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 ASSIGNMENT SOLUTIONS GUIDE (2017-2018)
M.P.C.-3
Personality: Theories and
Assessment
Disclaimer/Special Note: These are just the sample of the Answers/Solutions to some of the Questions given in the

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Assignments. These Sample Answers/Solutions are prepared by Private Teacher/Tutors/Authors for the help and guidance
of the student to get an idea of how he/she can answer the Questions in given in the Assignments. We do not claim 100%

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accuracy of these sample answers as these are based on the knowledge and capability of Private Teacher/Tutor. Sample

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answers may be seen as the Guide/Help for the reference to prepare the answers of the Questions given in the Assignment.

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As these Solutions And Answers are prepared by the Private Teacher/Tutor so the chances of error or mistake cannot be
denied. Any Omission or Error is highly regretted though every care has been taken while preparing these Sample

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Answers/Solutions. Please consult your own Teacher/Tutor before you prepare a Particular Answer and for up-to-date
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and exact information, data and solution. Student should must read and refer the official study material provided by the
university.
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NOTE: All questions are compulsory
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SECTION-A
Answer the following question in about 1000 words each.
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Q. 1. Discuss the various psychology and biological factors that influence personality development.
Ans. Personality Development: There are many factors which directly or indirectly influence the growth and
development of personality. These are of huge interest to personality psychologists. Broadly three categories of factors have

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been identified:

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(i) Biological Factors, (ii) Psychological Factors, and (iii) Environmental Factors.
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These are known as the determinants of personality and are discussed as under:
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Biological Factors

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These are the physical determinants based on physique and body functioning that shape personality. Some of

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these factors have been discussed below:
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(i) Body build: Body build determines a person’s capacity to do something and how he would react to people

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who have inferior or superior body structure. We can identify a body build as:

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(i) Ectomorph
(ii) Endomorph, and
(iii) Mesomorph.
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Ectomorphs are people who are tall and lean and are considered superior to bulky, short people because they are
more agile and have greater toleration levels. Mesomorphs are considered superior to both ectomorphs and endomorphs

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in speed and tolerance because of their strong and muscular build.
If the body build of a person enables him to carry out certain tasks which are socially appreciable and impresses
other people, it lifts a person’s self-esteem. The person develops a positive favourable self-concept if he can do social
tasks better than others, and an unfavourable negative self-concept, if he cannot. Thus, if the physical structure of a
person is such that he can perform socially desirable functions and get social acceptance, it goes a long way in
influencing his own image of himself.
(ii) Physical attractiveness: A physically attractive person of any age is more appealing than an ugly person.
According to Brislin and Lewis, being with attractive people is very rewarding. An attractive person generally does
not have to face intolerance in people’s attitudes and people do not judge them harshly. That is why troublesome
pretty children are still not criticized but similar behaviour in less attractive children may be criticized. More attractive
people leave a better impression and may get promotions sooner, even if they are less hardworking than unattractive
people.
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 (iii) Homeostasis: It is important to maintain stability in the body in terms of normal body temperature, blood
sugar levels, blood pressure, water balance, etc. Instability in any of these parameters brings about disequilibrium and
homeostasis disturbance takes place.
If a person’s physical parameters mentioned above are in balance, we find the person to be relaxed and
psychologically stable. He remains in a good, cheerful mood, and behaves in a pleasant, socially agreeable manner.
Disturbed levels of homeostasis results in irritability, indigestion, sleeplessness and other disturbed behaviour patterns.
Disturbances in homeostasis
It has an indirect impact on the behaviour of the person. Each person is affected by the attitude and beliefs of
certain people who hold importance in his life. The behaviour of the person depends on how he reacts to them.
Suppose, a person is very tall for his age group because of excessive hormones in his body, and this factor is
considered by others to be a very positive thing, his reaction will also be positive and his homeostasis will be considered
as a positive thing. This disturbance will affect his personality favourably. On the other hand, if his height is considered

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a negative thing by other people which makes him a social outcast, the person will react negatively and the homeostasis
disturbance will be an unfavourable one.

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It has been proved through research that homeostasis or lack of homeostasis affects a person’s personality
development. In several cases, the mental health of the person is affected. High blood sugar levels, deficiency in

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vitamin B complex causes depression and emotional imbalance. People with high Blood Pressure may become

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neurotics (mentally unstable). If there is shortage of oxygen in the body (Anoxia), caused by Asthma or any other
reason, the person may become a self-critic, mentally confused and cause sudden emotional outbursts.
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(iv) Physical defects: Alfred Adler’s theory of organ inferiority was the first research to indicate the effect

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physical defects have on personality, after which several studies have been conducted. A common physical defect is

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obesity. A very fat person has poor relationships, as he becomes slow and cannot keep pace with other people. The
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person feels inferior and socially outcast because other people tend to make fun of very fat, obese persons. That is the
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major reason why obese people become more disturbed emotionally, because of other people’s criticism and negative

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comments, apart from lacking the feeling of self-satisfaction of being able to perform various tasks effectively.

A good or a poor health is an important determinant of personality development. There is sufficient proof of the

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fact that good health is an asset, when it comes to personality of all people, male or female, young or old. After an

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illness or poor health conditions, people still tend to feel changes in personality even after they have been cured. In the

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developing years of a person, if he is affected by some severe illness or disease, the after effects on personality are

and Vincent 1960).

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visible till much later in life. Many personality changes in individuals have their source in such childhood illnesses.(Martin

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Diabetic people experience tension and anxiety leading to frustration in social dealings. Due to this they become

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aggressive in their behaviour towards others. In women, any problems in menstrual cycle and menopause cause
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depression and mood swings. That is the reason why many women are easily irritated, have anger bouts, lack

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emotional stability and are unable to adjust in social situations. Hence, they cut down on social interactions, which

Psychological Factors
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causes low self-esteem and affects their attitudes towards other people.

