UNIT 1

COMPUTER SYSTEM

Unit 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM

GRADE XI

PRATIK RATNA SHAKYA

Computer Lecturer
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What is a Computer?

• A Computer is an electronic device, which takes input from user,

process them and provide meaningful results/output

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Basics Operations of Computer

• Input: Any information the computer collects from any the outside
world.
• Process: Manipulation of raw data on the basic of instruction. Central
Processing Unit is a device in which computer process data.

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• Storage: Storage is a place where data is held in an electromagnetic
or optical form.
• Output: Any information which computer sends to the outside world.
Eg: Monitor, Speaker, Printer, etc.

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Characteristics of a Computer

• Speed: A Modern computer can execute millions of instructions in one

second. It can be measured in terms of Milliseconds, Microseconds,
Nanoseconds, etc.
• Accuracy: A Computer is a high accurate device. Computer error

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caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable program .
• Storage Capability: A Computer has high data storage capacity. The
storage capacity of computer can be increased by using secondary
storage devices such as: Magnetic Disk, Optical Disk, etc. The storage
Capacity of a computer is measures in terms of:
• KB, MB, GB, TB, PB.
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Characteristics of a Computer

• Automatic: Computer is automatic machine because one’s task is

initiated , a computer can proceed on its own till its completion.
• Diligent: The computer is capable of performing task repeatedly at the
same level of speed and accuracy.

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• Versatility: A computer can perform various types of tasks. It can be
used for various purposes such as accounting, generating pay slip,
playing games, listening to music, watching movies, typing and printing
the documents, sending emails and much more.
• Non-Intelligent: Although the computers are incredibly faster, more
powerful and accurate than human, it doenst have common sense,
cannot think and decide itself to do any task.
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Applications Area of Computers

• Education,
• Entertainment,
• Business Application,

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• Scientific Research,
• Medical Field.

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Question: Why Computer is so popular? Explain.

• Computer is so popular because :

• It is very fast.
• It gives accurate result.

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• It can do big calculations in small time.

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Question: Why Computer is known as
versatile machine? Explain.

• A Computer is known as versatile machine because :

• It can be used for all sorts of applications ranging from complex calculation in
scientific research and space research.

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• Computer can perform multiple task at same time.

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Assignment 1

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• What is a Computer? Why Computer is known as versatile machine? What
are the basic operations of Computer?

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Capabilities and Limitations of
computer (Pros and Cons)

• Capabilities/Advantages/Merits/Pros of computer:
• Computer is capable of handling larger volume of data and can store huge amount
of data.
• Computer can perform millions of instruction within a limited time frame with same

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speed and accuracy
• Computer are used to fulfill the general requirement of user.
• It provides faster and cheaper way for communication.
• Computer are used to solve complex and critical situation in which involvement of
humans are almost impossible.

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Disadvantages/De-
merits/Drawback/Cons of computer:

• Computer is a dull machine, it cannot make their decision on their own.

• Computer requires electricity or battery in order to operate.
• It can affect human eye, when used for long period of time.

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• It cannot think, learn or react as human.
• It cannot draw conclusion and provide feedback.

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Generations of Computer
• History of computers dates back to mechanical era where computer
were not used for general purpose. It takes long period of time to
come to this phase.
• Development of computer had passed through different era from
mechanical to electro mechanical to digital computer.
• Earlier computer were only used for specific purpose such as counting

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and performing basic mathematical operation.
• Later on, due to the necessity and requirement of user different
general purpose computer were developed.
• Therefore, the classification of computer on the basis of major
electronic component, their architecture and modes of operation is
known as generations of computer. Five different generations of
computer are listed below along with their distinct features.
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Generations of Computer

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First generations computer
(1946-1958 )
• They used vacuum tubes as their basic electronic components used to
control and amplify electronic signals.
• They were big in size, consume more electricity and generate large amount
of heat thus required air conditioning system to keep device cool.

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• They were unreliable and were prone to frequent hardware failure.
• They were normally not used for commercial purpose.
• Machine level language was used to program these computers.
• eg: ENIAC, EDVAC, EDSAC, UNIVAC
• [Note: First computer brought in Nepal was IBM 1401 for population
census of 2028 BS]
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First generations computer
(1945-1956 )
• Technology used: Vacuum tube
• Operating speed: Millisecond range
• Programming language used: Machine language
• Memory used Primary memory: Magnetic core memory Secondary

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memory: Magnetic drum, Magnetic tape.
• I/O device:
• Punched card as input device, printing device as output device.
• Use: Simple mathematical calculation.
• Computers were extremely large in size, and they required special cooling
system. e.g.: ENIVAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, etc.
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Second Generation of Computer
(1956-1964 )
• They used transistors as their basic electronic components.
• They were small in size as compared to first generation thus consume less
electricity and generate less heat.
• They were less prone to hardware failure thus more reliable.

