UNIT 1: STATES OF MATTER ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

Particle Nature of Matter

• Definition of Matter:
Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter.

• Historical Understanding of Matter:

• Greek Philosophy:
Believed that fire, water, air, and earth are the basic building blocks of all materials. Properties of substances
were attributed to different combinations of these four elements.

• Indian Philosophy:
Proposed that matter is composed of five fundamental elements (bhutas):

o Akash (Sky or Ether)

o Vayu (Air)

o Tejas (Fire)

o Ap (Water)

o Kshiti (Earth)

• Rishi Kanada's Contribution:

The great Indian philosopher Rishi Kanada suggested that all matter (Padarth), irrespective of its physical
state, is composed of extremely small particles called Anu (atoms).

• Modern Understanding of Matter:

• Matter is made up of basic building blocks known as elements, which are currently 118 in number.

• Element:
A substance that cannot be subdivided into simpler substances by chemical means.

• Atom:
The smallest unit of an element that may or may not have an independent existence but always participates
in a chemical reaction.

• Molecule:
The smallest unit of matter that has an independent existence and retains all the physical and chemical
properties of the matter.

States of Matter and Particle Movement

• Solid: Particles are tightly packed, have a fixed shape, and only vibrate in place.

• Liquid: Particles are loosely packed, take the shape of their container, and flow past each other.

• Gas: Particles are very loosely packed, move freely, and spread out to fill the container.

Kinetic Theory of Matter

The kinetic theory of matter explains that matter is composed of particles (atoms and molecules) that are in constant
motion. The energy of these particles determines the state of the matter.

Change of State Using Kinetic Theory

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 1. Boiling:
Rapid vaporization of a liquid when it is heated to its boiling point.

2. Fusion:
The process of a solid turning into a liquid when heat is applied.

3. Sublimation:
Direct transition from a solid to a gas without passing through the liquid state.

4. Vaporization:
The process of turning liquid into vapor (gas) either through boiling or evaporation.

5. Evaporation:
The slow vaporization of a liquid from its surface, occurring at temperatures below the boiling point.

6. Deposition:
The direct transition from a gas to a solid without passing through the liquid state.

Observable Changes and Parameters in Experiments

• Melting: Solid to liquid transition.

• Condensation: Gas to liquid transition.

• Freezing: Liquid to solid transition.

Collecting Data and Presenting Results

• Conduct experiments to observe changes in states of matter.

• Record observations systematically and present results in the form of tables for clarity.

Example Table for Observing State Changes:

Process Initial State Final State Energy Exchange

Melting Solid Liquid Absorption of heat
Freezing Liquid Solid Release of heat
Condensation Gas Liquid Release of heat
Vaporization Liquid Gas Absorption of heat

Examples Illustrating Molecular Motion

1. Diffusion of Perfume:
When a drop of perfume is placed in a corner of a closed room, its fragrance spreads throughout the room,
suggesting that perfume molecules are in constant motion.

2. Dissolution of Salt in Water:

When a spoonful of salt is added to water, it dissolves without increasing the water level, indicating that salt
and water molecules are in motion and that there is space between them.

Key Points:

• Atoms and molecules are the fundamental units of matter.

• Matter exists in different states based on the energy and movement of its particles.

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 • Changes in the state of matter can be explained by the kinetic theory, which relates to the energy and
movement of particles.

• Experimental observations help in understanding the properties and behavior of matter.

Did You Know?

• The size of a molecule is nearly 10−10 m, which is too small to be seen even with a microscope!

ARRANGEMENT OF MOLECULES IN MATTER

Kinetic Theory of Matter Assumptions

1. Continuous Motion of Molecules:

• Molecules of any matter are in a state of continuous motion that does not stop over time.

• This continuous motion gives molecules kinetic energy.

1. Effect of Temperature on Kinetic Energy:

• The kinetic energy of molecules increases with an increase in temperature and decreases with a decrease in
temperature.

1. Forces Between Molecules:

• Molecules always attract each other.

• Force of Cohesion: Attraction between similar kinds of molecules.

• Force of Adhesion: Attraction between different kinds of molecules.

1. Intermolecular Space:

• The empty space between molecules is called intermolecular space.

1. Intermolecular Force of Attraction:

• The force of attraction between molecules (either cohesive or adhesive) is known as intermolecular force of
attraction.

1. Relationship Between Intermolecular Force and Space:

• The intermolecular force of attraction increases when the intermolecular space decreases and vice versa.

Key Ideas:

• Intermolecular forces are not due to masses or charges of molecules.

• These forces are strong and effective only up to a separation of approximately 10⁻⁹ m.

• The force vanishes if the separation between molecules exceeds 10 m.

Arrangement of Molecules in Solids (Example: Iron Weight)

1. Tightly Packed Molecules:

• Molecules in solids are very tightly packed.

1. Small Intermolecular Spaces:

• Small intermolecular spaces result in a strong force of attraction between molecules.

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 1. Fixed Position of Molecules:

• Intermolecular forces keep molecules in a fixed position.

1. Definite Shape and Volume:

• Due to fixed positions, solids have a definite shape and volume.

1. Rigidity and Hardness:

• Strong molecular attraction makes it difficult to separate the molecules, resulting in solids being rigid and
hard.

Arrangement of Molecules in Liquids (Example: Water)

1. Loosely Packed Molecules:

• Molecules in liquids are less tightly packed.

1. Larger Intermolecular Spaces:

• Larger intermolecular spaces cause molecules to attract each other with lesser force.