There are many psychological factors which determine personality development, of which the important ones are

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discussed here:
Intellectual Determinants

w The intellectual development of a person affects his personality. Intellectual people are able to adjust better in
various life situations. Other people also have a positive judgement of intellectual people which is based on their
intellectual achievements.
Their judgement affects the evaluation and development of personality. People with a developed intellect can
adjust better in personal and social situations than people with low or average intelligence.
Research again establishes that intellectual men and women have several desirable qualities like thoughtfulness,
creativity, the ability to see within (introspection), adventurous nature and give importance to values and social
problems. They have greater self-control, as they are mentally strong.
On the other hand, superior intelligence is also the root of various special problems which affect personality
development adversely. Such people may develop certain negative tendencies like intolerance, emotional conflicts,

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habit of staying alone, dominant behaviour self-sufficiency, critical attitude, etc. Studies also show that mental capacities
also have a bearing on the development of human and moral values.
Emotional Determinants
Emotions are a very important determinant of personality. Emotional factors have a huge bearing on a person’s
personal and social adjustment. There are many aspects of emotions like dominant emotions, emotional balance,
emotional deprivation, excessive love and affection, emotional expressions, emotional catharsis and emotional stress
which affect the development of personality directly and indirectly.
Different people are ruled by different predominant emotions in them. It is seen that some people, by nature are
happy and cheerful people, while some are forever gloomy and fearsome. These emotions are predominant in them.
The happy people will be hopeful even when they face serious, problems while the sad people will feel depressed or
fearful, even during celebrations or happy moments. Thus, the ruling emotion in a person determines how he behaves

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or feels in different situations. Emotionallly balanced people (whose pleasant emotions are more than the unpleasant
ones) are able to adjust well socially and personally.

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If a person experiences too many problems and obstacles in life, over time he will develop negative feelings like
fear, anger, jealousy, etc. which will affect his adjustment process throughout life and develop pathological traits. If

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emotions like love, happiness and curiosity are not present in one’s life, it will again affect his adjustments in life.

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The influence that the absence of the positive emotions in one’s life has depends on how long the person the
person was deprived of the emotion, at what age and to what degree. If a child does not get love and affection, he will
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be emotionally insecure. Such children grow up to become rebellious adolescents and adults because of the strained
relationship with their parents or other family members in early childhood.
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Excessive Love and Affection

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This tends to affect children adversely. Sigmund Freud had cautioned against over-indulgence in children because
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of which they start developing neurotic disorders. These children become problem creating adults. Children of over
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protective mothers become immature adults, depending all the time on others. Being able to express one’s emotions
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homeostasis.
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influences personality. People who are able to express emotions in a socially acceptable manner impress others and
also have a good image of themselves. Emotional expression helps to feel better physically and mentally and restore

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It is necessary to control one’s emotions in social life to leave a positive impression on others, but excessive

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repression of emotions could cause other problems in the individual like lack of interest in people, mood swings and
extreme laziness. It is important to release one’s suppressed emotions (known as emotional catharsis) sometimes to
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restore mental and physical homeostasis. This makes the individual develop a realistic perception of himself.
Self-disclosure
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For good mental health and a healthy personality, self-disclosure is important and is considered favourable with
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people. People who express their emotional stress in the form of anxiety, frustration, jealousy and envy adjust better

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personally and socially. But extreme emotional stress may force a person to resort to taking drugs or such measures

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to find relief from the stress. Some people start eating a lot to fight the insecurity caused by stress while some may
become mentally depressed. During menstruation many women feel a lot of emotional stress causing depression. It
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has been marked by psychologists that those people who have a high self-esteem are less affected by stress than

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those people who have low self-esteem.
Aspiration and Achievements

w Aspiration means goals, desire for more than what people have in their present. It is ego that makes people want
to achieve more or have more than they possess. Those longings or desires of people that have their roots in their ego
influence their behaviour and personality. Some people get possessed by their desires. This causes adverse effects on
their personality. People may aspire to achieve success, which is a positive aspiration, have a negative aspiration like
wanting to avoid failure, have realistic aspirations, which are within their reach or unrealistic aspirations which they
cannot achieve. Another category of aspirations are remote and immediate aspirations. Remote means related to the
remote future while immediate aspirations are related to the near future.
Different aspirations differ in their power of motivation like remote and unrealistic aspirations have more power
than the immediate and realistic ones. Negative aspirations are not good motivators while positive aspirations are.
Having a very high level of aspiration will adversely affect one’s self-concept. The difference or discrepancy
between one’s capacity to achieve and his level of desire should not be too much. Then the person is not able to

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achieve what he desires and his confidence will be shaken. The person may not take his failure lightly especially when
others also label him a failure. For example, if a student of below average intelligence wants to become the topper,
and others also know about it, most probably he will be disheartened and others may laugh at him.
It is the other way round also. High levels of aspiration have proved to be great motivating factors and source of
happiness, not always damaging self-concept. As long as the person remains positive and takes it sportingly, high
aspiration levels will just be wishful thinking, not causing any serious harm.
Achievements
Achievements are viewed in comparison with others in an objective manner or with one’s level of aspiration in a
subjective manner. People may feel that their achievements are a success or a failure, affecting their self-concept
accordingly. If an individual feels happy about what he has achieved, he will view his achievements as a success. As
such, his self-concept will get a positive boost. But if the person feels that his achievement is a failure, he will not get
a positive boost from it. In fact, he will feel dissatisfied and miserable and feel low about his self. People who feel that
low about his self. People who feel that they are successful in life feel good about themselves, remain cheerful and
have a positive self-concept.

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In addition to developing a positive self-concept, achievements make a person confident, raises his self-esteem
and such a person is more capable of tackling any problem in life hands-on. The person becomes confident enough of

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making good decisions and taking appropriate action in different situations. He develops a stable behaviour in different

nervous.
Q. 2. Explain the salient features of Horney’s theory of personality development. .
situations. He becomes a more relaxed person while people who consider themselves a failure are more fidgety and

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Ans. Karen Horney was not agreed with Freud’s view of women. She also disagreed with Freud’s belief that
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males and females were born with inherent differences in their personality. Rather than citing biological differences,
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she argued for a societal and cultural explanation. In her view, men and women were equal outside of the cultural
restrictions often placed on being female.
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Horney was also known for her study of neurotic personality. She defined neurosis as a mal-adaptive and
counterproductive way of dealing with relationships. These people are unhappy and desperately seek out relationships
in order to feel good abut themselves. Their way of securing these relationships include projections of their own

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insecurity and neediness which eventually drives others away.