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• They were not also for commercial purpose because production was
difficult and costly.
• Assembly language were used to program these computers.
• eg: IBM 7000, IBM 1401, IBM 1620, NCR 304, MARK III, ATLAS

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Second Generation of Computer
• Technology used: Transistor
• Operation speed: Micro second range (10-6 sec)
• Programming language used: Assembly language
• Memory used Primary memory: Magnetic core memory. Secondary

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memory: Magnetic drum, Magnetic tape.
• I/O: Punched card as input device, Printer as output device
• Use: Computers were used for complex scientific calculations.
• The size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to
previous generation.
• Processing speed, storage capacity, use of the computer increased
compared to previous generation.
• E.g.: IBM 1620, IBM 7094, LEO MARK III, etc. 17
Third Generation of Computer
(1964-1971 )
• They used Integrated Circuits (IC) as their basic electronic
components.
• They were smaller in size, consume less electricity and generate less
amount of heat.
• They were faster and more reliable compared to first and second

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generations.
• They were widely used for the commercial application all over the
world.
• High level language were used to program these computers.
• eg: PDP-8, PDP-11, ICL 2900 series, IBM 360, IBM 370

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Third Generation of Computer
• Technology used: IC (Integrated Circuit)
• Operating speed: Nanosecond range (10 -9 sec)
• Programming language used: HLL (High Level Language) Like FORTAN,
COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++, etc.

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• Memory used: Primary memory: Semiconductor memory (silicon)
Secondary memory: Magnetic tape, Magnetic disk like floppy disk, hard
disk, etc)
• I/O device: Keyboard as input device, monitor as output device.
• Use: Computers were used for managing population census, bank,
insurance company, etc.
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Third Generation of Computer
• Use: Computers were used for managing population census, bank,
insurance company, etc.
• Concept of database was developed and used.
• Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to

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previous generations.
• Processing speed, storage capacity, use of the computer increased
compared to previous generations.
• E.g.: IBM 360 series, ICL 900 series, Honeywell 200 series, etc.

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Fourth Generation of Computer
(1971-Present )
• They use VLSI ( Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits ) as their main
electronic components.
• There size were drastically reduced and hence were they were much
more portable.
• They were faster in processing and were much more reliable.

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• They have larger memory up to GB and TB.
• They use different advance high level language to program this
computer.
• eg: Apple Macintosh, IBM PC

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Fourth Generation of Computer
• Technology used:- VLSI (or Microprocessor)
• Operating speed:- Pico second range
• Programming language used: 4GL (Problem Oriented Language)

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• Memory used: Primary: Semi-conductor memory Secondary: Magnetic
tape, Magnetic Disk, Optical memory (CD/DVD/ Blu ray), Flash
memory(pen drive, memory card)
• I/O device: Advanced I/O devices like mouse, touch screen, scanner, LCD,
LED, color printer, etc are developed.
• Use: Computers are used for different task in different areas like
education, business, hospital, transportation, military, etc.
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Fourth Generation of Computer
• Use: Computers are used for different task in different areas like
education, business, hospital, transportation, military, etc.
• Microcomputers like desktop PC, laptop, notebook, etc, are developed.
• The popular communication media like internet, email, mobile

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communication, etc were developed.
• Advanced, user friendly, web based software, etc are developed.
• Size, cost, power requirement, heat generation decreased compared to
previous generation.
• Operating speed, storage capacity, use of the computer increased
compared to previous generation.
• E.g.: IBM desktop PC, HP laptop, Acer notebook, Mac book, etc. 23
Fifth Generation of Computer
(Present-Beyond)
• They use ULSIC (Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuit) or
Microprocessor(biochips) as their major electronic components.
• They have or will have artificial intelligence.
• They have tremendously high processing unit due to parallel processing.

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• They are capable of image processing, speech or voice recognition.
• They use different high level language to program this computer.

