BUILDING STRUCTURES

AND FORM III

COURSE OUTLINE:
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL MANUFACTURING
Overview of Steel Manufacturing
Brief History of Steel Manufacturing
Applications of Structural Steel in Building Construction
2.0 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STEEL
The Steelmaking Process
Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)
3.0 STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS
I-Beams (Universal Beams)
H-Beams (Wide Flange Columns)
Channel Section
Z-section
T-Sections
Tubular Section
Angular Section
4.0 ALLOYS OF STEEL
Types of Steel Alloy
Carbon-Manganese Steel:
High-Strength, Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels:
High-Strength Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels:
5.0 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
Chemicals in Steel and Their Functions
6.0 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL STEEL MANUFACTURING
Overview of Steel Manufacturing
Structural steel plays a vital role in modern construction, providing strength, durability, and
versatility to various building projects. Steel is an alloy composed primarily of iron and carbon,
with the addition of other elements to enhance its properties. This section provides an overview
of steel manufacturing, highlighting its significance and the historical development of the
industry.
Definition and Importance of Structural Steel in Construction: Structural steel refers to steel
components that are designed to support and withstand loads in building and infrastructure
projects. It is widely used in the construction industry due to its high strength-to-weight ratio,
excellent ductility, and superior structural integrity. Structural steel allows for the creation of
large open spaces, provides flexibility in design, and offers cost-effectiveness compared to
other construction materials.
Brief History of Steel Manufacturing
The manufacturing of steel has a rich history that dates back thousands of years. Ancient
civilizations, such as the Egyptians and the Greeks, utilized wrought iron, a precursor to steel,
for various applications. However, the modern steel industry began to flourish during the
Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries. The invention of the Bessemer process
and later the open-hearth furnace revolutionized steel production, enabling mass production of
high-quality steel. Since then, advancements in technology and the development of new
steelmaking methods have further enhanced the quality and efficiency of steel manufacturing
processes.
Applications of Structural Steel in Building Construction
Structural steel finds extensive use in diverse construction projects, ranging from residential
buildings to large-scale infrastructure. Some common applications include:
1. High-rise Buildings: Steel's high strength allows for the construction of tall buildings,
where it provides the necessary structural support and stability.
2. Bridges and Infrastructure: Steel is widely used in the construction of bridges, flyovers,
and other transportation infrastructure due to its excellent load-bearing capacity and
durability.
3. Industrial Structures: Steel is utilized in industrial settings for the construction of
factories, warehouses, and industrial plants. It can withstand heavy loads and harsh
operating conditions.
4. Roofing Systems: Steel is often employed in roofing systems, offering resistance to
weather elements, fire, and pests. Its lightweight nature makes it an ideal choice for
large-span roofs.
5. Space Frames and Trusses: Steel space frames and trusses allow for the creation of
large, open structures such as sports arenas, exhibition halls, and airports.
 THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS OF STEEL
The Steelmaking Process
The steelmaking process involves the transformation of raw materials into finished steel
products. It encompasses several stages, including primary steelmaking and secondary
steelmaking processes. This section provides an overview of the steelmaking process and the
methods employed in its various stages.
Raw Materials for Steel Production: The primary raw materials used in steelmaking are iron
ore, coal or coke, and limestone. Iron ore serves as the primary source of iron, while coal or
coke provides the necessary carbon and heat for the reduction of iron ore to iron. Limestone
acts as a fluxing agent, aiding in the removal of impurities during the steelmaking process.
Primary Steelmaking Methods: There are two primary steelmaking methods: the basic oxygen
furnace (BOF) and the electric arc furnace (EAF).
1. Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF): The BOF process, also known as the Linz-Donawitz
process, is the most common method for producing steel. It involves blowing oxygen
through a lance into a vessel containing molten iron and scrap steel. The oxygen reacts
with impurities, such as carbon, silicon, and phosphorus, forming gaseous oxides that
are removed as slag. Alloying elements can be added to the molten steel to achieve
desired properties.
2. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF): The EAF process utilizes electric arcs to melt recycled
scrap steel. The electric arc is generated between graphite electrodes and the scrap steel
in a furnace. The intense heat generated by the electric arc melts the scrap steel, and
various impurities are oxidized and removed through the use of fluxes. Alloying
elements can be added during the process to achieve specific steel grades and
properties.
 STRUCTURAL STEEL SECTIONS
Structural steel sections are designated based on standardized systems, such as the
Universal Beam (UB) and Universal Column (UC) systems. These systems provide a
standardized naming convention that simplifies communication and ensures consistency in
structural design.
Structural steel sections come in a variety of shapes, each with its unique properties and
structural capabilities. Some of the most commonly used structural steel sections include:
1. I-Beams (Universal Beams)
2. H-Beams (Wide Flange Columns)
3. Channels
4. Z-section
5. T-Sections
6. Tubes
7. Angles
1. I-Beams (Universal Beams): I-beams, also known as universal beams (UB) or wide flange
beams (WFB), feature a shape resembling the letter "I" when viewed in cross-section. They
consist of a vertical web connected to two horizontal flanges. The flanges provide
resistance against bending, while the web carries shear forces. I-beams are widely used in
structural applications, such as building frames, bridges, and industrial structures.