1. Interchangeable Positions:

• Due to weaker attraction, molecules can move and interchange positions.

1. Takes Shape of Container:

• Because molecules can move, liquids take the shape of the container they are in.

1. Definite Volume:

• The number of molecules remains the same, so liquids have a definite volume.

Arrangement of Molecules in Gases (Example: Air)

1. Widely Spaced Molecules:

• In gases, molecules are so far apart that they hardly attract each other.

1. Independent Movement:

• Molecules move independently, giving gases no definite shape or volume.

1. Filling of Available Space:

• Gases expand to fill the entire space they are enclosed in.

SURFACE TENSION

Definition:

• Surface Tension is the phenomenon where the exposed (top) surface of a liquid in a container behaves like a
stretched elastic membrane.

Cause of Surface Tension:

• Surface tension is primarily caused by unbalanced cohesive forces acting on the molecules near the surface
of the liquid.

Explanation:

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 1. Molecules Within the Liquid:

• Imagine a small cube of mercury in space.

• A molecule located inside (e.g., at point A) is surrounded by neighboring molecules.

• These surrounding molecules pull equally in all directions, resulting in no unbalanced force acting on it.

1. Molecules Near the Surface:

• Molecules near the surface experience unbalanced cohesive forces because they have fewer neighboring
molecules pulling them outward.

• This unbalanced force pulls the molecules inward, causing the surface to behave like a stretched membrane.

1. Realignment of Surface Molecules:

• The molecules at the surface realign themselves to minimize the unbalanced forces, creating surface
tension.

Effect of Surface Tension:

• When a small drop of mercury is placed on a glass surface, it takes a spherical shape due to surface tension.

• Mercury's Cohesion Force: Strong cohesive forces between mercury molecules lead to the formation of a
spherical shape.

• However, a drop of water forms an oval shape due to weaker cohesive forces and stronger adhesive forces
with the glass surface.

Formation of Meniscus in Liquids Contained in Narrow Vessels

Meniscus Definition:

• A meniscus is the curved shape formed by the exposed surface of a liquid when contained in a narrow vessel
like a test tube.

Types of Meniscus:

1. Convex Meniscus:

• Example: Mercury in a narrow glass tube.

• Reason: Molecules of mercury have strong cohesive forces but no adhesive force with the glass surface.

• Effect:

o Molecules near the surface are pulled inward due to unbalanced cohesive forces.

o To neutralize these forces, the molecules near the surface realign to form a convex shape (bulging
outward).

(Example: Fig. 1.6a - Convex Meniscus in Mercury)

1. Concave Meniscus:

• Example: Water, alcohol, and most other liquids in a narrow glass tube.

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 • Reason: Molecules of these liquids have a stronger adhesive force with the glass surface than their cohesive
force among themselves.

• Effect:

o Molecules tend to cling to the glass surface and rise up along it.

o This creates a depression in the middle, forming a concave shape (curving inward).

(Example: Fig. 1.6b - Concave Meniscus in Water)

Key Points:

• Surface Tension is due to unbalanced cohesive forces at the liquid's surface.

• Meniscus Formation is a result of the interplay between cohesive and adhesive forces.

• Convex Meniscus: Formed when cohesion > adhesion (e.g., mercury).

• Concave Meniscus: Formed when adhesion > cohesion (e.g., water, alcohol).

EXPLANATION OF LIQUID PRESSURE ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC MODEL

• Movement of Molecules in Liquids:

• The molecules in a liquid are not stationary; they move randomly in all possible directions.

• As these molecules move, they collide with the walls of the container.

• Cause of Liquid Pressure:

• The force exerted by the molecules when they strike against the container's sides is responsible for liquid
pressure.

• Liquid Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area on the sides of the containing vessel by the
molecules.

EXPLANATION OF GAS PRESSURE ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC MODEL

• Movement of Molecules in Gases:

• The molecules of a gas in a closed vessel move randomly in all possible directions, similar to liquids.

• These gas molecules collide with the walls of the vessel, creating force.

• Cause of Gas Pressure:

• The force exerted per unit area by gas molecules on the walls of the containing vessel results in gas
pressure.

EFFECT OF REDUCING THE VOLUME OF A GAS ON PRESSURE IN A CLOSED VESSEL

1. Understanding the Effect:

• Consider a cylinder filled with air and fitted with a pressure meter and an airtight piston.

• Initial volume of gas = 20 cm³, Initial pressure = 760 cm of mercury.

1. Compression Effect:

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 • When the gas is compressed to a volume of 10 cm³, the pressure recorded becomes 1520 cm of mercury,
which is double the initial pressure.

1. Explanation Based on Kinetic Model:

• Decrease in Volume:
The number of molecules per unit volume becomes double when the gas volume is halved.

• Resulting Pressure Increase:

Double the number of molecules strike against the sides of the vessel, doubling the force exerted per unit
area. Hence, the pressure doubles.

• Conversely, Increasing Volume:

Doubling the volume of the gas reduces the number of molecules per unit volume by half, resulting in half
the pressure.

EXPLANATION OF HEAT CONDUCTION ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC MODEL OF MATTER

• Definition of Conduction:

• Conduction is the process of heat energy transmission from one atom to another in the direction of lower
temperature without the actual movement of atoms from their mean positions.

• Explanation Based on Kinetic Model:

1. Heating a Solid from One End:

o When a solid is heated from one end, the atoms at that end gain heat energy, increasing
their kinetic energy.

2. Vibration and Energy Transfer:

o These energized atoms vibrate more about their mean positions and transfer part of their kinetic
energy to neighboring atoms.