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Fifth Generation of Computer

• Technology to be used:- Bio-chip

• Operating speed:- Femto second range
• (10 -15 second) / TIPS

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• Programming language to be used:- Natural language
• The computers will have AI.
• The computers will be used in complex calculation where
intelligence of the computer is required.
• The computers will have parallel processing in full fledge.
• The computers will be based on KIPS (Knowledge based
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Information Processing System)
 Assignment 2:
• Make a table and write down the components used in First, Second, Third,
Fourth and Fifth Generation of Computer and also write their
Characteristics along with their examples.
Generations Components Characteristics Established Programming I/O Operating Memory

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Used Date language devices Speed used
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth

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Measurement Unit of Processing Speed
and Storage Unit
Measurement Unit of Processing Speed
• A computer is a very fast processing electronic device
• It can do task at extremely high speed
• Microprocessor contains a system clock, which controls all the

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operations within a computer and checks its speed
• Processing speeds are measured in megahertz (MHz)

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Measurement Unit of Processing Speed
Measuring Units in Frequency Measuring Units in Time
1 Hz (Hertz or 1x100 Hz) 1 second (1 x 100 sec)
1 KHz (Kilo Hertz or 1x103 Hz) 1 milli second (1 x 10-3 sec)
1 MHz (Mega Hertz or 1x106 Hz) 1 micro second (1 x 10-6 sec)

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1 GHz (Giga Hertz or 1x109 Hz) 1 nano second (1 x 10-9 sec)
1 THz (Tera Hertz or 1x1012 Hz) 1 pico second (1 x 10-12 sec)
1 PHz (Peta Hertz or 1x1015 Hz) 1 femto second (1 x 10-15 sec)
1 EHz (Exa Hertz or 1x1018 Hz) 1 atto second (1 x 10-18 sec)
1 ZHz (Zetta Hertz or 1x1021 Hz) 1 zepto second (1 x 10-21 sec)
1 YHz (Yotta Hertz or 1x1024 Hz) 1 yocto second (1 x 10-24 sec)

Table: Measuring unit for processing speed in terms of frequency and time 28
Measurement Unit of Processing Speed
and Storage Unit
Measurement Unit of Storage Unit
• The storing capacity of a computer is measured in terms of byte,
kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte, etc
• A binary number either 0 or 1 is called a bit (binary digit)

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Measurement Unit of Storage Unit
Unit Abbreviation In Unit
1 Nibble - 4 bits
1 Byte B 8 bits
1 Kilo Byte KB 1024 bytes
1 Mega Byte MB 1024 KB

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1 Giga Byte GB 1024 MB
1 Tera Byte TB 1024 GB
1 Peta Byte PB 1024 TB
1 Exa Byte EB 1024 PB
1 Zetta Byte ZB 1024 EB
1 Yotta Byte YB 1024 ZB
1 Bronto Byte BB 1024 YB
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Table: Storage Unit Conversion Table
Classification of Computer on the basis
of Size
• As we know, technological development and precise engineering has
drastically reduce the size of computers.
• Development of various electronic components are the major cause
for reducing the size of the computer.
• Different types of computer on the basis of size are:

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i. Super Computer
ii. Mainframe Computer
iii. Mini Computer
iv. Micro Computer

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1. Super Computer
• This computer are one of the fastest and powerful digital computer
which can perform only a particular types of jobs such as weather
forecasting, rocket launching, population counting etc.
• They were tremendously huge in size and are very expensive. Due to
this reason they are not commercially successful.

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• They are used by large corporations and government agencies.
• They were large in size hence, it occupy much more space and
require temperature controlled room.

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 Super Computer

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2. Mainframe Computer
• This computer are also largest, fastest and perhaps one of the most
expensive computer than mini computers.
• Super computer are much more powerful and expensive but they are
similar in size with mainframe computers.
• These computers have high processing unit and large storage capacity. This

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computer have multiple terminal.
• This computer can do big capacity of processing tasks such as population
census, agro census, SEE result processing, governmental offices, industries
etc.
• The first computer bought in Nepal in 2028 BS was IBM 1401, which was
also a mainframe computer.
• This computer was bought in Nepal for population counting. Moreover,
second computer bought in Nepal was ICL 2950/10 in 2038 BS which was 34
also a mainframe computer brought for same purpose.
 Mainframe Computer

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3. Mini Computer
• This computer are smaller than mainframe computer and are more
powerful and expensive compare with micro-computer.
• They use terminal and are connected with more than 50 terminal at
a time. Hence, it can handle much more amount of input and output
than micro computer.

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• The capability of mini computer is somewhere in between
mainframe and micro computer.
• They are often called mid-range computer. This computer are used
for medium size business, industries, universities, banks due to easy
operation than mainframe computer.
• Eg, Data general, NECK, MAGNUM
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 Mini Computer

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4. Micro Computer
• These are the smallest computer develop till date they use micro-
processor as their major processing unit. Hence, they are called
micro-computers.
• This computer are small and low cost digital computer.
• They are also called home computer or personal computer.