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People with clinginess, significant lack of self esteem, and even anger and threatening behaviour, according to

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Horney, adapt this personality style through a childhood filled with anxiety. And while this way of dealing with others

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may have been beneficial in their youth, as adults it serves to almost guarantee their needs will not be met. She

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identified three ways of dealing with the world that are formed by an upbringing in a neurotic family: Moving Toward

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People, Moving Against People, and Moving Away From People.
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Some children who feel a great deal of anxiety and helplessness move towards people in order to seek help and

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acceptance. They are striving to feel worthy and can believe the only way to gain this is through the acceptance of
others. These people have an intense need to be liked, involved, important and appreciated. So much so, that they will

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often fall in love quickly or feel an artificial but very strong attachment to people they may not know well. Their

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attempts to make that person love them creates a clinginess and neediness that much more often than not results in

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the other person leaving the relationship.

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Another way to deal with insecurities and anxiety is to try to force your power onto others in hopes of feeling
good about yourself. Those with this personality style come across as bossy, demanding, selfish and even cruel.
Horney argued that these people project their own hostilities onto others and therefore use this as a justification to get

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them before they get me. Once again, relationships appear doomed from the beginning.
The final possible consequence of a neurotic household is a personality style filled with a social behaviour and an
almost indifference to others. If they don’t get involved with others, they can’t be hurt by them. While it protects
them from emotional pain of relationships, it also keeps away all positive aspects of relationships. It leaves them
feeling alone and empty.
Q. 3. Describe self-report personality tests. Bring out the advantages and disadvantages of self-
report measures.
Ans. Self Report Personality Tests (Inventory): Self-report inventories are self-rating questionnaires. Also
known as personality inventories, in this the individual describes his feelings, environment and responses of others
towards self. Here, an individual reports about his own-self.

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 Self-report inventories can be divided into five types:
(i) Inventories that measure social and certain other traits like self-confidence, dominance and introversion or
extroversion.
(ii) Inventories that measure to evaluate the adjustment of the person to different aspects of the environment
such as school, home, health.
(iii) Inventories that measure pathological traits.
(iv) Inventories that measure people into two or three groups.
(v)Inventories that measure people’s interests, attitudes and values.
We will elaborate the five self-report inventories:
(a) These inventories traits like self-confidence, dominance, extraversion and introversion.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Bernreuter Personality Inventory and Differential Personality Scale are

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examples of these inventories.
(b) These inventories assess adjustment level of a person with different aspects of his life. Bells Adjustment
Inventory is an example of such inventory.

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(c)These inventories measure pathological traits such as hysteria, paranoia, hypomania, depression and

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schizophrenia. The MMPI (The Minnessota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) tries to measure a very large

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number of pathological traits. The sixteen PF inventory evaluates 16 personality traits.
(d) These inventories screen people into two or three groups. The Cornell Index is an example of such inventory.
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It screens people into two groups – those having psychosomatic difficulties like asthma, peptic ulcer, migraine,
etc., and those who are normal and without all these difficulties.
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(e)These inventories measure values, attitudes and interests. Bogardus Social distance scale measures attitude.
Strong Vocational Interest Blank measures interest. Allport-Vernon Study of Values Scale measures values.
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Even as the self-report inventories have different purpose and cover different nature of content, all of them are
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based on the same principle. For all, the behaviour is the manifestation of trait and by means of assessing the
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behaviour one can find out the presence or absence of a trait in an individual. Self-report inventories are more widely
used for personality assessment. In these tests, people are asked to respond to questions concerning their traits.
In these tests, people have to respond by making a choice: “Yes”, “No”, “Always”, “Don’t know”. People also

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have to select either true or false, agree or disagree. Objectivity is in these tests can be achieved by restricting the

risk of personal bias.

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degree of freedom people have in responding to test items. Standardization of scoring procedures also reduces the

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Single-traits Tests

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Researchers develop and use single-traits tests to assess some specific aspects of personality. After that they

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evaluate whether individuals who score at the upper and lower end on the trait measure has different performance on
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the behavioural measure or has different self-report measure. In these tests, every person’s score is meaningful as a

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representation of that individual’s personality.

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There are some single-dimension tests which also give separate measures of two or three traits: (i) The Locus of
Control Scale (Rotter, 1966), (ii) The Sensation Seeking-Scale (Zuckerman, 1978), and (iii) The Self-Monitoring
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Scale (Snyder, 1974) are examples of single-traits tests.

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These tests provide scores which reflect relatively stable individual differences along specific dimension. Besides
these scales, there are many self-report inventories that assess simultaneously several personality factors.

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Multi-dimensional Tests
Multi-dimensional tests provide a more comprehensive overview of the person which has been assessed. These
tests are generally used in clinical, counseling and personnel settings. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire
(16-PF) is an example of this test.
A 187-item test, it measures 16 source traits of a normal personality identified by Raymond Cattell. Scores form
these tests are put on a graph to provide a personality profile. Psychologist use these profiles for counselling and make
important decisions about people.
Strength and Weakness of Self-report Tests
A key aspect of personology is evaluation of individual differences. Self-reports have got much importance as the
basis for assessing individual differences. Self-report tests give more precise, thorough and systematic information
about an individual’s personality. The following are some of the strengths of the self-report inventories:

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 (i) Personal or theoretical bias is minimized by objectivity of scoring.
(ii) People with relatively little formal training can easily administer self-report measures.
(iii) Self-report tests are more reliable than any other tests.
(iv) Multi-dimensional inventories measure of several traits at a time.
Following are some of the limitations of self-report tests:
(i) The response set has the influence over the test,
(ii) These tests are susceptible to deliberate deception,
(iii) Social desirability has considerable influence on these tests,
(iv) Deliberate deception is most likely to happen in these tests.
Faking in Personality Inventories
We will discuss how faking can take place in personality inventories.
An applicant for job may “fake good” by deliberately agreeing with those items he believes will make favourable
impression for employment.

he is more psychologically disturbed than he actually is.

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An individual may also “fake bad” by deliberately replying to items that he believes will create the impression that

It may also happen in a situation where an individual is evaluated to determine competency to face charges for

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any offence.

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A person may respond to items just to make “look good”. Such problem can happen in all assessment techniques.