3. Propagation of Heat Energy:

o This process continues along the length of the conductor, raising its temperature. Hence, heat is
transmitted by conduction.

Spotlight on Molecule Movement:

• Solids: Molecules vibrate about their mean positions without moving away.

• Liquids: Molecules move freely within the container's boundary.

• Gases: Molecules move randomly throughout the available space.

EXPLANATION OF HEAT CONVECTION ON THE BASIS OF KINETIC MODEL OF MATTER

• Definition of Convection:

• Convection is the process where particles of a medium move towards the heat source, absorb energy, and
then move away, allowing other particles to take their place.

• Explanation Based on Kinetic Model:

1. Heating Liquid in a Vessel:

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 o When a liquid in a vessel is heated from the base, the particles near the heat source absorb heat
energy.

2. Increase in Kinetic Energy:

o This energy absorption increases the kinetic energy of these particles, causing them to move more
vigorously and rise upward.

3. Formation of Convection Currents:

o As these energetic particles rise, the pressure falls in that region. To balance the pressure, cooler
particles from higher regions sink down towards the heat source, creating convection currents.

Exercise 1.1: Smart Solutions

A. Fill in the blank spaces by choosing the correct words from the list given below:

List: spaces, concave, adhesion, increases, surface tension

1. Kinetic energy of the molecules increases with an increase in temperature.

2. With an increase in the intermolecular spaces, the intermolecular forces decrease.

3. The phenomenon due to which the exposed surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched membrane is
called surface tension.

4. Mercury forms small spherical droplets because it has no force of adhesion with the surface of glass.

5. The meniscus formed by water in a test tube is of concave shape.

B. Statements given below are incorrect. Write the correct statements.

1. Incorrect Statement:
A molecule is the smallest unit of matter which may or may not have an independent existence, but always
takes part in a chemical reaction.

Correct Statement:
An atom is the smallest unit of an element that may or may not have an independent existence, but always takes
part in a chemical reaction.

A molecule is the smallest unit of matter that has an independent existence and retains the complete physical and
chemical properties of the substance.

C. Write 'True' or 'False' for the following statements:

1. With the decrease in intermolecular spaces, the intermolecular forces decrease.

Answer: False

2. Solids get heated by conduction only.

Answer: True

3. With the decrease in the volume of a gas, its pressure increases.

Answer: True

4. Mercury in a test tube forms a concave meniscus.

Answer: False

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 5. The position of molecules in a liquid continuously change.
Answer: True

D. Tick (✔) the most appropriate answer:

1. The intermolecular spaces in the case of liquids are:

(a) less than solids
(b) more than gases
(c) more than the solids and less than the gases ✔
(d) more than the solids and gases

2. The kinetic energy of molecules of a gas increases with:

(a) fall in temperature
(b) rise in temperature ✔

3. Heat is transmitted in liquids by the process of:

(a) conduction
(b) convection ✔
(c) radiation
(d) both conduction and convection

4. The top surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched membrane because:

(a) The molecules below the top surface exert upward pressure
(b) The molecules are attracted more to the sides of the containing vessel
(c) The molecules below the top surface attract the molecules above ✔
(d) none of these

5. The meniscus formed by mercury in a test tube is:

(a) convex ✔
(b) concave
(c) no meniscus is formed
(d) none of these

E. Match the statements in Column A with those in Column B:

Column A Column B
1. The phenomenon due to which the top surface of a liquid behaves (d) Surface tension
like a stretched membrane.
2. A substance which cannot be subdivided into two or more simpler (e) Element
substances by any chemical means.
3. The force of attraction between the molecules of a given (b) Intermolecular force
substance.
4. The force exerted per unit area by the molecules of a gas on the (a) Gas pressure
sides of the containing vessel.
5. The force due to which ink sticks to a piece of paper. (c) Adhesive force

F. Answer the following Questions:

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 1. Define the terms:

(a) Element: A substance that cannot be subdivided into two or more simpler substances by any chemical means.

(b) Atom: The smallest unit of an element that may or may not have an independent existence but always takes part
in a chemical reaction.

(c) Molecule: The smallest unit of matter that has an independent existence and retains the complete physical and
chemical properties of the substance.

2. State five important assumptions of the kinetic theory of matter:

• Matter is made up of extremely small particles called molecules.

• Molecules are in a state of continuous motion.

• The kinetic energy of molecules increases with an increase in temperature.

• The force of attraction between molecules decreases with an increase in intermolecular spaces.

• Collisions between molecules are perfectly elastic, meaning no energy is lost.

1. Explain the following on the basis of the kinetic theory of matter:

(a) Solids have a definite volume and definite shape:

Molecules in solids are tightly packed with strong intermolecular forces, restricting them to fixed positions. This
arrangement gives solids a definite shape and volume.

(b) Liquids have a definite volume, but no definite shape:

Molecules in liquids are less tightly packed than solids and have weaker intermolecular forces. They can move past
each other, which gives liquids a definite volume but no definite shape.

(c) Gases have no definite volume and no definite shape:

Molecules in gases are far apart with negligible intermolecular forces. They move freely in all directions, resulting in
no definite volume or shape.

2. (a) What do you understand by the term surface tension?

Surface tension is the phenomenon due to which the exposed surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched
membrane.

(b) Name the force responsible for surface tension in liquids:

Cohesive force is responsible for surface tension in liquids.