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• This days we can find various micro computer that has various
processing speed, storage, capacity and size according to cost.
• They are normally used in office, home, school, shop etc.
• Micro Computer are also found in various shape and size.
• They are desktop, Laptop and palmtop.

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 Micro Computer

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Super Computer vs Micro Computer
Super Computer Micro Computer
It is more powerful computer It is a less powerful computer
It is a faster computer in terms of It is a slower computer in terms of
processing. processing.
It is larger in size. It is the smallest computer on the basis of
size

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It is non-portable computer. It can be portable as well as non-portable.
It is most expensive computer. It is the cheapest
It requires numbers of experts or users to It can be handle by only one person
operate
It usually contains larger memory and It has less memory and storage capacity
storage capacity
It is a rarely used for some specific tasks. It is the most popular computer among all
It is used in weather forecasting, scientific It is used in office, house, etc 40
research
Eg: CRAY X-MP/24, NEC-500, etc Eg: Desktop PC, Laptop, Tablet
 On the basis of working principle
(function)
• Analog computer
• Digital computer
• Hybrid computer

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Analog Computer
• The computer which can process analog quantities (continuous data)
is called an analog computer.
• Analog computer operates by measuring rather than counting.
• It is a special purpose computer and is mainly used in scientific work

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and not for commercial or personal purposes.
• It has less storage capacity and its accuracy is poor compared to
digital computers.
• It is specially designed to computer physical forces such as
temperature, pressure.
• For example : thermometer, barometer, speedometer, ammeter etc.

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 Analog Computer

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Digital Computer
• The computer which works on discrete data (discontinuous data,
binary systems or 0 and 1) is known as a digital computer.
• The basic principle of these computers is either present or absence
of an electric pulse in the signals.
• It is multipurpose and programmable.

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• It has high cost, fast processing, more accurate and has larger
memory capacity.
• It is usually a general purpose computer.
• For example : IBM PC, IBM Compatible, Apple/Macintosh computer
etc.

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 Analog Vs Digital

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Hybrid Computer
• The computer which has a combined feature of both analog and
digital computers, is called hybrid computer.
• It can process both continuous and discrete data.
• It usually has the speed of analog computers and the accuracy of

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digital computers.
• It is generally used for special problems, thus it is a special purpose
computer.
• It usually has a high cost compared to analog and digital computers.
• It is mostly used in airplane, radar communication, rocket launching,
weather forecasting, hospital systems such as CT scan, heart valve
analysis etc.
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Mobile Computing and its Application
• A mobile computing device is created using mobile components,
such as mobile hardware and software.
• Mobile computing devices are portable devices capable of operating,
executing, providing services and applications like a computing
device.

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• Users can access data and information from wherever they are.

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Features of Mobile Computing
• It is a portable device that can be used during mobility.
• It has limited processing and storage capability.
• It includes mobile communication, mobile hardware and mobile software.
• It contains an on-screen or virtual keyboard for providing text inputs. However, an
external keyboard can be connected by using the USB port, infrared or Bluetooth.
• It contains camera, speaker and microphone.
• It contains handwriting recognition software.

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• Most of the mobile computing devices contain a memory card slot to expand the
storage capacity.
• It has wireless connectivity such as Bluetooth, Wi-Fi to connect the Internet or with
other computing devices as well as a wired connection through the USB port.
• The most mobile computing device can synchronize their data with applications on
users' computers.
• It can be used for cloud computing and remote access.
• It uses a mobile computing operating system such as Android, iOS, Windows Mobile OS
etc.
• It can include GPS (Global Positioning System) receiver for navigation.
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Advantages of mobile computing
• It enables users to work from any location at any time.
• It saves time for accessing data and information.
• It helps to increase the productivity of users reducing time and cost.
• It has made research easier.

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• It is one of the major handheld sources of entertainment of users at
present.
• It is portable.
• It supports cloud computing.
• It provides remote access to the organizational data from any
location.
• It is an independent platform i.e. it can be accessed from any 49
hardware or software.
Disadvantages of mobile computing
• Mobile technology requires faster and quality connectivity services
like either Wi-Fi or GPS or 3G or 4G connectivity.
• It has security concerns, most wireless connectivity is unsafe.
• Large power consumption due to the use of batteries continuously

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and they do not tend to last long.
• Extensive use of mobile devices results in health problems.

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Concept of Computer Architecture and
Organization
Computer Architecture
• The design, arrangement, construction or organization of the
different parts of a computer system is known as Computer
Architecture. It is the conceptual design and fundamental
operational structure of a computer system.

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• Computer organization refers to the operational units and their
interconnections that realize the architecture specification.
Computer organization deals with physical aspects of computer
design, memory and their types as well as the microprocessor
design.

