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History FORM 2 Notes - Note

Principles and processses of communication (The Presbyterian University of East Africa)

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IDEAL

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

FORM 2
SIMPLIFIED NOTES

New Syllabus

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CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Trade

Definition of trade......................................................................................................1

Types of trade
Local trade.................................................................................................................4
Regional trade (Trans-Saharan trade)........................................................................5
International trade (Trans-Atlantic trade)..................................................................11
Review questions.......................................................................................................16
Students’ activities.....................................................................................................17

Chapter 2: Development of Transport and Communication

Traditional forms of transport....................................................................................18

Development of modern means of transport..............................................................20
Impact of modern means of transport........................................................................23
Traditional forms of communication.........................................................................24
Development of modern means of communication...................................................27
Impact of modern means of telecommunication........................................................32
Print media.................................................................................................................33
Review questions.......................................................................................................35
Students’ activities.....................................................................................................36

Chapter 3: Development of industry

Sources of energy.......................................................................................................37
Uses of metals in Africa.............................................................................................37
Uses of various sources of energy during the industrial revolution in Europe..........39
Uses of iron and steel.................................................................................................41
Industrialisation in Britain.........................................................................................42
Industrialisation in continental Europe......................................................................45

Emergence of world industrial powers:

USA............................................................................................................................47
Germany.....................................................................................................................49
Japan..........................................................................................................................51

Industrialisation in the third world:

Brazil..........................................................................................................................53
South Africa...............................................................................................................55
India...........................................................................................................................57
Scientific Revolution.................................................................................................60
Factors influencing scientific inventions in Africa and other developing nations.....67
Review questions.......................................................................................................67
Students’ activities.....................................................................................................68

Chapter 4: Urbanisation in Africa

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Definition of urbanisation..........................................................................................69
Cairo...........................................................................................................................70
Meroe.........................................................................................................................71
Kilwa..........................................................................................................................71
Early urbanisation in Europe.....................................................................................72
London.......................................................................................................................72
Athens........................................................................................................................75
Emergence of modern urban centres in Africa..........................................................76
Nairobi.......................................................................................................................76
Johannesburg..............................................................................................................78
Review questions.......................................................................................................79
Students’ activities.....................................................................................................80

Chapter 5: Social, Economic and Political organisation of African societies in

the 19th Century

Buganda.....................................................................................................................81
Shona..........................................................................................................................85
Ashante (Ashanti)......................................................................................................86
Review questions.......................................................................................................90
Students’ activities.....................................................................................................91

Chapter 6: Constitution and constitution making

Definition of constitution...........................................................................................92
Types of constitution..................................................................................................93
The independence constitution..................................................................................96
The Kenya constitution..............................................................................................98
Features of Kenya constitution..................................................................................99
Constitutional amendment since independence.........................................................100
Review questions.......................................................................................................103
Students’ activities.....................................................................................................103

Chapter 7: Democracy and human rights

Types of democracy...................................................................................................105
Principles of democracy.............................................................................................107
Human rights and its violation...................................................................................109
The Bill of Rights.......................................................................................................111
UN charter on human rights.......................................................................................113
The rights of the child................................................................................................116
Classification of human rights...................................................................................117
Review questions.......................................................................................................120
Students’ activities.....................................................................................................121

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CHAPTER 1
Trade
Trade is the exchange of goods or services for money or other commodities for
mutual benefits. It is basically the buying and selling of goods.
Trade originated during the New Stone Age. During this period, man be-
gan a settled lifestyle. He became specialised in various activities such as weav-
ing, pottery and livestock keeping. This specialisation made some people to pro-
duce certain items which others did not produce. The need of satisfying various
essential material needs therefore led to emergence of trade.

Methods of Trade
Barter trade and currency trade are the two existing forms of trade in the world.