2. H-Beams (Wide Flange Columns): H-beams, also called wide flange columns (WFC) or
universal columns (UC), have an "H" shape when viewed in cross-section. They have wider
flanges and thinner webs compared to I-beams. H-beams provide excellent load-bearing
capacity and are commonly used in column applications, supporting vertical loads in
building structures.

Structural Strengths:
i. Load-Bearing Capacity: Universal beams offer high load-bearing capacity due
to their efficient cross-sectional design. The flanges and web of the beam are
carefully proportioned to provide optimal strength and stiffness, allowing them
to support heavy loads over long spans.
ii. Bending Resistance: Universal beams exhibit excellent resistance against
bending forces. The distribution of material along the top and bottom flanges
 allows the beam to efficiently resist applied moments and bending moments,
making them suitable for spanning large distances.
iii. Torsional Stability: Universal beams provide good torsional stability, allowing
them to resist twisting forces. This characteristic is particularly advantageous in
structures subjected to variable or dynamic loads, such as bridges or crane
support systems.
Structural Weaknesses:
i. Higher Weight: Universal beams tend to have a higher weight compared to other
sections of similar span and load capacity. The additional weight may
necessitate extra considerations during transportation, handling, and overall
structural design.
ii. Shear Resistance: Universal beams may have lower shear resistance compared
to sections specifically designed to resist shear forces, such as solid rectangular
or circular sections. Additional shear reinforcement, such as stiffeners or plates,
may be required in high-shear applications.

3. Channels Section: Channels are structural steel sections with a shape resembling the letter
"C" or “U” when viewed in cross-section. They have two flanges and a web connecting
them. Channels are often used for structural support, particularly in applications where
smaller loads need to be carried, such as purlins in roof systems or as secondary framing
members.

Structural Strengths:
i. Load-Bearing Capacity: Channel sections have a high load-bearing capacity,
making them suitable for carrying heavy loads in structural systems. The presence
of flanges on two sides provides enhanced strength and stiffness.
ii. Flexural Strength: Channel sections offer excellent resistance against bending and
flexural loads. Their shape allows them to efficiently distribute loads along the base
and flanges.
 iii. Easy Connection: Channel sections provide convenient connection points due to the
presence of flanges. This makes them ideal for applications where ease of
connection and assembly is desired.
Structural Weaknesses:
i. Torsional Stability: Channel sections may have limited torsional stability compared
to closed-section profiles such as tubes or hollow sections. Additional measures
may be required to address torsional concerns, depending on the specific
application.

4. Angular: Angles are L-shaped structural steel sections, featuring two legs that meet at a
90-degree angle. The legs can be of equal or unequal lengths. Angles are used in various
applications, including bracing, framing, and supporting components in steel structures.

Structural Strengths:
i. Versatility: Angle sections provide versatility in structural design due to their ability
to handle both compressive and tensile forces. They offer excellent resistance
against bending and torsional loads.
ii. Stability: The 90-degree angle formed by the legs of angle sections provides
stability and rigidity. This makes them suitable for applications requiring bracing,
connections, and supporting components.
iii. Load-Bearing Capacity: Angle sections have high load-bearing capacity, making
them suitable for carrying heavy loads in structural systems.
Structural Weaknesses:
i. Shear Resistance: While angle sections are strong in resisting bending and axial
forces, they have limited resistance against shear forces due to the thinness of their
web. Additional reinforcement or connection details may be required to address
shear-related concerns.
 ii. Stiffness: Angle sections may exhibit lower stiffness compared to other sections,
such as I-beams or H-beams. This can affect their suitability for applications where
high stiffness is required.