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Called as social desirability, in this tendency people may be unaware of their tendency to respond in a favourable

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direction in contrast to giving frank replies. Unintentionally they respond in a favourable light but that does not match
with the reality.

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The problem of social desirability response bias can be minimized. For example, MMPI incorporates questions

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with an aim to evaluate the possibility that an individual is giving socially desirable answers.

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There are tests which directly assess the extent to which people give self-flattering replies. For example, Marlowe-

Measures to Avoid Faking

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Safeguards can be built in tests to find out and get rid of deliberate faking. Re
Crowne Social Desirability Scale assesses people’s tendency to present themselves in a favourable light.

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In the MMPI, there are validity scales designed to show whether the respondents are faking, defensive, or

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evasive.

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Filler items can be included to make the purpose of a test less clear to an individual. These efforts may not be

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completely successful in finding out the extent to which a respondent is engaged in conscious faking. Also, major
decisions about an individual should not be on the basis of self-report information only.
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The social desirability of each item should also be carefully evaluated before they are included in a test.
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People may also respond in a specific way regardless of the content of the items in the tests. For example, some

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people may agree with virtually every question on a test.
A major problem on self-report test is that it requires a true-false or a yes-no response. If the deception is not

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checked, the test will not accurately reflect the personality traits and scores of highly acquiescent people will be

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distorted. To get rid of the problem, test makers should place the items in such way that true or false or yes or no
responses are equally likely to be indicative of the trait being assessed. Any bias coming from the tendency to respond
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“true” or “yes” is balanced when the test is scored.
SECTION-B
Answer the following questions in abour 400 words.

w Q. 4. Discuss Five-Factor Model or personality.

Ans. The Big Five Theory: Big Five, Five-Factor Model, and Five-Factor Theory are different concepts.
The Big Five together refer to taxonomy of personality trait. It maps which traits go together in people. It is a
coordinate system.
The Big Five is not a theory of personality. It can be called an empirically based phenomenon.
The Big Five factors show how ratings of various personality traits are correlated in humans. These were
discovered through a statistical procedure called factor analysis.
Five Factor Model
The Five-Factor Model, or Big Five, refers to a descriptive framework of what has been observed, or to a
theoretical explanation of causes and consequences five dimensions of personality.

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 Lew Goldberg coined the term, “Big Five” for the first time. It was originally related to the studies of personality
traits used in natural language.
The Five-Factor Model is generally associated with studies of traits using personality questionnaires. The lexical
and questionnaire approaches differ over the definition and interpretation of the fifth factor, which many lexical
researchers called Intellect/ Imagination, and many questionnaire researchers called Openness to Experience.
Theoretical Perspectives on the Big Five: Description and Explanation
On the concept of the Big Five dimensions, many perspectives have been presented over the years. Initially, the
Big Five factors were interpreted as dimensions of trait since these were first discovered in lexical research to
provide taxonomy of trait items. These dimensions have also external /predictive validity and they show equal heritability.
As the Big Five dimensions show real individual differences, we should know how these differences have been
conceptualized.
The Big Five has been conceptualized by several theories as relational constructs. Interpersonal theory puts

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much emphasis on the individual in relationships. Sullivan states that the enduring patterns of recurrent interpersonal
situations that characterise human life have been described by the Big Five. Wiggins and Trapnell interpret all the Big
Five factors as per their interpersonal Implications since they put much importance to interpersonal motives.

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Hogan’s socio-analytic theory puts emphasis on the social functions of self and other perceptions. Since traits are

to get the true picture of the person’s personality.

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about reputation, a person may distort the self-reports and questionnaires. In case of self-deceptive bias, it is difficult

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According to the evolutionary theory on the Big Five, different detecting mechanisms have been evolved to

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perceive individual differences. Buss states that in personality the Big Five traits represent the most important dimensions
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of the survival needs of the person. The major important individual differences are summarized by the Big Five.
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In Five Factor Theory (FFT), McCrae and Costa explain the Big Five taxonomy. They state Big Five are causal

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personality dispositions. The Big Five Factors derive from biological structures and processes since they have a

person.
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substantial genetic base. They say personality traits are basic tendencies which show the underlying potentials of the

The interaction between the basic tendencies and environmental demands show attitudes, roles, relationships and

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goals. The basic tendencies stay stable across life even as the adaptations undergo considerable transformation.

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The comparative theory to personality studies individual differences. Thus, there are many theories on the Big

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Five Factors. A comprehensive theory of Big Five can be developed and refined by research in areas such as

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molecular genetics, personality stability and change, behaviour genetics and accuracy in interpersonal perception.
Advantages of the Big Five Structure
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The advantage of the Big Five structure is that everyone understands the concept. Most of the dimensions of the
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Big Five, particularly Extraversion and Neuroticism, have been explained both from mechanistic and physiological

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perspectives. The domains of individual differences which have similar surface manifestations have been differentiated
by the Big Five. The Big Five gives an integrative descriptive model as it captures the common elements among most
of the systems of personality description.
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A number of propositions about the origins, nature and developmental course of personality traits, and their

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relations with many of the other personality variables mentioned earlier are included under the Five-Factor theory. It

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provides a biological account of personality traits and thus learning and experience play little part in affecting the Big
Five.
Besides Five-Factor Theory, other personality psychologists propose that environmental impacts, including social

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roles and biological influences, shape personality traits. For example, an interactionist approach under the name Social
Investment Theory was advanced by Brent Roberts.
The Big Five are applied in many areas of psychological research in ways that do not depend on the particular
propositions of any theory. For example, the Big Five are a useful model for organising people’s perceptions of one
another's personalities in interpersonal perception research. The Big Five is a model of what people want to know
about one another.
Q. 5. Elucidate the various issues related to the study of personality.
Ans. There are many aspects in the theory of personality that have been studied and there are so many angles
and aspects that are yet to be studied, answers to be unearthed to so many baffling problems. Heredity influences
personality and many researches have attempted to study the extent of impact and the manner in which the relationship
works.