3. Explain the following:

(a) A very small amount of mercury on placing over a clean glass plate forms a tiny spherical ball:
Mercury has a strong cohesive force between its molecules and no adhesive force with glass, resulting in a spherical
shape due to surface tension.

(b) A very small amount of water on placing over a clean glass plate forms an oval-shaped drop:
Water molecules have a weaker cohesive force among themselves but a strong adhesive force with glass, causing it
to spread out and form an oval shape.

4. (a) What do you understand by the term meniscus?

A meniscus is the curved shape formed by the exposed surface of a liquid in a narrow vessel.

(b) Name the kind of meniscus formed:

• In the case of water: Concave meniscus

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 • In the case of mercury: Convex meniscus

1. On the basis of the kinetic model, explain how liquids exert pressure:
Molecules in a liquid move randomly and collide with the walls of their container, exerting force. The force
exerted per unit area on the container's sides is called liquid pressure.

2. On the basis of the kinetic model, explain how gases exert pressure:
Gas molecules move randomly and collide with the walls of their container, exerting force. The force exerted
per unit area on the container's sides is called gas pressure.

3. Explain the heating of an iron rod by conduction on the basis of the kinetic model:
When an iron rod is heated, atoms gain kinetic energy and vibrate more. These vibrating atoms transfer
kinetic energy to neighboring atoms without actual movement, resulting in conduction.

4. Liquids and gases get heated by convection. Explain convection on the basis of the kinetic model:
When a liquid or gas is heated, particles near the heat source absorb energy, increasing their kinetic energy.
These particles move away from the heat source, and cooler particles take their place, forming convection
currents.

UNIT 2: CHANGE OF STATE IN MATTER USING KINETIC THEORY

CHANGE OF STATE

• When a substance absorbs or gives out heat energy, its state can change along with a rise or fall in
temperature or a change in dimensions.

• Example:

• Solid to Liquid: When ice is heated, it changes to water (liquid state).

• Liquid to Gas: Further heating of water changes it into steam (gaseous state).

• Gas to Liquid: If steam cools down, it releases heat energy and changes back to water.

• Liquid to Solid: Cooling water further changes it into ice.

CHANGE OF STATE FROM SOLID TO LIQUID USING KINETIC THEORY

• Heating a Solid:

• When a solid is heated, its molecules absorb heat energy, increasing their kinetic energy.

• The molecules vibrate more vigorously about their mean positions, increasing the intermolecular spaces.

• Increased spaces weaken the intermolecular forces holding the molecules together.

• A point is reached where the kinetic energy overcomes the intermolecular forces.

• Result of Increased Kinetic Energy:

• Molecules begin to interchange their positions, leading to a change from a solid to a liquid state.

• During this state change, the heat energy does not increase the temperature but is used to work against the
forces of attraction and increase the separation between molecules (potential energy).

• Key Terms:

• Melting or Fusion: The process of changing from solid to liquid.

• Melting Point: The temperature at which this change occurs.

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 CHANGE OF STATE FROM LIQUID TO GAS USING KINETIC THEORY

• Heating a Liquid:

• When a liquid is heated, its molecules absorb heat energy, which increases their kinetic energy.

• As the average kinetic energy of the molecules increases, the temperature of the liquid rises.

• This rise in temperature increases intermolecular spaces and further weakens intermolecular forces.

• Result of Increased Kinetic Energy:

• A stage is reached where kinetic energy surpasses the intermolecular forces, causing the energetic
molecules to leave the liquid and change into a gaseous state.

• At this point, the absorbed heat energy does not change the kinetic energy (temperature) but is used
to increase the potential energy by separating the molecules.

• Key Terms:

• Boiling: The process of changing from liquid to gas at a fixed temperature.

• Latent Heat of Vaporization: The amount of heat energy required to change a liquid to gas without any
temperature rise.

INVESTIGATION 1.1: TO STUDY THE CHANGE OF STATE OF ICE

Materials Required:

• A 200 cc beaker

• A thermometer (°C)

• An iron stand

• A wire gauze

• A Bunsen burner

• About 100 g of ice

Method:

1. Place the beaker on a wire gauze and tripod stand.

2. Pour about 100 g of ice cubes into the beaker.

3. Insert a thermometer in such a way that its bulb is completely surrounded by ice and suspend it from the
iron stand.

4. Record the temperature of the ice.

5. Heat the beaker using a Bunsen burner.

• Observation: Ice starts melting to form water, but the temperature remains at 0°C until all the ice melts.

Conclusion:

• The heat supplied to the ice does not raise its temperature; instead, it is stored in the water as latent heat.

• Latent Heat of Fusion: The amount of heat energy required to change 1 kg of ice at 0°C into water at 0°C
without any rise in temperature.

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 Key Values:

• Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice:

• 336 J/g or 336,000 J/kg. This is the highest value for any substance in nature and has significant natural
consequences.

BOILING AND LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

• Upon further heating, the temperature of water rises until it reaches 100°C.

• At this temperature, water starts boiling and changes into steam (gas state).

• The temperature of boiling water remains 100°C until all water is converted to steam.

• The heat supplied is stored in steam as latent heat.

• Latent Heat of Vaporization: The amount of heat energy required to change one kilogram of water at 100°C
into steam at 100°C without any rise in temperature.

Key Values:

• Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Steam:

• 2260 J/g or 2,260,000 J/kg. This is also the highest value for any substance in nature and has important
natural implications.