5. Z-section: Z-section is a structural steel section that resembles the letter "Z" when viewed
in cross-section. It consists of two flanges connected by a web. The flanges are parallel and
located on opposite sides of the web. Z-sections are primarily used for secondary structural
applications such as bracing, support systems, and framing.
Z-sections provide excellent bending resistance and stiffness due to the shape of the section.
The equal flange widths offer symmetrical properties, making them suitable for
applications requiring equal load-bearing capacities in both directions. These sections are
commonly used in lightweight structures, partitions, and wall framing systems.

Structural Strengths:
i. Bending and Flexural Resistance: Z-sections offer excellent resistance against
bending and flexural loads due to their shape, which resembles the letter "Z." The
flanges on both sides provide stiffness and strength, making them suitable for
applications that require beams or members with high load-bearing capacity.
ii. Symmetrical Properties: Z-sections have symmetrical properties along their
longitudinal axis, allowing for equal load-bearing capacities in both directions. This
property is advantageous in applications where balanced structural performance is
required.
Structural Weaknesses:
i. Torsional Stability: Z-sections may have lower torsional stability compared
to closed-section profiles such as tubes or hollow sections. Additional
measures may be required to address torsional concerns, depending on the
specific application.
6. T-Section: T-section, also known as T-bar, is a structural steel section that resembles the
letter "T" when viewed in cross-section. it consists of a vertical stem (flange) connected to
a horizontal top (flange). T-section offers high torsional stiffness and is commonly used in
structural applications that require resistance against twisting, such as crane girders and
heavy-duty beams.

Structural Strengths:
i. Bending Resistance: T-sections offer high resistance against bending due to their
shape, which includes a vertical stem (flange) connected to a horizontal top (flange).
This makes them suitable for applications that require beams or members with
excellent load-bearing capacity.
ii. Torsional Stability: T-sections exhibit good torsional stability due to the presence
of the horizontal top flange. This property makes them suitable for applications that
require resistance against twisting forces.
iii. Stiffness: T-sections are generally stiffer compared to other sections due to the
shape of their cross-section. This characteristic allows them to resist deformations
and maintain their structural integrity under applied loads.
Structural Weaknesses:
i. Limited Connectivity: T-sections can be challenging to connect to other structural
components, especially when compared to sections with flanges on both sides.
Additional connection details may be required to ensure proper joining with other
elements.

7. Tubular/Hollow Section: Structural steel tubes have a hollow cylindrical shape and are
available in various sizes and thicknesses. They can be circular, square, or rectangular in
cross-section. Steel tubes are commonly used in applications where strength and stiffness
are required, such as columns, trusses, and scaffolding.
 i. Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS): Rectangular Hollow Sections (RHS) are
structural steel sections with a rectangular shape in cross-section. They are formed
by bending and welding flat steel plates or by cold-forming from steel strips. RHS
sections are commonly used for various applications, including columns, beams,
and frames, where a rectangular shape is preferred over other sections.
ii. Circular Hollow Sections (CHS): Circular Hollow Sections (CHS) are structural
steel sections with a circular shape in cross-section. They are made by bending and
welding steel plates or by cold-forming from steel strips. CHS sections offer high
torsional stiffness, making them suitable for applications requiring resistance
against twisting, such as trusses, bracing systems, and space frames.
iii. Square Hollow Sections (SHS): Square Hollow Sections (SHS) are structural steel
sections with a square shape in cross-section. They are formed by bending and
welding flat steel plates or by cold-forming from steel strips. SHS sections are
commonly used in structural applications that require a square shape, such as
columns, braces, and frames.
Structural Strengths:
i. High Strength-to-Weight Ratio: Hollow steel sections offer a high strength-to-
weight ratio, meaning they can withstand significant loads while maintaining a
relatively low weight. This characteristic is advantageous in applications where
weight reduction is a key consideration, such as in long-span structures or
transportation equipment.
ii. Uniform Stress Distribution: Due to their symmetrical shape, hollow steel
sections provide uniform stress distribution along their cross-sections. This
results in efficient load transfer and reduces the likelihood of localized stress
concentrations, enhancing overall structural integrity.
iii. Torsional Stability: Hollow steel sections exhibit excellent torsional stability,
making them suitable for applications that require resistance against twisting or
rotational forces. This property is particularly important in structures subjected
to dynamic loads, such as bridges or crane support systems.
Structural Weaknesses:
 i. Welding Challenges: Joining hollow steel sections can be more complex than
solid sections due to their closed shape. Welding may require specialized
techniques and expertise to ensure proper fusion and maintain the structural
integrity of the joint.
ii. Buckling Considerations: Hollow steel sections are susceptible to buckling,
especially when subjected to compressive loads. Adequate design measures,
such as appropriate bracing or cross-sectional reinforcement, may be necessary
to prevent buckling and ensure structural stability.
 ALLOYS OF STEEL
Steel alloys are a vital category of materials that exhibit enhanced properties compared to pure
iron. These alloys are created by combining iron with other elements, such as carbon,
manganese, and various alloying elements, to achieve specific properties and performance
characteristics.
Types of Steel Alloy
1. Carbon-Manganese Steel
2. High-Strength, Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels
3. High-Strength Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels