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Components of Computer System
1. Input unit
• It is one of the basic units which accepts the data and instructions
from the outside world.
• Convert the data and instructions from the outside world into a form
that the computer can understand.
• Supply the converted data to the computer system for further

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processing.
2. Output unit
• It provides results after data processing to the user.
• The result is taken from the main storage and fed to an output device
in the form of either hardcopy output or softcopy output.
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• It performs all types of data processing operations.
• It stores data, intermediate results and instructions (programs). 52
• It monitors the functionality of all computer components.
CPU is further divided into three units :
Control Unit
• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among
other units of computer.
• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
• It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them and directs

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the operation of the computer.
• It communicates with input/output devices for transfer of data or results
from storage.

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CPU is further divided into three units :
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• The Arithmetic sections performs arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, Modulus Division etc.
• The Logic section performs logical operations like comparing, selecting,
matching and merging of data and give result in 'True' or 'False'.

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• Upon completion of the arithmetic operation, the data to be arithmetically
manipulated are copied from memory and placed in registers (memory
unit for processing).

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CPU is further divided into three units :
Memory Unit (Register Array)
• All the data and instructions required for processing are stored in the
memory unit.
• Intermediate results of any data processing are stored in the memory unit.
• It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to

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an output device.
• All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

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Block Diagram of Computer
System

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Concept of System Bus
• A bus is a collection of wires, chips and slots inside the computer
through which data are transmitted from one part of the computer
to another (in and out) from peripheral devices.
• It is a set of parallel distinct wires, serving different purposes, which
allow devices attached to it to communicate with the CPU.

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Concept of System Bus

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Three main parts of System Bus:
Data bus :
• Data bus transfers data from one location to another across the
computer. The meaningful data which is to be sent or retrieved from
a device is placed on these lines. These lines are bidirectional, data
flow in both directions between the processor and memory and

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peripheral devices.
Address bus
• The address bus carries a memory address from the processor to
other components such as primary storage and input/output devices.
It allows CPU to reference memory locations within the device. The
processor uses the address bus to perform the function of identifying
a peripheral or a memory location. It is unidirectional i.e bits flow in 59
one direction, from the processor to peripherals.
Three main parts of System Bus:
Control bus
• Control bus is a group of conducting wires which carries control
signals from the processor to other components. The control signal is
used for controlling and coordinating of the various activities across
the computer. It is generated from the control unit within the CPU.

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 Concept of Memory

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Types of Memory Unit
• There are two types of memory used in our computer system.
1. Primary memory/Main memory
2. Secondary memory/Auxiliary Memory

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Primary Memory/main Memory
• Primary Memory is also known as main memory of computer. This is
the place where our data and instruction are stored before
processing and the result are stored before displaying output.
Memory which stores data and information currently being used by
the computer is known as primary memory.

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Features of Primary Memory
• It is not used to store data permanently.
• It is usually volatile except ROM.
• It is usually expensive and faster than Secondary storage.
• It is normally used for smaller storage.

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• It is not used to transfer data from one computer to another
computer.
• It is made up of semiconducting material.

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Random Access Memory (RAM)
• RAM is the read/write memory of the computer i.e. both the
information can be written into the RAM and read from the RAM.
• It possesses random access property that means CPU can access any
memory location in a random sequence without going through any
other memory location.

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• It is a volatile memory i.e it stores data or information as long as the
power supply is on and when the power supply goes off, the stored
content in RAM will be lost.

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Two types of RAM :
• SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
• DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)

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 Differences between SRAM AND
DRAM
Static RAM Dynamic RAM
SRAM stores data or programs as long as the DRAM losses its stored information in a very
power supply is 'ON‘ state. short time (few milliseconds) even though
the power supply is 'ON' state.
It does not require a refreshing circuit. It needs to be refreshed periodically so as to

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retain data or programs stored in RAM, so
refreshing circuit is needed.
It has a higher speed compared to DRAM. It has lower speed than SRAM.
It stores bit as voltage. It stores bit as charge.
It is expensive. It is cheaper.
The memory cell of SRAM is larger in size and The memory cell of DRAM is smaller in size
loosely packed. and is tightly packed.
It is usually available in a smaller storage It is usually available in large storage capacity 68
capacity of a few MB. of few GB.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
• ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
• It can be used only to perform the read operation, it does not have
writing capabilities.
• It is a non-volatile memory i.e the information stored in it is

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permanent and not lost even if the power supply is cut down.
• It is used for permanent storage of programs.
• ROM is more expensive than RAM while comparing on the basis of
storage capacity.