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Genes and Personality
There has been discussion since long as to what has a bigger hand in determining personality: heredity or
environment–nature or nurture (a term first used by English Victorian Polymath Francis Galton).
Nature Versus Nurture Debate
This debate is about which has more influence on physical and behavioural qualities.
There is a group of thinkers that believes in the theory that it is the genetic predispositions or even the animal
instincts that influence behaviour while others believe that upbringing or how we are raised determines our behaviour.
The former refers to nature while the latter is nurture. Sir Francis Galton who gave the technique of finger printing
and the word association test was fully convinced in the idea of genetic pre-programming and that our behaviour is
pre-destined. He has done many experiments related to the same, some ill conceived but his study has been important.
Belief holds that child is born only with certain instincts and no specific traits. His mind is a blank slate and the
experiences that he gathers while socializing is absorbed by him and his behaviour undergoes a change in time.
According to his point of view, it is nurture or upbringing that influences almost the entire behaviour of the child. It is
environment, according to them, that develops a child’s personality.

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The recent researches in genetics have now established that both heredity as well as environment have a bearing
on child’s personality, so both the view-points are right in their own ways. Our inherent abilities are provided to us by

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nature. These genetic abilities are modified by nurture, with further learning and maturity. The combination of nature

The Nature Theory–Heredity

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and nurture is known as interactionism, which plays an important role in human personality development.

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Just as physical characteristics like eyes, face cut, height, body build, etc. are determined by the hereditary

which provide the justification for criminal acts or criminal behaviours.

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factors, of late it has been considered that the mental faculties and other abstract qualities like intelligence, personality,
i
temperament, sexual orientation are also caused by hereditary factors. Behavioural genes is an outcome of this belief,

d
a
Gays are born as a result of the gene, a genetic component in sexual orientation; this is another debatable topic in
the nature theory.

m
y e Re
If genetics did not have a role to play, fraternal twins raised in the same environment would be same even if their
genetic make up is different. Studies have proved differently. They bear a lot of resemblance as compared with non-

d
twin brothers and sisters.

in ks
The Nurture Theory Environment

l
u
This theory opposes the heredity theory and believes that only environment affects the behavioural traits developed

n oo
t
in a person. American psychologist John Watson believes in the sae and opines that classical conditioning can explain
phobias and such disorders.
O b
s
It was proved by B.F. Skinner, father of behavioural sciences, that human behaviour can be conditioned.
r -
If we consider only heredity factor to be important, then there must be no difference in identical twins brought up

.e fo E
in different conditions.
Twin Studies

b d
The arguement can be brought to rest by studying the monozygotic twins who are genetically exact duplicates.

we u an
They are the best means to give an idea whether DNA is an important factor in influencing traits and psychopathology.
The identical twins can be compared with fraternal twins and disygotic twins who share half the number of
H
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genes. Samples are taken from identical and fraternal twins for study. Some important studies and findings are
discussed below:
A study aimed at determining how much twins inherit each other’s attitude as well as the genetic variables like

w
intelligence affecting the same. The study’s findings were that there exists a partial correlation between the attitudes
of twins and their genetic factors. There is also a correlation between the attitudes which the twins reported about
themselves. When they were asked to rate themselves on sociability, correlation was found with 5 out of six attitude
factors concerning sociability.
It was seen that the differences in twins, the cause of which can be attributed to non-shared environment (a
condition where something in the environment affects one twin but has no impact on the other) and that was so
dominant that it overshadowed genetic traits.
Study was also conducted on twins regarding extraversion and neuroticism and impulsivity trait on family
environment and socio-economic status. It was seen that genotypes and environment interaction is important while
doing a study on twins as it helps to study how the same genotypes react in similar environment.

9
 Type-I genotype environment indicates that environment has an important bearing on genotype for low scores on
a certain personality trait. Those twins with low genotypes for extraversion score low on extraversion as well. Type-
II is the reverse of type-I.
Infant Shyness
A study conducted on adoption centres showed that some infants respond to attention while some infants appear
to be withdrawn, some take time to react to calls. It cannot be told whether babies behave in a certain way because
of the inheritance from their shy mothers or their environment makes them such.
When questionnaires filled in by adoptive parents regarding their child’s shyness factor were studied, it was found
that many shy mothers had shy children and the shy mothers developed a liking for shy babies. This showed that
genes had an impact on family environment.
Anti-social Personality Disorder
Studies were done to find out whether children of criminal parents get protection against developing anti-social

o m
symptoms in an adopted family or are more prone to it. The study showed that adopted children were prone to it, if
they were genetically at risk. Also, if both biological as well as adoptive parents were from criminal background, the
children were at high risk for developing anti-social personality disorder.

similar to biological family and environment at both is the same.

. c
But the interpretation of adoption studies is not easy. Genetic factors get ‘simulated’ when adopted family is

Family Studies

r t g
Family studies are also important in the discussion family versus environment, though the twin and adoption

n
studies are more valid. Family studies help to identify how much a person is at risk to developmental disorders. The
i
a
risk of inheriting certain mental disorders in the family by children can be found through such studies. In these

observed behaviour is projected.

ad
studies, molecular genetic studies are conducted where the DNA of the subject’s blood samples are taken and the

The Person-situation Controversy

m
y e Re
The person-situation debate is a disagreement between the social and personality psychologists as to whether a
situation or personality traits can predict behaviour better. Mischel started the debate in his book in 1968 by criticizing

d
the trait approach that when traits are rated, they do not predict actual behaviour. Epstein went further to say in 1983

in ks
that traits may not predict actual behaviour but they can very well predict the total of such behaviours. The following
l
t u
hypothetical study has been developed by Broady and Ehrlichman to see whether traits can predict behaviour in same
n oo
as well as different situations. The following steps are taken in the test:

O b
Step 1: Behaviour of a group of individuals in each of twenty situations related to the quality of conscientiousness
were measured.
s r -
Step 2: Each individual is observed many times in a situation and the measurement for each individual in a

.e fo E
situation is based on an aggregate index.
Step 3: Situations are divided into two arbitrary groups of ten each.
b d
Step 4: Two indices are formed for each individual by calculating the average of score for each of the two groups
of ten situations.
we H
u a n
Step 5: Correlation between the two indices is calculated.

w Th
Step 6: An overall index of conscientiousness for the person is calculated by finding the average of the aggregated
measure of each of the twenty situations studied.
On the basis of the study, Mischel argued that there is a correlation of .30 between personality traits and person’s

w
behaviour in a given situation and a correlation of 0.2–0.3 among situations. So, situations, not personality traits predict
behaviour better.
But those psychologists who had been using trait questionnaire for a long time argued that low personality-
behaviour correlation does not imply that situational variables are better. It was found that actually correlation between
personality and behaviour is higher than 0.4. Personality predicts behaviour better in a general manner in all situations
but not so at a specific time in a specific situation. Also, it is found that the personality traits are best tools to predict
behaviour.
The Behavioural Consistency Controversy
Some approaches hold that the stable forces of personality have a consistent effect on behaviour. Other view
holds that individual’s responses do not show consistent traits, on the other hand different traits are visible in different
situations.