1. Carbon-Manganese Steel:
Composition: Carbon-manganese steel is primarily composed of iron, carbon, and manganese.
Carbon content typically ranges from 0.15% to 0.25%, while manganese content is generally
between 0.6% and 1.65%. Small amounts of other elements, such as silicon, may also be
present.
Application Examples:
Carbon-manganese steel is widely used in various industries, including construction,
automotive, and machinery. It is commonly employed in the manufacturing of structural
components, such as beams, columns, and plates, due to its good strength, weldability, and
ductility. Carbon-manganese steel is also used in the production of pipelines, pressure vessels,
and storage tanks.

2. High-Strength, Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels:

Composition: High-strength, low-alloy steels are formulated with a combination of iron,
carbon, manganese, and other alloying elements, such as vanadium, niobium, or titanium. The
carbon content is typically low, ranging from 0.05% to 0.25%, while manganese content is
higher than in carbon-manganese steel, often around 1% to 2%.
Application Examples:
HSLA steels find applications in various industries, including automotive, construction, and
heavy machinery. Due to their high strength-to-weight ratio, HSLA steels are used in the
manufacturing of vehicle components, such as chassis, frames, and suspension systems. They
are also employed in structural applications where weight reduction is desired, such as bridges,
buildings, and offshore structures.

3. High-Strength Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steels:

Composition: High-strength quenched and tempered alloy steels contain additional alloying
elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, and nickel, in addition to iron, carbon, and
manganese. These elements contribute to increased strength, hardness, and toughness. The
carbon content is typically higher than in HSLA steels, ranging from 0.20% to 0.30%.
Application Examples:
High-strength quenched and tempered alloy steels are utilized in applications that require
exceptional strength and resistance to wear and impact. They are commonly used in the
construction of heavy machinery, mining equipment, and structural components subjected to
high loads and harsh environments. Examples include gears, axles, crankshafts, and parts for
agricultural machinery.
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL
Chemicals in Steel and Their Functions:
1. Iron (Fe): Iron is the primary element in structural steel and forms the base material. It
provides the steel with its inherent strength and toughness.

2. Carbon (C): Carbon is a significant alloying element in steel. Its content affects the steel's
hardness, strength, and machinability. Different carbon levels result in different steel
grades, such as low-carbon steel (up to 0.25% carbon), medium-carbon steel (0.25% to
0.60% carbon), and high-carbon steel (above 0.60% carbon).

3. Manganese (Mn): Manganese is commonly added to steel to improve its strength and
hardenability. It acts as a deoxidizer, removes impurities, and enhances the steel's grain
structure.

4. Silicon (Si): Silicon is used in steel production as a deoxidizer and to improve strength and
electrical conductivity. It also aids in controlling the steel's solidification and casting
properties.

5. Sulphur (S): Sulphur is considered an impurity in steel and is typically minimized in its
composition. It can cause brittleness and adversely affect steel's mechanical properties.

6. Phosphorus (P): Phosphorus is another impurity in steel, but it can be intentionally added
in controlled amounts to improve steel's strength and machinability. However, excessive
phosphorus can lead to brittleness.