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Three types of ROM
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)

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PROM (Programmable Read Only
Memory)
• It is a programmable ROM. It is once programmable i.e. the user can
write data in a PROM only once.
• Users can store permanent programs, data or any kind of information
in a PROM.
• A special equipment called ROM programmer or ROM burner is

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available for storing data in PROM.

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EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read
Only Memory)
• EPROM is an erasable PROM.
• The data stored in EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet
(UV) light.
• When an EPROM is exposed to ultraviolet light, the entire data are

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erased.
• The user cannot erase the content of certain selected memory
location. It is used to store programs, which are permanent but need
frequent updating.
• It is usually reprogrammed without removing it from the circuit
board. It is far economical than PROM as it can be reused.

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EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory)
• EEPROM is an electrically erasable PROM.
• It can be erased and reprogrammed on the byte by byte basis. Either
a single byte or the entire chip can be erased in one operation.
• It requires a much shorter time, a few milliseconds for erasing as

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compared to EPROM.
• Varying with different manufacturers, it has a limit on the number of
times for which it can be reprogrammed.
• It does not need to be removed from the circuit board for erasing as
EPROM.

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 Differences between RAM AND
ROM
RAM ROM
RAM stands for Random Access Memory. ROM stands for Read Only Memory.
It allows both read and write operations. It allows only read operation.

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It is volatile in nature i.e. data are lost when It is non-volatile in nature and used for
the power supply is switched off. permanent storage.

It usually has a higher memory space than It usually has less memory space than RAM.
ROM.
It is cheaper while comparing on the basis of It is expensive while comparing on the basis
storage capacity. of storage capacity.

The types of RAM are SRAM and DRAM. The types of ROM are PROM, EPROM and
EEPROM. 74
Cache Memory
• Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which
can speed up the CPU.
• It is small amount of RAM built directly within the processor.
• It is used to temporarily hold data and instructions that the processor

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is likely to reuse.
• Whenever the processor needs any piece of data or instructions, it
checks the cache first.
• If it is unavailable there, then the main memory and finally secondary
memory is accessed.
• It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most
frequently used by CPU.
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 Cache Memory

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Buffer Memory
• A buffer memory in a computer is a temporary storage area in the
main memory (RAM). It is a storage space set aside to hold data
before it gets processed. Buffers usually get a First-In-First-Out (FIFO)
arrangement where data being buffered comes in one end and data
is read in order from oldest to newest.

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• Buffers are used for many purposes, including :
i. Interconnecting two digital circuits operating at different rates
ii. Holding data for later use
iii. Allowing timing corrections to be made on a data stream
iv. Collecting binary data bits into groups that can then be operated
on as a unit
v. Delaying the transit time of a signal in order to allow other
operations to occur 77
Secondary Memory/ Auxiliary
Memory
• Memory which stores data and information permanently for future
reference is known as secondary memory.
• It is a permanent memory where data and instruction remains forever.
• It has a huge storage capacity up to Gigabytes, Terabytes or even more.
• It is also known as auxiliary, external or backup memory. Its features are :

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i. It is not directly accessible by CPU, it requires primary memory for its
operation.
ii. It is used for storing data and programs permanently.
iii. It is usually a non-volatile memory.
iv. It is usually slower to read/write operation than primary memory.
v. It is normally used in a larger storage capacity.
vi. It can be magnetic, optical or a semiconductor memory.
78
vii. It can be used for transferring data from one computer to another.
Primary Memory Vs Secondary Memory
Primary Memory Secondary Memory
It is also called main, internal or system It is also called auxiliary, external or backup
memory. memory.
It holds data, program and information which It holds data, programs and information
are currently under execution. permanently.
It is directly accessible to CPU. It is not directly accessible to CPU. It requires

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primary memory for its operation.
It is usually volatile memory except for ROM. It is a non-volatile memory.
It cannot be used for carrying data from one It can be used for transferring data from one
computer to another. computer to another.
It is expensive. It is cheaper.
It is faster to read/write operations. It is slower to read/write operations.
It is used in smaller storage capacity in PC. It is used in larger storage capacity in PC.
It is on board memory (internal) i.e. it is the It is the external media and attached to the 79
part of a motherboard. motherboard as a separate device.
For example : RAM, ROM, Cache memory For example : Hard disk, CD, Pendrive etc.
Input Device
• The device used to feed the data, instructions and commands to the
computer is known as input device.
• An input device converts input data into suitable form acceptable to
a computer.
• It is a medium of communication between user and the computer.