NATURAL CONSEQUENCES OF HIGH SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

A) Natural Consequences of High Specific Latent Heat of Ice

1. Soft Drink Bottles Cool Better in Ice than in Water at 0°C:

• Reason: Every gram of ice at 0°C extracts 336 J of heat energy more than water at 0°C, due to the high
specific latent heat of ice. This makes ice more effective for cooling.

1. Weather Becomes Warm During Snowfall:

• Reason: When water at 0°C freezes, it releases 336 J of heat energy per gram, due to the high specific latent
heat of ice. This release of a large amount of heat warms the surroundings.

1. Weather Becomes Very Cold When Snow or Hailstones Melt:

• Reason: Every gram of ice at 0°C requires 336 J of heat energy from the surroundings to melt into water at
0°C. This absorption of heat from the environment makes the surroundings colder.

1. Glacier-Fed Rivers Flow Throughout the Year:

• Reason: Ice on glaciers melts slowly because each gram of ice needs 336 J of heat energy to melt into water
at 0°C. Hence, even in summer, the ice does not completely melt, allowing rivers to flow continuously.

1. Icebergs Sometimes Reach Equatorial Regions:

• Reason: Due to ice’s high latent heat capacity of 336 J/g, large icebergs carried by ocean currents melt slowly.
As a result, some icebergs manage to reach the warmer equatorial regions before fully melting.

B) Natural Consequences of High Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Steam

1. Steam is Used as a Fluid in Thermoelectric Power Plants:

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 • Reason: Steam, with its high latent heat of vaporization of 2260 J/g, can carry more heat energy per gram
than any other substance. This heat energy turns turbines connected to electric generators, producing
electricity.

1. Burns Caused by Steam Are More Severe Than Those Caused by Boiling Water:

• Reason: Each gram of steam at 100°C delivers 2260 J of heat energy, more than boiling water at 100°C. This
excess energy makes burns from steam more severe.

GENERAL TERMS USED DURING CHANGE OF STATE

1. Change of State:

• The process through which a substance changes from one physical state to another with the absorption or
release of heat energy.

1. Fusion or Melting:

• The process where a solid changes into a liquid at a specific temperature by absorbing heat energy.

• Example: Ice at 0°C absorbs heat to become water (liquid).

1. Fusion Point or Melting Point:

• The fixed temperature at which a solid changes into a liquid due to fusion.

• Example: Melting point of ice is 0°C.

1. Freezing or Solidification:

• The process where a liquid changes into a solid at a specific temperature by releasing heat energy.

• Example: Water at 0°C releases heat to become ice (solid).

1. Freezing Point or Solidification Point:

• The fixed temperature at which a liquid changes into a solid due to freezing.

• Example: Freezing point of water is 0°C.

1. Vaporization or Boiling:

• The process where a liquid changes into a gas at a fixed temperature by absorbing heat energy.

• Example: Water at 100°C absorbs heat to become steam (gas).

1. Boiling Point or Vaporization Point:

• The fixed temperature at which a liquid changes into a gaseous state due to vaporization.

• Example: Boiling point of water is 100°C.

1. Condensation:

• The process where a gas changes into a liquid at a specific temperature by releasing heat energy.

• Example: Steam at 100°C releases heat to become water (liquid).

1. Condensation Point:

• The fixed temperature at which a gaseous state changes into a liquid state due to condensation.
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 • Example: Condensation point of steam is 100°C.

1. Evaporation:

o The process where a liquid changes into its vapor state at any temperature below its boiling point.

o Example: Water evaporates at room temperature, creating water vapor in the air.

2. Sublimation:

o The process where a solid changes directly into a gas on heating, and the gas changes back into a
solid on cooling without passing through the liquid state.

o Example: Iodine or camphor directly changes to gas upon heating and back to solid upon cooling.

3. Deposition:

o The reverse of sublimation, where a gas transforms directly into a solid without becoming a liquid.

o Example: Water vapor in the air turns directly into frost on cold surfaces. Deposition is
an exothermic process, meaning it releases heat.

BOILING POINT AND CONDENSATION POINT

• The boiling point of a liquid and the condensation point of a gas have the same numerical value.

• Example: The boiling point of water is 100°C, and the condensation point of steam is also 100°C.

• This means that the temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas (boiling) is the same as the temperature
at which a gas changes to a liquid (condensation).

SPOTLIGHT: Basic Difference Between Gas and Vapor

1. Gas:

• A gas is the gaseous state of a substance at or above its boiling point.

• Example: Oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide are gases at room temperature.

1. Vapor:

• A vapor is the gaseous state of a substance below its boiling point.

• Example: Water vapor is the gaseous form of water but exists below the boiling point of 100°C.

SPOTLIGHT: Factors Affecting the Rate of Evaporation

• The rate of evaporation depends on several factors:

1. Temperature of the Surroundings:

• Evaporation increases with an increase in the temperature of the surroundings.

• Example: Wet clothes dry faster in the sunshine because the temperature is higher.

1. Surface Area:

• Evaporation increases with an increase in the surface area.

• Example: Wet clothes dry faster when spread out rather than when folded, as spreading increases the
surface area exposed to the air.

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 KEY IDEAS ABOUT EVAPORATION

• Molecular Motion in Liquids:

• In a liquid, molecules are in continuous motion within its boundary and collide with each other.

• During these collisions, some molecules gain sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the intermolecular forces
of attraction.

• Process of Evaporation:

• When molecules below the surface gain enough kinetic energy, they move to the surface of the liquid.

• Upon reaching the surface, they absorb additional heat from the surroundings and escape into the
atmosphere, mixing with air molecules.

• This process is called evaporation.