Other Alloying Elements: Various other elements are added to steel to achieve specific
properties. Some common alloying elements include nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), molybdenum
(Mo), vanadium (V), and titanium (Ti). These elements enhance corrosion resistance, high-
temperature strength, and other desired characteristics.

i. Deoxidizers: Deoxidizers, such as silicon and manganese, are added to steel to remove
oxygen and prevent the formation of undesirable oxides during steel production. They
help improve steel quality, refine the microstructure, and enhance mechanical
properties.

ii. Desulfurizers: Desulfurizers, such as calcium and magnesium, are added to steel to
reduce sulphur content. This helps enhance steel's ductility, toughness, and weldability
by minimizing the detrimental effects of sulphur on its properties.
iii. Grain Refiners: Grain-refining elements like aluminium and titanium are used to
control the grain size and structure of steel during solidification. They promote a finer
and more uniform grain structure, resulting in improved mechanical properties and
reduced susceptibility to cracking.

iv. Hardenability Agents: Hardenability agents like boron and vanadium are added to
steel to improve its hardenability. They enable the steel to achieve a greater depth of
hardness when subjected to heat treatment processes such as quenching and tempering.

v. Alloying Elements: Alloying elements like nickel, chromium, and molybdenum are
added to steel to impart specific properties. For example, nickel improves toughness
and corrosion resistance, chromium enhances wear resistance and oxidation
resistance, and molybdenum improves strength and high-temperature performance.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Some important physical properties of Steel include density, melting point, specific heat,
thermal conductivity, coefficient of thermal expansion, electrical conductivity, magnetic
properties, and corrosion resistance. It is extremely important to be familiar with these during
product design since the choice of material affects all aspects of a product from cost, function
during its expected life, aesthetics, size, shape, manufacturability etc.
1. Density: The density of structural steel typically ranges from 7,800 to 8,050 kg/m³,
which is relatively high compared to other construction materials. Its high density
provides structural steel with an excellent strength-to-weight ratio, making it a preferred
choice for structures where strength and load-bearing capacity are crucial, such as in
beams, columns, and foundations.
2. Melting Point: The melting point of structural steel is around 1,370°C to 1,540°C
(2,500°F to 2,800°F), depending on its composition. The high melting point allows
structural steel to withstand high temperatures during fabrication processes like welding
and casting. It also ensures that structural steel retains its strength and stability even
under elevated temperatures in fire-resistant structures.
3. Specific Heat: The specific heat of structural steel is approximately 0.49 J/g·°C.
Specific heat refers to the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a
material by a certain amount. The relatively low specific heat of steel means that it heats
up and cools down quickly, making it efficient in terms of energy transfer and reducing
thermal stress during temperature variations.
4. Thermal Conductivity: Structural steel has a relatively high thermal conductivity,
ranging from 40 to 50 W/m·K. This property enables the steel to efficiently transfer
heat, which is beneficial in structures where temperature control is important, such as
industrial buildings or structures with heating and cooling systems.
5. Thermal Expansion: Like most materials, structural steel expands and contracts with
changes in temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is around 12 x
10^-6 per °C. Understanding the thermal expansion characteristics of steel is crucial in
designing structures to accommodate thermal movement, ensuring dimensional
stability and preventing issues like buckling or stress concentration.
6. Electrical Conductivity: Structural steel has moderate electrical conductivity. While
not as conductive as materials like copper or aluminium, it still allows the passage of
electrical current. This property is relevant in structures where electrical grounding or
conductivity is required, such as in electrical transmission towers or large-scale
infrastructure projects.
7. Magnetic Induction: Structural steel is ferromagnetic, meaning it can be magnetized
or attracted to magnets. This property is advantageous in applications where magnetic
properties are desired, such as in the construction of magnetic shielding, electrical
transformers, or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) suites in healthcare facilities.
 8. Other Properties: Structural steel also exhibits properties such as high tensile strength,
excellent ductility, good impact resistance, and durability. These properties make it
capable of withstanding heavy loads, absorbing energy, and resisting deformation or
failure, making it suitable for applications in building construction where structural
integrity is vital.
In building construction, the physical properties of structural steel are utilized to achieve
various objectives. For example:
i. High strength-to-weight ratio allows for efficient and economical designs, reducing the
material quantity required.
ii. Good thermal conductivity and expansion properties help in designing structures with
adequate insulation and accommodating thermal changes.
iii. Magnetic induction properties can be utilized in applications such as building integrated
electromagnetic systems or MRI suites.
iv. Electrical conductivity facilitates the grounding and distribution of electrical currents
throughout a structure.
v. Durability, impact resistance, and high tensile strength ensure the longevity and
structural integrity of buildings.
In summary, the physical properties of structural steel, including density, melting point,
specific heat, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, electrical conductivity, and magnetic
induction, enable its application in building construction. These properties contribute to the
structural performance, safety, and efficiency of steel structures, making it a preferred material
in various architectural and engineering projects.