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80
Some commonly used input
devices are:
Keyboard
• The keyboard is the most common means of hardware by which user
will input the data. It looks like an electronic typewriter keyboard but
contains keys for specific purposes. It is quite similar to the keyboard
of the typewriter (QWERTY) but contains some additional keys.

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• Most keyboards have the following keys :
i. Alphanumeric keys (letters and numbers)
ii. Punctuation keys (comma, semicolon and so on)
iii. Special keys (function keys, control keys, arrow keys, capslock key
and so on)

81
Some commonly used input
devices are:
Mouse
• Mouse is a small hand held pointing and clicking input device used to
control the position of the cursor on the screen. It is a small plastic
box with two or three buttons on the top. Two rotating wheels inside
the mouse detect the movement and the direction of the movement.

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It is also called an electromechanical hand-held device.
• There are usually two types of mouse available in the market. They
are :
i. Mechanical mouse
ii. Optical mouse

82
Some commonly used input
devices are:
Joystick
• A joystick is a pointing input device. It moves in all directions and controls
the movement of a pointer or some display symbol. It is similar to a mouse.
It is used principally in video games and in some computer-aided design
systems. As the handle is moved around, the movement is translated into
binary signals with the help of electronic contacts in its base.

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Scanner
• A scanner is an input device which is used to enter text, images and graphs
printed on paper directly into the computer. It converts the hard copy into
digital form and saves into the computer. It provides faster and more
accurate data entry. It is an important and popular input device these days.

83
Some commonly used input
devices are:
Optical Mark Reader / Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
• The OMR is a device that reads pencil marks or shades and converts them
into computer usable form. The data that is to be interpreted from the OMR
sheets are mostly in the form of markings such as ticks, dots, darkened
circles or dashes. It is mainly used to read answer sheets of multiple choice
questions.

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Optical Character Reader (OCR)
• The OCR reads printed characters directly, converts them into appropriate
codes and stores them in a computer. When light source is passed over a
document, written or typed character reflects less light than the
background area. Thus, the shape of the character is determined. Each
character is scanned several times and an electronic picture of it is built up.
Nowadays, advanced OCR system can also read handwritten text.

84
Some commonly used input
devices are:
Bar Code Reader (BCR)
• Bar code reader is a photo-electric scanner that reads bar codes. Bar code is an
identification code printed in the form of light and dark bars with coded spacing and
thickness which contains identification of an item such as price, quality, and
manufacturer. It is mostly used in the supermarket, bookshop, library etc.
Touch Screen
• A touchscreen is a video display screen that can be used by touching it with a finger or a

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stylus pen, instead of using mouse and keyboard. It can be described as a touchpad with
a screen built-in to it. When a specific point is touched by finger tips, related program is
activated. It is a modern and advanced technology applied in laptops, cameras, mobile
phones and lot more modern electronic devices.
Touch Pad
• It is one of the latest pointing devices. It looks like the small grey window, about two
inches wide. The user slides his finger tip across the window to move the cursor on the
screen. When the window is tapped, it works as the clicking of mouse button. It is used in
laptops.

85
Some commonly used input
devices are:
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
• The MICR is an input device, which reads the characters printed using
magnetic ink. Magnetic ink is a special type of ink containing iron-oxide
particles, which is used to write characters. The MICR is mostly used in the
bank for processing cheque.
Microphone

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• The microphone is an input device used for recording voice or sound. It is
widely used for the sound input to the computer for voice mail,
videoconferencing, video chat etc.
Digital Camera
• A digital camera is an input device that captures pictures and videos which
are in the digitized form and can be stored in computers. It can take the
photo and load them directly from the camera digitally to a main storage or
secondary storage device.

86
Output devices
• An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment
which converts information into human-readable form. The
computer-processed information consists 0s and 1s, which needs to
be translated into words, numbers or pictures that people can
understand.

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• The two principal kinds of output are :
i. Hardcopy output
ii. Softcopy output

87
Softcopy Output Devices
• Monitor is the display screen that is used to display the text and
graphics, allowing users to view the result of the processing. It is the
most common and popularly used output device for producing
softcopy output. It displays the generated output on a television like
a screen.

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Classification of Monitor on the Basis
of their Display Technique
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
Merits of CRT monitor
• It is comparatively cheaper than other monitors.
• It has better brightness.
• It has the larger viewing angle of almost 180 degrees.

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• It has better graphics quality.
• It is comparatively durable.
Demerits of CRT monitor
• It has larger power requirement.
• It is larger and heavier.
• It cannot be used in portable computing devices.
• It is not better for the human eye due to larger radiation.
89
Classification of Monitor on the Basis
of their Display Technique
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

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90
Classification of Monitor on the Basis
of their Display Technique
2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor
Merits of LCD monitor
• It is smaller and lighter.
• It can be used in portable computing devices.
• It has low power requirement as compared to CRT monitor.