• Key Point to Remember:

• Evaporation is a surface phenomenon where only molecules at the surface can escape into the gas phase
after gaining sufficient energy.

A. Fill in the blank spaces by choosing the correct words from the list given below:

List: latent heat of fusion, melting point, steam, constant, latent heat of vaporization.

1. During the change of state of a substance, its temperature remains constant.

2. The temperature at which a solid starts changing to a liquid state is called the melting point.

3. The amount of heat required to change 1 g of a substance at its melting point into a liquid state without any
rise in temperature is called specific latent heat of fusion.

4. The amount of heat required to change 1 g of a liquid into its gaseous state without any rise in temperature
is called specific latent heat of vaporization.

5. Steam has the highest specific latent heat of vaporization.

B. Statements given below are incorrect. Write the correct statements:

1. Incorrect Statement: The specific latent heat of ice is 363 Jg⁻¹.

Correct Statement: The specific latent heat of ice is 336 Jg⁻¹.

2. Incorrect Statement: Boiling hot water causes more severe burns than steam at 100°C.
Correct Statement: Steam at 100°C causes more severe burns than boiling hot water because it contains
additional latent heat of vaporization.

3. Incorrect Statement: The process by which a gas changes to a liquid state at some fixed temperature, with
the absorption of heat energy, is called vaporization.
Correct Statement: The process by which a gas changes to a liquid state at some fixed temperature, with
the release of heat energy, is called condensation.

4. Incorrect Statement: It becomes cold during snowfall.

Correct Statement: It becomes warm during snowfall because the freezing process releases heat.

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 5. Incorrect Statement: Water at 0°C cools soft drink bottles better than ice at 0°C.
Correct Statement: Ice at 0°C cools soft drink bottles better than water at 0°C because ice absorbs more
heat due to its latent heat of fusion.

C. Write 'true' or 'false' for the following statements:

1. The process of changing a solid at its melting point into a liquid state, without any rise in temperature, is
called fusion.
Answer: True

2. Heat energy required to melt 1 g of ice to 1 g of water at 0°C is 2260 J.

Answer: False (Correct value is 336 J)

3. Steam at 100°C causes more severe burns than water at 100°C.

Answer: True

4. The temperature at which a liquid changes into a gaseous state without any rise in temperature is called the
liquefaction point.
Answer: False (Correct term is boiling point)

5. A vapor is a gaseous state of a liquid below its boiling point.

Answer: True

D. Match the statements in Column A with those in Column B:

Column A Column B
1. The heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass (d) Heat capacity
of a substance through 1°C.
2. The heat energy required to convert 1 g of a substance at its (b) Specific latent heat of fusion
melting point into a liquid state without any rise in temperature.
3. The heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a (a) Specific heat capacity
substance through 1°C.
4. The heat energy required to convert 1 g of a liquid at its boiling (c) Specific latent heat of vaporization
point into a gaseous state without any rise in temperature.

E. Tick (✔) the most appropriate answer:

1. The SI unit of specific latent heat is:

(a) Jg⁻¹°C⁻¹
(b) J°C⁻¹
(c) J/kg ✔
(d) Jkg⁻¹°C⁻¹

2. The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is:

(a) 4.2 Jg⁻¹°C
(b) 336 Jg⁻¹ ✔
(c) 4200 Jkg⁻¹°C⁻¹
(d) 336,000 Jg⁻¹

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 3. During thaw (melting of snow), the atmosphere gets:
(a) warm
(b) cold ✔
(c) very hot
(d) very cold

4. The substance having the highest specific latent heat of fusion is:
(a) lead
(c) ice ✔
(b) wax
(d) mercury

5. The substance having the highest specific latent heat of vaporization is:
(a) mercury
(b) steam ✔
(c) water
(d) ethanol

F. Answer the Following Questions:

1. Define the following:

(a) Specific Latent Heat of Fusion:

The amount of heat energy required to change 1 g of a solid at its melting point into a liquid state without any rise in
temperature.

2. Define the following and state their numerical values in the SI system:

(a) Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice:

It is the amount of heat energy required to convert 1 kg of ice at 0°C into water at 0°C without any rise in
temperature.
Value: 336,000 J/kg.

(b) Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization of Steam:

It is the amount of heat energy required to convert 1 kg of water at 100°C into steam at 100°C without any rise in
temperature.
Value: 2,260,000 J/kg.

3. (a) During the change of state, temperature does not rise or fall. What happens to the heat energy
supplied or given out? Explain.
During the change of state, the heat energy supplied is used to overcome the intermolecular forces of
attraction, thus increasing the potential energy of the molecules without changing the kinetic energy or
temperature.

4. Define the following:

(a) Fusion:
The process by which a solid changes into a liquid at a specific temperature by absorbing heat energy.

(b) Vaporization:
The process by which a liquid changes into a gaseous state at a specific temperature by absorbing heat energy.

(c) Deposition:
The process where a gas transforms directly into a solid without becoming a liquid first, also known as desublimation.
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 5. Explain the following:

(a) Why do soft drink bottles cool better in ice at 0°C than water at 0°C?
Ice at 0°C extracts more heat from the bottles due to its latent heat of fusion, making it a more effective cooling
medium than water at the same temperature.

(b) Why does the weather become bitterly cool when snow starts melting?
When snow melts, it absorbs a large amount of heat energy from the surroundings (336 J per gram), causing the
environment to become significantly cooler.

(c) Why do the glaciers not melt completely during summer?

Glaciers melt slowly because every gram of ice requires a substantial amount of heat energy (336 J) to melt. This high
latent heat ensures that glaciers do not completely melt even in summer.