Barter trade.
Barter trade is the oldest method of trade in the world. It existed even during the
Old Testament time. Barter trade exists even today. This occurs when people ex-
change goods for other goods. In this case no established medium of exchange
is used. In certain occasions, services are exchanged for goods. The goods may
also be exchanged for services.
Barter system was very popular before the introduction of money. For in-
stance a cow could be exchanged for a number of goats. A basket of millet could
be exchanged for a basket of maize or beans.
The people of ancient Ghana exchanged their gold with the people of
North Africa for salt.
This form of trade did not succeed very well where there was language
barrier. Barter trade exists even today. In Kenya, certain commodities e.g. agri-
cultural products are exchanged for machinery and oil.

Advantages of barter trade were:

1. There was direct exchange of goods or services for goods.
2. It encouraged people who were exchanging goods for goods to get in-
volved in actual production of the items. This kept the communities busy.
3. Barter trade enabled people who had no goods for exchange to acquire
goods they wanted by merely rendering services to those who had.
4. It enabled people to acquire the goods they did not produce themselves.

Disadvantages of barter trade were:

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a) Barter trade was not very convenient because sometimes people could not
acquire the commodities they intended to exchange their goods for. For
example one may have intended to exchange a bag of maize with a bag of
millet just to find that there was no millet in the market.
b) The method was tiresome because all those who wanted to exchange
goods had to carry those goods to the market sometimes for long dis-
tances.
c) Since in normal trade there is a buyer and a seller, it became difficult to
specify who the buyer or seller was because both were just exchanging
items and there was no specific buyer or seller.
d) It was difficult to transport bulky goods to the market.
e) It was difficult to value goods being exchanged to ensure that the deal
was fair for both parties exchanging items.
f) Barter trade was not very successful where the people exchanging goods
had no common language to ease communication.
g) It was not easy to exchange certain items such as a bull or a donkey be-
cause if the other party did not have sufficient goods for exchange, a bull
or a donkey could not be split into smaller units to match with the goods
available.

The Currency trade

This method of trade involves the use of money as a medium of exchange. The
medium of exchange must be acceptable and convenient to people.
Money may be used to purchase commodities or to pay for services.
Money is also used a measure of value. Today, people value their property in
terms of money. Objects which have ever been used as money before the intro-
duction of modern currencies are cowrie shells, iron bars, bronze, salt, gold and
silver.

The major world currencies are:

i) US Dollar
ii) German Deutsche Mark
iii) British Sterling Pound
iv) French Franc
v) Canadian Dollar
vi) Mexican Peso
vii) Japanese Yen
viii) European Union Euro

Advantages of currency trade are

a) It is easy to carry money when going to buy items because it is not heavy.

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b) Money can be split into smaller units which enables people to purchase
any quantity of goods in the market.
c) Items are valued easily in terms of Shillings, Dollars, Yen, Pound Ster-
ling, etc. This makes the buyer to have an idea of the value of various
items in advance.
d) Currency trade brings about clear definitions of the terms buyer or seller.
In this case the buyer is the one who gives out money to acquire goods
while the seller is the one who gives out goods to acquire money.
e) When one receives money for goods delivered or sold, he can save it in
banks or store it without fear of any damage such as decay for a long
time.

Disadvantages of currency as a medium of exchange are

i) Currency can easily loose value (purchasing power) as it happened in

Uganda during the era of President Idi Amin.
ii) If there are no goods available for buying, money becomes useless. Many
a times people have starved almost to death during famine due to shortage
of food to buy with the money they have.
iii) Use of currency in business has encouraged robbery, pickpocketting and
many other forms of crime.

Types of trade
There are three types of trade namely: local trade, regional trade and interna-
tional trade.

Local Trade
Local trade is the exchange of goods within the same community at the village
level. It may also involve the neighbouring communities or people who share a
common boundary.
People who conducted local trade established markets on the community
boundaries or in a central place where people from a number of villages met to
exchange goods. People exchanged goods they had for the things they did not
have. This type of trade exists in Kenya even today where local county councils
have established markets in certain trading centres. Local trade covers a small
area.

The origin of local trade

Local trade originated from the time early man began a settled lifestyle. It
was facilitated by the need to acquire what one did not have from those
who had. The environmental differences also contributed the emergence
of this type of trade.