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• It is better for the human eye due to its low brightness and low radiation.
Demerits of LCD monitor
• It has limited the viewing angle compared to other monitors.
• It is expensive than CRT monitor.
• It has low brightness. So, it is difficult to view in a brighter environment.

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Classification of Monitor on the Basis
of their Display Technique
2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Monitor

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92
Classification of Monitor on the Basis
of their Display Technique
3. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitor
Merits of LED monitor
• It is smaller and lighter.
• It can be used in portable computing devices.
• It has low power requirement.
• It is better for human eye similar to LCD monitor.

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• It provides better brightness as compared to LCD and plasma monitor.
• It has the larger viewing angle of almost 180 degress.
Demerits of LED monitor
• It is an expensive monitor.
• It has low brightness compared to CRT monitor.
• It is difficult to maintain.

93
Classification of Monitor on the Basis
of their Display Technique
3. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Monitor

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94
Hardcopy Output Devices
• The output which is in the printed form is called hard copy. The
device used to generate the hardcopy is called hardcopy output
device. Generally, a printer is considered as a hardcopy output
device.

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95
Hardcopy Output Devices
Printer
• The printer is a peripheral device used to print text, picture,
illustrations, figure and image. It is used to produce hardcopy output
i.e. in the permanent readable form.
• There are two types of printer : Impact printer and Non-impact

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printer.

96
A. Impact printer
• An impact printer has the mechanism resembling that of a typewriter. That is, an
impact printer forms character or image by striking a mechanism such as print hammer
or wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper.
• For example : Dot Matrix printer, Line printer, Daisy-wheel printer
• Characteristics of Impact printer
i. It prints by physically touching the printing material.
ii. It uses mechanical method for printing.

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iii. It is noisy.
iv. It is slower for printing.
v. The printing quality is not good as from non-impact printer.
vi. It is usually single colored.
vii. It can produce multiple copies at a same time by using carbon paper.
viii. It uses ink ribbon for printing.
ix. It is rarely used at present.

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 A. Impact printer

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98
B. Non-impact printer
• A non-impact printer is faster and quieter than the impact printer because they
have fewer moving parts. It forms characters and images without making direct
physical contact between printing mechanism and paper.
• For example : Laser printer, Ink-jet printer
• Characteristics of Non-impact printer
i. It prints by spraying liquid or powder ink.

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ii. It uses electromagnetic or electrostatic mechanism for printing.
iii. It produces low noise.
iv. It is faster for printing.
v. The printing quality is better than the impact printer.
vi. It can be either single or multi-colored.
vii. It cannot produce multiple copies at a same time.
viii. It uses liquid or powder ink for printing.
ix. It is popularly used at present.
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B. Non-impact printer

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100
Impact printer Vs Non-impact
printer
Impact printer Non-impact printer
Impact printer uses electromechanical Non-impact printer does not use
mechanism that causes hammers or pins electromechanical printing rather it uses
to strike against a ribbon and paper to the electrostatic, laser beam or ink jet
print the text. technology for printing the text and

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images.
The efficiency of this printer is less. It has higher efficiency.
It is slower. It is faster.
Is uses force for printing and produces It does not use force and hence produces
more sound while printing. less sound while printing.
It cannot print graphics perfectly. It can print graphics perfectly.
It is usually single colored. It can be single or multi-colored.
It uses ink ribbon for printing. It uses liquid or powder ink for printing 101
It is rarely used at present. It is popularly used at present.
For example : Dot Matrix printer, Line For example : Laser printer, Ink-jet printer
printer, Daisy-wheel printer
C. Laser printer
• Laser printer is a non-impact, page printer.
• An entire page is processed at a time.
• It produces high quality print.
• Print resolution ranges from 300 to more than 2400 dp.

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• It is more expensive than other printers.
• They produce sharp, crisp images of both text and graphics.
• They are quieter and faster than dot-matrix printer.

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 C. Laser printer

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C. Laser printer
Merits of Laser Printer
• It produces low noise and is faster for printing compared to impact printer.
• It has low operating cost.
• It is appropriate for large volume printing.
• It can be single or multi-colored.

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• It has better printing quality.
• It can print images and text of any size or font.
Demerits of Laser Printer
• It is expensive to buy.
• It cannot print multiple copies at a same time.
• It is not appropriate for continuous printing.

104
Any questions or

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doubts?

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 Unit 1: COMPUTER SYSTEM
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