10
 In a study by Hartshorne and May regarding honesty in children, children were given situations where they could
be dishonest without being found out. No consistency was found in either being honest or dishonest, their behaviour
changed as per the situation. Walter Mischel opined that people respond differently to similar stimuli based on past
reinforcement. Therefore, the perceptual and cognitive forces have to be considered before making interpretation of
person’s response to stimuli.
While conducting research, the importance of situational or personality variables should be considered, which is
found by the strength and weakness of the situation. If different people make same interpretations in a situation, the
differences in the situation will be important while interpreting. If situations are ambiguous, personality variables will
influence behaviour more.
In 1985, Mischel also proposed that people respond consistently in situations where people behave inadequately.
Magnusson and Endler and other researchers believe that only traits or only situations do not help to predict behaviour
but it is a combination of both that is useful. Now theories are being developed based on their interaction.

m
Cross-cultural Issues
Personality is influenced by culture as well. Though we cannot say that culture is the sole influence on personality,

o
but the interelationship between the two exists. Even now the relationship is not clear. Individualism versus collectivism
is used to study the relationship. Personal achievement, egalitarian relationships, role flexibility team, and familial

c
connections describe the personality traits and the differences between individuals of various cultures. But it is not

t .
only cultural influence that cause factors under individualism-collectivism. Its use is made for the purpose of studying
the personality characteristics, traits and habits that occur within cultures, where certain individualist or collectivist
g
r
traits are found.

in
Applying this framework may lead to stereotyping and misinterpretation of an individual’s personality and his of

a
behavioural characteristics. It is used to describe cultural tendencies as a whole than individual characteristics and
d
traits. This does not rule out the significance of individualism collectivism paradigm to study personality domains.
a
There is a complex relationship between personality and culture. Personality of adults is also affected by cultural

m
y e Re
expectations. But definitely, the individualism-collectivism orientation is not the only determinant of personality.
Q. 7. ‘The main aim of Humanistic approach is enhancing well-being and overall quality of life’.
Comment.

d
in ks
Ans. Humanistic psychologists try to see people’s lives as those people would see them. They tend to have an

l
optimistic perspective on human nature. They focus on the ability of human beings to think consciously and rationally,

u
n oo
to control their biological urges, and to achieve their full potential. In the humanistic view, people are responsible for

s t
their lives and actions and have the freedom and will to change their attitudes and behaviour.
O b
Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, became well known for their humanistic theories. The highest rung on

r -
Abraham Maslow’s ladder of human motives is the need for self-actualization. Maslow said that human beings strive

.e o E
for self-actualization, or realization of their full potential, once they have satisfied their more basic needs.
f
Maslow also provided his own account of the healthy human personality. Psychodynamic theories tend to be

b d
based on clinical case studies and therefore lack accounts of healthy personalities. To come up with his account,

we u an
Maslow studied exceptional historical figures, such as Abraham Lincoln and Eleanor Roosevelt, as well as some of
his own contemporaries whom he thought had exceptionally good mental health. Maslow described several
H
characteristics that self-actualizing people share.

w Th
Carl Rogers, another humanistic psychologist, proposed a theory called the person-centred theory. Like Freud,
Rogers drew on clinical case studies to come up with his theory. He also drew from the ideas of Maslow and others.

w
In Rogers’s view, the self-concept is the most important feature of personality, and it includes all the thoughts,
feelings, and beliefs people have about themselves. Rogers believed that people are aware of their self-concepts.
According to Abraham Maslow, human actions are motivated in order achieve certain needs. His concept of a
hierarchy of needs suggests that people are motivated to fulfil basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced
needs.
This hierarchy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are made up of the most
basic needs, while the more complex needs are located at the top of the pyramid. Needs at the bottom of the pyramid
are basic physical requirements including the need for food, water, sleep and warmth. Once these lower-level needs
have been met, people can move on to the next level of needs, which are for safety and security.

11
 As people progress up the pyramid, needs become increasingly psychological and social. Soon, the need for love,
friendship, and intimacy become important. Further up the pyramid, the need for personal esteem and feelings of
accomplishment take priority. Like Carl Rogers, Maslow emphasized the importance of self-actualization, which is a
process of growing and developing as a person in order to achieve individual potential.
Maslow believed that these needs are similar to instincts and play a major role in motivating behaviour. Physiological,
security, social, and esteem needs are deficiency needs (also known as D-needs), meaning that these needs arise due
to deprivation. Satisfying these lower-level needs is important in order to avoid unpleasant feelings or consequences.
Maslow termed the highest-level of the pyramid as growth needs (also known as being needs or B-needs).
Growth needs do not stem from a lack of something, but rather from a desire to grow as a person.
Q. 8. Give an overview of Case Study method.
Ans. Case Study Method: The case study method is non-experimental. It is a way of organizing social data to

m
understand reality. It also preserves the unitary character of a social object being studied.
It examines a social unit as a whole. The social unit includes individuals, families, social groups or communities.

clinical and medical settings for diagnosis and treatment of people suffering from psychological ailments.

c o
A case history or case study is the detailed study of a social unit over a period of time. It is used frequently in

The case study uses a variety of procedures to study a person’s life experiences and behaviour patterns. The

biographical documents.

t .
procedures include the recollections by the subject, interviews with people who know him and autobiographical and

g
r
Researchers or clinicians search for clues in the past or present life to know the causes of the problems. The

in
primary data obtained through the case study enables the clinicians to build effective strategies to treat the patients.

a d
For the first time, Fredrickle Play introduced case history method into social sciences research. Herbert Spencer used
for the first time the case materials in his ethnographic studies. For the first time William Healy adopted the case study
a
m
method.
e
Case histories have contributed in the development of some personality theories and clinical thinking. Freud’s
R
Purpose of Case Study Method
d
in ks
y e
psychodynamic theory is based on case studies. Freud used case studies to support his theoretical claims. Carl
Rogers also relied heavily on case studies in formulating his phenomenological theory of personality.

l
The case study method intends to understand the major aspects of the life cycle of a unit. It analyses and

t u
n oo
interprets the interactions between the different factors which cause change, or growth of the unit. Besides individuals
and their important behavioural characteristics, case studies have studied communities and families.
O b
s
Even as its main role seems to be description and analysis of various social units, a research strategy is very

r -
important. Case studies may be different in their approach, there are threads of consistency among them.