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The development of local trade

Local trade developed as human population increased. The increase in
population led to demand for various items such as food, clothing, pots
and ornaments. Some people became specialised in making iron tools,
others in making items such as pots, baskets and bark-cloth while others
became pastoralists and kept cattle, sheep and goats.
The blacksmith obtained meat from the pastoralists and grains from the
cultivators. The pastoralists needed knives and spears from the blacksmiths. The
cultivators needed iron hoes; knives for harvesting; millet, sorghum and axes for
clearing fields for cultivation. The demand for goods therefore encouraged local
trade to develop and markets were established where people met to buy and sell
things.

The organisation of local trade

People established markets at the most convenient places for all. They set
market days when they would meet to exchange goods. At the beginning,
the form of trade was mainly barter. Later there was introduction of
money (currency) which acted as a medium of exchange.
During this trade, people transported their commodities on their heads
and backs. Some communities such as the Maasai used donkeys to carry their
goods to the markets while the Somali and the Boran used camels.
People who traded were provided with security by local leaders.
Some established local merchants bought the items and resold them
to other traders far away beyond the local boundaries. For example ivory
was sometimes bought from the local markets in Samburu and Baringo
and then transported to the coast where it was bought and shipped to Asia.

The impact of the local trade

Local trade led to intermarriages between people of different villages and
people of neighbouring communities.
It contributed to the unity of family members who constituted a commu-
nity. This is because the interaction of people in the markets united them. Local
trade enabled people to acquire what they did not have from those who had.
It laid the basis for other types of trade such as the regional and the inter-
national trade because some of the goods sold at regional and international lev-
els were bought from local markets by the traders and eventually sold far away
from the sources.
Local trade enabled some people such as Chief Kivoi of Ukambani to ac-
quire skills in trade thereafter becoming experienced long distance traders.
Where members of one community traded with members of another community
there was development of languages through word borrowing as well as cultural
exchange.

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In this case members of each community would borrow some cul-

tural practices which became known to them as they interacted in the
markets.

Regional Trade
Regional trade is the exchange of goods within a specified part of a continent or
region. It can be trade between different communities in a region who are living
apart.
This trade involves a bigger geographical area than the one covered by lo-
cal trade. It also involves more traders. An example of regional trade is the
Trans-Saharan trade.

The origin of the Trans-Saharan trade

It is not known exactly the time this trade started but it was going on be-
tween 1000AD and 1500AD. The people of West Africa and those from
North Africa exchanged goods from very early times even before the Sa-
hara dried up into a desert. The desert trade was later revolutionised by
the introduction of the camel in the first century AD.

The development of the Trans-Saharan trade

The Trans-Saharan trade began developing after the introduction of the
camel which replaced the use of oxen and horses which were used by
traders before the Sahara turned into a desert.
The people involved in this trade were the local inhabitants of West
Africa such as the people of ancient Ghana, Mali and Songhai. There were also
desert communities like the Tuaregs, the Berbers and the Arabs from North
Africa. Later Europeans and Jewish traders who had settled along the North
African coast became engaged in this lucrative trade.
The people of West Africa (Western Sudan) sold Gold, ivory, slaves, gum,
ostrich feathers, colanuts and hides and skins to the people of North Africa and
in return obtained horses, silk cloth, beads, cotton cloth, spices, mirrors, nee-
dles, dried fruits and salt from the North African traders. The salt sold was ob-
tained from Targhaza, Taodeni and Ghadames while the gold brought for sale
was obtained from Wangara, Bure and Budu mines.
The main trade routes were that which connected Fez and Sijilmasa in
Morocco with Audaghost in West Africa and passed through Targhaza. The
other started from Tunis in Tunisia through Ghadames, Ghat and Agades in the
Sahara desert to Hausaland. Another one ran from Sijilmasa through Tuat, Gao
and reached Timbuktu. The other one started from Tripoli and went past Fezzan
to Bornu via Bilma. There were several other minor ones which made the trade
routes to resemble a cobweb. All these routes touched the salt mines in the

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desert as salt was a commodity of trade very much needed by the people of
western Sudan.