(d) Why are the burns caused by steam more severe than those caused by boiling water?
Steam at 100°C contains additional latent heat of vaporization (2260 J/g) beyond the heat of boiling water, which is
why burns from steam are more severe.

KEYWORDS AND CONCEPTS IN PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

1. Element:

• A substance that cannot be subdivided into two or more simpler substances by chemical means.

• Example: Gold, oxygen, carbon.

1. Atom:

• The smallest unit of an element that may or may not have an independent existence but always takes part in
a chemical reaction.

1. Molecule:

• The smallest unit of matter that has an independent existence and retains the complete physical and
chemical properties of matter.

• Example: A molecule of water (H₂O) or oxygen (O₂).

1. Surface Tension:

• The phenomenon due to which the exposed surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched membrane.

• Example: Water droplets forming a dome shape on a surface.

1. Meniscus:

• The formation of a curved surface on the exposed surface of a liquid when contained in a narrow tube.

• Example: Concave meniscus of water or convex meniscus of mercury in a test tube.

1. Fusion or Melting:

• The process by which a solid state of matter changes to a liquid state on the absorption of heat energy.

• Example: Ice melting into water at 0°C.

1. Fusion Point or Melting Point:

• The fixed temperature at which a pure solid changes into a liquid state on the absorption of heat energy.

• Example: Melting point of ice is 0°C.

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 1. Solidification or Freezing:

• The process by which a liquid state of matter changes to a solid state by the release of heat energy.

• Example: Water freezing to form ice at 0°C.

1. Solidification Point or Freezing Point:

• The fixed temperature at which a pure liquid changes into a solid state due to solidification.

• Example: Freezing point of water is 0°C.

1. Vaporization or Boiling:

o The process by which a liquid state of matter changes to a gaseous state by the absorption of heat
energy.

o Example: Water boiling to form steam at 100°C.

2. Vaporization Point or Boiling Point:

o The fixed temperature at which a liquid state changes into a gaseous state due to vaporization.

o Example: Boiling point of water is 100°C.

3. Liquefaction or Condensation:

o The process of changing a gaseous state of matter into a liquid state at a fixed temperature by
releasing heat energy.

o Example: Steam condensing to form water at 100°C.

4. Liquefaction Point or Condensation Point:

o The fixed temperature at which a gas changes into a liquid state.

o Example: Condensation point of steam is 100°C.

5. Sublimation:

o The process of changing a solid state of matter directly into a gaseous state without passing through
the liquid state.

o Example: Dry ice (solid CO₂) sublimating into carbon dioxide gas.

6. Deposition:

o The process where a gas transforms into a solid (also known as desublimation). It is the reverse
process of sublimation.

o Example: Water vapor in cold air forming frost directly on surfaces.

HIGHLIGHTS IN REVIEW: KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

1. Kinetic Theory of Matter: Basic Principles

• (a) Continuous Motion of Molecules:

Molecules are in a state of continuous motion, which gives them kinetic energy. This kinetic
energy increases with the gain in heat energy.

• (b) Intermolecular Attraction:

Molecules in any state of matter attract each other due to intermolecular forces.
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 • (c) Variation of Intermolecular Forces with Distance:
The force of attraction between molecules decreases as the intermolecular spaces increase. This is why
gases have weaker intermolecular forces compared to liquids and solids.

1. Characteristics of Different States of Matter:

• Solids:

o Intermolecular Spaces: Very small.

o Intermolecular Forces: Very large.

o Properties: Solids have a definite volume and shape due to strong intermolecular forces that keep
the molecules in fixed positions.

• Liquids:

o Intermolecular Spaces: Larger than in solids.

o Intermolecular Forces: Smaller than in solids but stronger than in gases.

o Properties: Liquids have a definite volume but no definite shape because the molecules can move
past each other.

• Gases:

o Intermolecular Spaces: Very large.

o Intermolecular Forces: Extremely small.

o Properties: Gases have neither a definite volume nor a definite shape because the molecules move
freely and are far apart.

1. Pressure in Liquids and Gases:

• Cause of Pressure: The pressure exerted by a liquid or gas on the surface of a containing vessel is due to
the force acting per unit area caused by the continuous collisions of molecules against the surface.

1. Gas Pressure in a Closed Vessel:

• Relationship Between Volume and Pressure: In a closed vessel, the pressure of a gas increases as the
volume decreases, and vice versa. This is explained by Boyle's Law, where the pressure of a gas is inversely
proportional to its volume at a constant temperature.

CONCEPTS OF HEAT TRANSFER IN MATTER

1. Heat Transmission in Solids:

• Heat energy in solids is transmitted due to the increase in the kinetic energy of molecules. As molecules gain
heat, they vibrate more vigorously, transferring energy to neighboring molecules without leaving their fixed
positions.

1. Heat Transmission in Liquids and Gases:

• In liquids and gases, heat energy is transmitted by the movement of molecules away from the heat source.
This is due to the increased kinetic energy of molecules, which allows them to move more freely in liquids
and gases.

MEASUREMENT UNITS FOR HEAT ENERGY

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 1. Joule (J):

• The modern unit for measuring heat energy is the Joule (J).

• Conversion: 1 calorie of heat energy is equal to 4.2 J.

1. Specific Heat Capacity (SHC):

• SI Unit: The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J/kg°C.

• Common Unit: A commonly used unit is J/g°C.