.e o E
The lives of normal individuals can be studied through case studies. Henry Murray led a group at the Harvard
f
Psychological Clinic and provided a rare but compelling model of case study. Their focus was a small group of young

b d
men in college. They studied their basic needs, conflicts, values, attitudes and patterns of social interaction. They used

we u a n
self-report personality questionnaires and projective tests. They also collected extensive biographical data and auto-
biographical sketches.
H
Murray and his colleagues covered many topics and facets of each student’s life and produced a rich narrative

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account of each student. Different researchers studied the same student and offered their respective clinical impressions
about them.

w Harvard personologists adopted the eclectic approach and put their attention to the whole person, the environment
and to the need for comprehensive assessment. Robert White in his Lives in Progress (1975), explained the importance
of the case study as a strategy appropriate for carrying out research on personality.
Types of Case Study Method
On the basis of the number of individuals, the case studies can be categorized into two types – the individual case
study and the community case study. In individual case study, an individual is the social unit. In this, focus is given on
in-depth analysis. Individual case study is important in developing hypothesis but is not that helpful in making broad
generalisations. In the community case study, the social unit is a family or social group. The case study is conducted
thorough observation and analysis of a group of people in a particular territory. It studies different elements of the
community including location, prevailing economic activity, climate and natural resources, life values and health education.
On the basis of the purpose, case studies may be divided into two groups: deviant case analysis and isolated

12
clinical case analysis. In deviant case studies, the researcher studies the differences already found between two
people or groups and find out the condition that might have caused the difference. In isolated clinical case analysis, the
individual units are given attention with regard to certain analytical problems. Freud’s study of little Hans is an
example of isolated clinical case study.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Case Study Method
Case study has both advantages and disadvantages. It provides an account of the complexities and idiosyncrasies
of a person’s personality which may not be possible in other strategies. It is also the most appropriate if the objective
is to study processes going in one or few people and to know how people cope with different life experiences.
The key disadvantage is that the researcher is uncertain about cause-and-effect relationships. Researchers do
not have control over the factors that affect the events that are observed. Second, the results of case studies have
limited generalisability. Third, the data collected in this method may be second-hand in nature and get distorted by
time. Lastly, the results in the case studies get affected by the personal biases.

m
Case histories, however, can be rich source of information about a particular phenomenon. As a preliminary
research strategy, it offers intriguing hypothesis about personality.

o
(iii) Homeostasis: It is important to maintain stability in the body in terms of normal body temperature, blood
sugar levels, blood pressure, water balance, etc. Instability in any of these parameters brings about disequilibrium and
homeostasis disturbance takes peace.

c
t .
If a person’s physical parameters mentioned above are in balance, we find the person to be relaxed and
psychologically stable. He remains in a good, cheerful mood, and behaves in a pleasant, socially agreeable manner.
g
r
Disturbed levels of homeostasis results in irritability, indigestion, sleeplessness and other disturbed behaviour patterns.
Q. 10. Holtzman Inkblot test.
in
a
Ans. The Holtzman Inkblot Test: This test was developed in 1961by Holtzman and his colleagues. The HIT
d
was developed so that certain drawbacks of the Rorschach test like unlimited number of responses and poor scorer
a
reliability, etc. could be removed. The test consists of 2 alternative forms of 45 inkblots, originally drawn from a pool

m
y e Re
of several thousand. The scoring is done on the basis of 22 items: reaction time, rejection, location, space, form
definiteness, form appropriateness, colour, shading, movement,, pathognomonic verbalization, integration and content,
anxiety, hostility, barrier, penetration, balance and popularity. Then a stack of 47 cards with inkblots (45 test cards and

d
in ks
2 practice cards) are presented face down in front of the subject. Each card is shown to the subject and asked what

l
they see in the inkblot. Each response is followed by a two-fold simple question–where was the percept represented

u
n oo
in the blot and what the percept suggests about the blot. These responses are classified under 22 response variables.

s t
The test has a standardized measurement and the scoring criteria in this test are clearly defined, better than the
O b
Rorschach test. Scores of HIT are very reliable and the results have shown to be quite valid. The productivity ratio

r -
problem has also been overcome as the number of responses have been specified. In 1988 another modified test

.e o E
called HIT 25 was developed in which there were 25 cards. The test is mainly used with college students, average
f
adults, 7th graders, elementary school children, 5-year olds, chronic schizophrenics, mental retardates and depressed

b d
patients. It is especially successful in diagnosing schizophrenia.

we
Q. 11. Secondary reinforcement.
u an
Ans. Secondary Reinforcement: Secondary reinforcement refers to any neutral stimulus available when the
H
response is delivered. It also has the reinforcing ability. In the Skinner box, a sound of click is also produced repeatedly

w Th
each time the reinforcement is delivered. This sound is the secondary reinforcer. It has the reinforcing characteristics
and is associated with the original reinforcer.

w According to Skinner, secondary reinforcers play important role in controlling human behaviour. It is apparent the
presentation of unconditioned or primary reinforcers including food, water and sex maintain our every action. It is also
obvious that secondary reinforcements influence much of our behaviours. Money is the most common example of
secondary reinforcer. It may have no intrinsic value of its own, but it has the reinforcing quality and get associated
with a number of different primary reinforcers.
Q. 12. Myers-Briggs Types Indicator
Ans. Jungian Personality Types (Myersbriggs and the Four Temperaments): Jungian psychological types
suggest that the ultimate psychological task is the process of individuation. These types of personality are amongst the
best-known in everyday life.