Some Trans-Saharan trade routes and sources of goods

The Trans-Saharan trade developed due to the following reasons:
1. The trade commodities which the traders from both sides demanded were
available.
2. The trade goods themselves were in great demand. For instance the peo-
ple of West Africa demanded salt while the people of North Africa de-
manded gold.
3. The West African rulers provided the traders with security.
4. The desert Tuaregs guided traders; provided them with water, food and
accommodation; showed traders direction; acted as interpreters; provided
traders with security while crossing the desert and cared for the oasis
where traders obtained water.
5. There were established trade routes in the desert which provided consid-
erable transport and communication services to traders.
6. There were enterprising professional merchants who conducted trade
across the desert.
7. There were means of transport provided by use of camels, horses and
donkeys.
8. There was sufficient capital to finance trade.
9. The local trade which existed in North Africa and West Africa laid the ba-
sis for the Trans-Saharan trade.

The development of the Trans-Saharan trade was hampered by some of the ob-
stacles traders encountered as they conducted their business across the desert.
Some of these obstacles were:
a) Traders lost direction in the desert.

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b) They were attacked by desert robbers. This occurred when the Tuaregs
changed their role of guides to that of robbers.
c) vggbThe traders were affected by numerous sandstorms which blocked
the routes they followed.

d) The trades were also affected by weather variations because sometimes it

became too hot and at other times too cold.

e) The distance traders travelled across the desert was too long and scaring.

f) Traders were sometimes in danger of attacks by dangerous desert crea-

tures such as snakes and scorpions.

g) There was communication barrier due to lack of a common language.

This made it necessary for traders to use the Tuaregs as their guides and
interpreters but later they became unreliable when they began stealing
goods from traders.

h) There was lack of adequate basic needs such as food and water especially
in the desert.

iii) The organisation of the Trans-Saharan trade

The Trans-Saharan trade was conducted by the people of western Sudan
and the people of North Africa. The traders from North Africa crossed the
Sahara desert by use of camels. The traders travelled in large caravans
some with about 1000 camels and hundreds of people for security rea-
sons.
The Tuaregs and Berbers were recruited to act as guides (takshifs) to the
traders. These guides provided the traders with security. It took about three
months to cross the desert. For this reason the traders had stopping places at the
oases where they bought food and water for themselves and for their camels. It
is the Tuaregs who maintained the oasis and acted as interpreters. When the
traders reached western Sudan, they sometimes gave their goods to the local
agents on credit. The form of trade was mainly barter.
The rulers of West Africa controlled the trade and provided security
to traders. In return the traders paid taxes to the rulers. The main items of
trade included gold, salt, horses, hides and skins, beads and cloth. When
the time to travel back to North Africa reached, the North Africa traders
employed people to be left trading on their behalf. The merchants stored
goods in specific gathering points which acted as distribution centres.
They mainly travelled one way in a year.

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The problems the Trans-Saharan traders encountered

The Trans-Saharan traders faced a lot of problems as they carried out
their business. The traders travelled long distances across the Sahara
desert. Their journeys were tiresome and they had insufficient food and
water. Sometimes the trade goods became exhausted.
The traders were frequently interrupted by hostile desert communi-
ties who wanted to steal their goods and by dangerous sandstorms which
blocked their way. Traders lost direction and they were sometimes at-
tacked by dangerous desert creatures. There were frequent shifts of trade
routes. Traders were sometimes robed by desert dwellers.

The impact of the Trans-Saharan trade

The Trans-Saharan trade had several consequences:

1. The trade led to development of urbanisation for example towns such as

Gao, Timbuktu and Jenne.

2. The trade led to the decline of empires such as ancient Ghana and Mali
while others such as Songhai emerged.

3. Islamic religion and culture were introduced.

4. Intermarriages between North Africans and West Africans were pro-

moted.

5. The Trans-Saharan trade led to a class of wealthy merchants who partici-

pated in the trade.

6. New cultures were introduced such as eating habits and new styles of
dressing.

7. The trade led to the introduction of foreign architectural designs in West

Africa.