• Example: Water has the highest specific heat capacity of 4.2 J/g°C or 4200 J/kg°C. This high specific heat
capacity allows water to absorb or release large amounts of heat with minimal temperature change.

SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT CONCEPTS

1. Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization:

• The specific latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to convert 1
gram of a liquid at its boiling point into a gas without any rise in temperature.

• Example: The specific latent heat of vaporization of steam is 2260 J/g, the highest for any substance.

1. Specific Latent Heat of Fusion:

• The specific latent heat of fusion of a substance is the amount of heat energy required to convert 1 gram of
a solid at its melting point into a liquid without any rise in temperature.

• Example: The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 336 J/g, the highest for any solid.

A. Fill in the blank spaces:

1. The empty space between the molecules of matter is called intermolecular space.

2. The molecules of a gas contained in a closed vessel are not stationary; they move randomly in all directions.

3. When molecules of a solid absorb heat energy, the kinetic energy of its molecules increases.

B. Write 'true' or 'false' for the following statements:

1. The force of attraction between molecules of matter is called intermolecular force of attraction.
Answer: True

2. The molecules of a gas contained in a closed vessel are stationary.

Answer: False

3. When the kinetic energy of the molecules of a liquid becomes more than the intermolecular forces, the
energetic molecules rapidly leave the liquid and change into the gaseous state.
Answer: True

C. Tick (✔) the most appropriate answer:

1. If the matter is made of two or more different elements, the smallest unit of matter is called a:
(a) atom
(b) molecule ✔

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 (c) element
(d) nucleus

2. The kinetic energy of the molecules increases with an increase in:

(a) temperature ✔
(b) velocity
(c) motion
(d) space

3. The intermolecular forces are maximum in the case of:

(a) solids ✔
(b) liquids
(c) gases
(d) plasma

4. The process due to which a solid changes into a liquid state at some fixed temperature by absorption of
energy is known as:
(a) melting ✔
(b) freezing
(c) evaporation
(d) deposition

5. The change of liquid state into its vapor state at any temperature below its boiling point is called:
(a) boiling
(b) evaporation ✔
(c) sublimation
(d) all of these

6. The smallest unit of an element, which may or may not have an independent existence but always takes part
in a chemical reaction, is called a/an:
(a) atom ✔
(b) molecule
(c) electron
(d) nucleus

7. The intermolecular force of attraction is effective only between the molecules up to a separation of:
(a) 10⁻⁹ m
(b) 10⁻⁸ m ✔
(c) 10⁻⁵ m
(d) 10⁻⁶ m

8. The force of attraction between similar kinds of molecules is called the force of:
(a) adhesion
(b) cohesion ✔
(c) both (a) and (b)
(d) none of these

9. The molecules vibrate about their mean positions without leaving their positions in:
(a) solids ✔
(b) liquids
(c) gases
(d) plasma

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 10. The molecules can move in a random manner everywhere in the space available to them as:
(a) solids
(b) liquids
(c) gases ✔
(d) plasma

D. Statements given below are incorrect. Write the correct statements:

1. Incorrect Statement: The intermolecular force of attraction increases if the intermolecular space between
molecules increases.
Correct Statement: The intermolecular force of attraction decreases if the intermolecular space between
molecules increases.

2. Incorrect Statement: The force of attraction between similar kinds of molecules is called the force of
adhesion.
Correct Statement: The force of attraction between similar kinds of molecules is called the force of cohesion.

3. Incorrect Statement: The solid state of the substance in the case of evaporation is known as sublime, and the
gaseous state as sublimate.
Correct Statement: The solid state of the substance in the case of sublimation is known as sublimate, and
the gaseous state as sublime.

E. Assertion-Reason Type Questions:

1. Assertion (A): The solids are rigid and hard.

Reason (R): In solids, the molecules attract each other with a very strong force.
Answer: (a) If both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of
Assertion (A).

2. Assertion (A): The molecules of a gas do not move independently.

Reason (R): The molecules of a gas can fill the entire space in which they are enclosed.
Answer: (d) If Assertion (A) is false, but Reason (R) is true.

3. Assertion (A): The wet clothes, when spread in sunshine, dry rapidly.
Reason (R): The rate of evaporation increases if the temperature of the surroundings as well as the surface
area increases.
Answer: (a) If both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct and Reason (R) is the correct explanation of
Assertion (A).

F. Case Study Based Questions:

Read the following paragraph and answer the questions by choosing the correct option.

1. In which of the states of matter is the kinetic energy of the particles maximum?
(a) Solid
(b) Liquid
(c) Gas ✔

2. In which of these states of matter is the kinetic energy of the particles minimum?
(a) Solid ✔

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 (b) Liquid
(c) Gas
(d) Plasma

3. When a liquid is heated, its molecules absorb heat energy, and thus, its kinetic energy:
(a) starts decreasing
(b) starts increasing ✔
(c) remains the same
(d) none of these

Problem-Solving Skills Based Questions:

1. Which of the statements justify the need for laboratory thermometers?

• P: To measure the boiling point and melting point during a science experiment.

• Q: To study the behavior of substances at different temperatures.

• R: To measure human body temperature.

Answer: (c) Both P and Q ✔

1. Samir observes the process of ironing clothes. Which of these is an incorrect conclusion, based on the
observations?

• (a) The handle will not radiate any heat to bare hands.

• (b) The material of the iron's handle is an insulator.

• (c) Heat is conducted by the iron to the clothes.

• (d) Heat is trapped inside the iron's handle.

Answer: (a) The handle will not radiate any heat to bare hands. ✔

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