13
 The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, developed by Myers-Briggs, is a commercially available questi- onnaire. It is
widely used in business and training. It provides information and exercises for better understanding personalities.
Four types of personalities and their functions are given below:
Extroversion (E)–Introversion (I): Extroversion means recharging energy via external contact and activity
and introversion is spending time in inner space.
Intuition (N)–Sensing (S): Intuition means relying on inner voice, while observation is sensing.
Thinking (T)–Feeling (F): Whether you rely on thoughts or feelings while making decisions.
Judgement (J)–Perception (P): Judgement means setting schedules and organizing your life, while perception
means leaving the options open and see what happens.
Using these letters, people can be described the 16 Jungian personality types. For example, a person can be INTJ,
which means the person is Introvertive, Intuitive, Thinking and Judging type of personality.

m
The Jungian types have been renamed and reconceptualised by Keirsey who refers to “temperaments” in stead
of personality of people.
Q. 13. Personification.
Ans. Personifications

c o
Personifications develop through social interactions and selective attention or inattention. Defences can often

t .
help decrease anxiety, but they can also result in a misperception of reality. Personifications are mental images that
help us to better know ourselves and the world. Sullivan adopted a cognitive approach to know personality.
g
r
According to Sullivan, there are three basic ways we see ourselves:
(i) The bad-me, (ii) The good-me, and (iii) The not-me.
in
a d
The bad-me represents negative aspects of the self. They are thus hidden from others and even the self. Recognition
of the bad-me causes the anxiety.
a
m
The good-me represents the positive aspects of the self that we share with others and that we often choose to
focus on. It causes no anxiety.
Re
Q. 14. Self-actualization
d
in ks
y e
The not-me represents that aspects of the self which we do not even consider them a part of us because they
create anxiety. The not-me is pushed to remain in unconscious state.

Ans. Self-Actualisation
l
t u
n oo
According to Rogers, the actualising tendency is the only the single motive that impels human beings to action. He
believes that an underlying “actualizing tendency” exists in the human “organism”. This tendency aims to develop all
O b
s
capacities in such ways that the organism becomes autonomous and independent. This actualizing tendency is

r -
constructive, directional and present in all living organisms.

.e o E
Rogers further states that the tendency can never be destroyed without the destruction of the organism, even as
f
it can be can be suppressed. The only motive force in the theory is the concept of the actualizing. It has all need,

b d
motivations and tension. It also includes creative and pleasure-seeking tendencies.

we u a n
The whole organism has this tendency. Parts of the organism like the self do not have such tendency. According
to Maddi, it is a “Biological pressure to fulfill the genetic blueprint”. Each individual has a basic mandate to achieve his
potential. H
w Th
This tendency is selective and pays attention only to those aspects of the environment which promises to move
the person constructively, in the direction of fulfillment and wholeness. ‘The self-actualization drive’ is the single

w
motivating force and ‘to become self-actualised’ is single goal of life.
Q. 15. Observation technique
Ans. Observation Technique
In direct observation, the behaviour of the subject is observed in the natural setting of home, school, or workplace.
For example, a therapist in the classroom can analyse the behaviour of a child after he is asked to do something
involving fine motor abilities may conclude that the child is good or has some difficulties with those skills.
Among the approaches in personality study, observation can be considered as the sine qua non. Sometimes
research leads to unsystematic observation. Personal observations can result in more refined study of people’s
behaviour.
Observing and recording the behaviour it as it naturally occurs in real-life settings is another way to understand
personality. This is known as observation naturalistic.

14
 Children’s play and friendship patterns, adolescent’s antisocial behaviour, eating behaviours of obese, leadership
styles of effective business managers and many clinical phenomenons have been studied through naturalistic observation.
Naturalistic observation may not explain behaviour, but it provides information about what people do in their natural
environments.
The following are some of the drawbacks of the naturalistic observation:
(i) Observers may face some unpredictable events over which they have no control.
(ii) Observer may show bias and their expectations may influence those aspects and events that they attend.
(iii) Observation is made on the basis of a few situations and few people and thus they cannot be generalized.
(iv) Observers may interfere with the events they intend to observe or record.
Q. 16. Senior Apperception Test
Ans. Senior Apperception Technique (SAT)
The test provides 16 stimulus pictures, designed specially for the aged. They have themes of loneliness, illness,

m
helplessness, uselessness and lowered self-esteem. Themes of positive and happier situations are also there. Responses
to the pictures in this test indicate serious concerns over health. The test is criticized because of inadequate norms and
possible stereotyping of the senior people.
Q. 17. Extraversion and Cortical arousal

c o
Ans. Extraversion/Introversion: Extraverts are people who like outdoor activity, who are sociable (mix freely

t .
with people) and who like excitement. Introverts are introspective (inwardly drawn) and like to lead an orderly life.
Neurotics are emotionally unstable who are unable to understand the realities of situations and become anxious very
g
r
easily. Some neurotics may show obsessive actions or impulsive and some may have phobia of a place or thing or

in
person. Psychopaths are the people who do not possess anxiety or fear but who behave in a socially unacceptable
manner without realizing what the results of their actions would be.
Q. 18. Specification Equation
Ans. The Specification Equation: What is personality? a ad
R = f (P,S) m
y e Re
According to Cattle personality is that which permits a prediction of what a person will do in a given situation,

In this formula R is person's reaction, f is the function, P is the person's personality, S is the situation, now

d
in ks
how a person behaves is a function of both the person's personality and the given situation.

l
Where are the traits ? They are within the person. Now it becomes clear to predict a persons behavior we

u
n oo
must know what traits he posses and how important they are to situation of interest. Cattle calls it the
specification equation.

s t O b
Pj = sjaA...+ sjtT ...+ sjeE....+ sjmM....+ sjrR....+ sjsS
Pj = Performance in a Situation
r -
.e o E
A= Ability Traits
T = Temperament Traits f
E = Ergic Tensions Present
b d
we u an
M = Meta Ergs (sentiments and attitudes)
R = temporary body states fatigue, illness. anxiety
H
Sj= A weight or loading indicating the importance of each of the above influences in

w Th
situation j.
This formula simply restates that if you want to know how a person will react to a situation list all his traits and

w
weigh each one of them in terms of their relevance. For example if a person is in problem solving situation, the ability
trait of intelligence will be given great weight or a high factor loading as compared to other traits.
■■

15