulthood (40s to 60s) - generativity vs. Stagnation
i. Middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually
through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose
i. Late adulthood (late 60s and up) - integrity vs. Despair
i. Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure
22) 1890s – adolescence was around 7 years, in 2006 it was about 14 years

Part 3:
1) Primary sex characteristics – the reproductive organs that make sexual reproduction possible
2) Secondary sex characteristics – girls develop breasts and larger hips, boys’ facial hair begins
growing and their voices deepen, etc.
3) Intersex – a condition present at birth due to unusual combinations of male and female
chromosomes, hormones, and anatomy
4) Simon Levay discovered differences in the hypothalamus of sheep who do and don’t display
same-sex attraction
a. Also, certain genetic correlations
5) Aging – many physical attributes change
a. Physical abilities – muscular strength, reaction time, etc.
6) Telomeres impact aging
a. Tips of the chromosomes
b. When they breakdown and fray, they cause replication errors which lead to diseases like
cancer
7) Death-deferral phenomenon – people will hold out for major events and holidays, and then die a
few days later
8)