COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING &
TECHNOLOGY
Department: Basic and Applied Sciences
Coordinators: Dr. Mohamed Anwar
Course: advanced physics
Course Code: EBA 1106
Lecture 4
Thermodynamic
First Law of Thermodynamics Thermodynamic Processes, P-V Diagram.
Supercooling
If liquid water is held perfectly still in a very clean container, it is possible for the
temperature to drop below 0o C without freezing.
This phenomena is called supercooling.
It arises because the water requires a disturbance of some sort for the molecules
to move apart and start forming the open ice crystal structures.
▪ This structure makes the density of ice less than that of water.
If the supercooled water is disturbed, it immediately freezes and the energy
released returns the temperature to 0o C.
Section 20.3
Superheating
Water can rise to a temperature greater than 100o C without boiling.
This phenomena is called superheating.
The formation of a bubble of steam in the water requires nucleation site.
▪ This could be a scratch in the container or an impurity in the water.
When disturbed, the superheated water can become explosive.
▪ The bubbles will immediately form and hot water is forced upward and out of
the container.
Section 20.3
State Variables
State variables describe the state of a system.
Variables may include:
▪ Pressure, temperature, volume, internal energy
The state of an isolated system can be specified only if the system is in thermal
equilibrium internally.
▪ For a gas in a container, this means every part of the gas must be at the
same pressure and temperature.
Section 20.4
Transfer Variables
Transfer variables are zero unless a process occurs in which energy is
transferred across the boundary of a system.
Transfer variables are not associated with any given state of the system, only
with changes in the state.
▪ Heat and work are transfer variables.
Transfer variable can be positive or negative, depending on whether energy is
entering or leaving the system.
Section 20.4
Work in Thermodynamics
Work can be done on a deformable
system, such as a gas.
Consider a cylinder with a moveable
piston.
A force is applied to slowly compress
the gas.
▪ The compression is slow enough
for all the system to remain
essentially in thermal equilibrium.
▪ This is said to occur quasi-
statically.
Section 20.4
Work, 2
The piston is pushed downward by a force through a displacement of:
dW = F d r = −Fˆj dyˆj = −Fdy = −PA dy
A.dy is the change in volume of the gas, dV.
Therefore, the work done on the gas is
dW = -P dV
Section 20.4
Work, 3
Interpreting dW = - P dV
▪ If the gas is compressed, dV is negative and the work done on the gas is
positive.
▪ If the gas expands, dV is positive and the work done on the gas is negative.
▪ If the volume remains constant, the work done is zero.
The total work done is:
Vf
W = − P dV
V i
Section 20.4
PV Diagrams
Used when the pressure and volume
are known at each step of the process.
The state of the gas at each step can
be plotted on a graph called a PV
diagram.
▪ This allows us to visualize the
process through which the gas is
progressing.
The curve is called the path.
Section 20.4
PV Diagrams, cont
The work done on a gas in a quasi-static process that takes the gas from an
initial state to a final state is the negative of the area under the curve on the PV
diagram, evaluated between the initial and final states.
▪ This is true whether or not the pressure stays constant.
▪ The work done does depend on the path taken.
Section 20.4
Work Done By Various Paths
Each of these processes has the same initial and final states.
The work done differs in each process.
The work done depends on the path.
Section 20.4
Work From a PV Diagram, Example 1
The volume of the gas is first reduced
from Vi to Vf at constant pressure Pi.
Next, the pressure increases from Pi to
Pf by heating at constant volume Vf.
W = -Pi (Vf – Vi)
Section 20.4
Work From a PV Diagram, Example 2
The pressure of the gas is increased
from Pi to Pf at a constant volume.
The volume is decreased from Vi to Vf .
W = -Pf (Vf – Vi)
Work From a PV Diagram, Example 3
The pressure and the volume
continually change.
The work is some intermediate value
between –Pf (Vf – Vi) and –Pi (Vf – Vi).
To evaluate the actual amount of work,
the function P (V ) must be known.
Section 20.4
Energy Transfer, 1
The energy transfer, Q, into or out of a
system also depends on the process.
The energy reservoir is a source of
energy that is considered to be so great
that a finite transfer of energy does not
change its temperature.
The piston is held at its internal position
by an external agent.
Section 20.4
Energy Transfer, 2
The external force is reduced.
The piston is moving upward and the
gas is doing work on the piston.
During this expansion, just enough
energy is transferred by heat from the
reservoir to the gas to maintain a
constant temperature.
Section 20.4
Energy Transfer, Isolated System 1
The system is completely thermally
insulated.
When the membrane is broken, the gas
expands rapidly into the vacuum until it
comprises the final volume.
The gas does no work because it does
not apply a force.
No energy is transferred by heat
through the insulating wall.
Section 20.4
Energy Transfer, Summary
Energy transfers by heat, like the work done, depend on the initial, final, and
intermediate states of the system.
Both work and heat depend on the path taken.
Neither can be determined solely by the end points of a thermodynamic process.
Section 20.4
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics is a special case of the Law of Conservation of
Energy.
▪ It is a special cases when only the internal energy changes and the only
energy transfers are by heat and work.
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that
DEint = Q + W
▪ All quantities must have the same units of measure of energy.
One consequence of the first law is that there must exist some quantity known as
internal energy which is determined by the state of the system.
▪ The internal energy is therefore a state variable.
Section 20.5
Isolated Systems
An isolated system is one that does not interact with its surroundings.
▪ No energy transfer by heat takes place.
▪ The work done on the system is zero.
▪ Q = W = 0, so DEint = 0
The internal energy of an isolated system remains constant.
Section 20.5
Cyclic Processes
A cyclic process is one that starts and ends in the same state.
▪ This process would not be isolated.
▪ On a PV diagram, a cyclic process appears as a closed curve.
The internal energy must be zero since it is a state variable.
If DEint = 0, Q = -W
In a cyclic process, the net work done on the system per cycle equals the area
enclosed by the path representing the process on a PV diagram.
Section 20.5
Adiabatic Process
An adiabatic process is one during
which no energy enters or leaves the
system by heat.
▪ Q=0
▪ This is achieved by:
▪ Thermally insulating the walls of
the system
▪ Having the process proceed so
quickly that no heat can be
exchanged
Section 20.6
Adiabatic Process, cont
Since Q = 0, DEint = W
If the gas is compressed adiabatically, W is positive so DEint is positive and the
temperature of the gas increases.
If the gas expands adiabatically, the temperature of the gas decreases.
Some important examples of adiabatic processes related to engineering are:
▪ The expansion of hot gases in an internal combustion engine
▪ The liquefaction of gases in a cooling system
▪ The compression stroke in a diesel engine
Section 20.6
Adiabatic Free Expansion
The process is adiabatic because it takes place in an insulated container.
Because the gas expands into a vacuum, it does not apply a force on a piston
and W = 0.
Since Q = 0 and W = 0, DEint = 0 and the initial and final states are the same
▪ No change in temperature is expected.
Section 20.6
Isobaric Processes
An isobaric process is one that occurs at a constant pressure.
▪ May be accomplished by allowing the piston to move freely so that it is
always in equilibrium between the net force from the gas pushing upward
and the weight of the piston plus the force due to atmospheric pressure
pushing downward
The values of the heat and the work are generally both nonzero.
The work done is W = -P (Vf – Vi) where P is the constant pressure.
Section 20.6
Isovolumetric Processes
An isovolumetric process is one in which there is no change in the volume.
▪ This may be accomplished by clamping the piston at a fixed position.
Since the volume does not change, W = 0.
From the first law, DEint = Q
If energy is added by heat to a system kept at constant volume, all of the
transferred energy remains in the system as an increase in its internal energy.
Section 20.6
Isothermal Process
An isothermal process is one that occurs at a constant temperature.
▪ This can be accomplished by putting the cylinder in contact with some
constant-temperature reservoir.
Since there is no change in temperature, DEint = 0.
Therefore, Q = - W
Any energy that enters the system by heat must leave the system by work.
Section 20.6
Isothermal Process, cont
At right is a PV diagram of an
isothermal expansion.
The curve is a hyperbola.
The equation of the curve is
P V = n R T = constant.
The curve is called an isotherm.
Section 20.6
Isothermal Expansion, Details
Because it is an ideal gas and the process is quasi-static, the ideal gas law is
valid for each point on the path.
Vf Vf nRT Vf dV
W = − P dV = − dV = −nRT
Vi Vi V Vi V
V
W = nRT ln i
Vf
Numerically, the work equals the negative of the area under the PV diagram.
Because the gas expands, Vf > Vi and the value of the work done on the gas is
negative.
If the gas is compressed, Vf < Vi and the value of the work done on the gas is
positive.
Section 20.6
Special Processes, Summary
Adiabatic
▪ No heat exchanged
▪ Q = 0 and DEint = W
Isobaric
▪ Constant pressure
▪ W = P (Vf – Vi) and DEint = Q + W
Isothermal
▪ Constant temperature
▪ DEint = 0 and Q = -W
Section 20.6
PROBLEM19