8. The Trans-Saharan trade contributed to the establishment and develop-

ment of diplomatic ties between West Africa and North Africa.

9. There was growth of agricultural production as a result of the introduc-

tion of new crops.

10. The sharia laws were introduced in the administration of West Africa.

11. The trade exposed Africa to the outside world.

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12. The trade led to the development of communication between North and
West Africa.

The decline of the Trans-Saharan trade

The Trans-Saharan trade began to decline in the 15 th century and disintegrated
completely in the 19th century following colonisation of West Africa by the Eu-
ropeans. The factors which contributed to its decline were as follows:

a) The gold mines in western Sudan got exhausted. This discouraged traders
from coming to West Africa because the main trading commodity was not
available.

b) The Morrocans invaded West Africa in the 16th century. This undermined
the trade because it created anarchy and insecurity in the region. The
Morrocans wanted to capture this prosperous trade.
c) The political instability in West Africa together with the decline of em-
pires such as Mali and Songhai increased anarchy and insecurity in the re-
gion.

d) West Africa was invaded by the Almoravids and the Tuaregs. This further
increased insecurity along the major trade routes.

e) The Tuaregs who guided the traders changed their roles from that of
guides to that of robbers.

f) The emergence of the Trans-Atlantic trade attracted the West African

traders who were formerly involved in the Trans-Saharan trade. This led
to reduction of the volume of goods and traders who participated in the
Trans-Saharan trade.

g) The Turks invaded North Africa creating insecurity along the caravan
routes.

h) The colonisation of West Africa by the Europeans reduced regional links

and encouraged European exploitation of West African resources there-
fore undermining the Trans-Saharan trade.

i) The British anti-slave trade pressure and eventual abolition of slave trade
led to decline of the Trans-Saharan trade.

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j) Rivalry between caravans and the stiff competition of the traders some-
times resulted to wars which scared traders.

k) Moroccan ports along the Mediterranean Sea were invaded by the Span-
ish and Portuguese soldiers in the late 15 th century and early 16th century.
This disrupted trade.

l) European merchants began penetrating into the interior of West Africa for
trade. They diverted the flow of goods such that goods were later taken to
the West African coastal town such as Port Elmina and Accra.

International Trade
International trade refers to trade between nations. In modern international
trade, nations within the same continent are included. The international trade of
the period before the mid 20th century which is our main concern involved na-
tions particularly those in different continents and which were not part of one
geographical region.
This ancient international trade developed as a result of the improvement
in water transport. This was achieved mainly through the construction of strong
ships and acquisition of better knowledge of navigation which enabled sailors to
explore and acquire knowledge about foreign lands overseas. An example of the
international trade was the Trans-Atlantic trade.

The Trans-Atlantic trade

i) Origin
The Trans-Atlantic trade began after the Portuguese explored the West
African coast in the 15th century and after the Spanish sailor, Christopher
Columbus sailed to Americas.
In the 16th century the Americas became colonised by the Por-
tuguese and the Spanish. These two nations began to open up and develop
their acquired territories through mining and establishment of sugar plan-
tations. Attempts to use the Red Indians as labourers eventually failed.
There was need to import Africans to supply labour in the mines and
sugar plantations. This attempt marked the beginning of the Trans-At-
lantic slave trade. The increased demand for sugar, tobacco and cotton in
the European countries led to the establishment and growth of more and
more plantations in Americas. A lot of labourers were therefore needed to
work in the growing plantations.
Africans were more suited to plantation farming because they were
handy and could work effectively in hot climates. They were used to trop-

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ical diseases and could survive longer. The Africans were also used to
physical strains and hardships. All these made Africans to be regarded as
the most potential suppliers of labour in the American plantations.

iii) The development of Trans-Atlantic trade

The first African slaves were the twenty people who were captured and
taken to Henry the Navigator in 1442. By 1510 a large number of African
slaves from Guinea were exported by the Portuguese to the Spanish
colonies. Later slaves were transported directly form Guinea coast to the
West Indies.
At first the Portuguese were the leading slave exporters. In the 17 th
century, the Dutch took the leading role as more Europeans settled in
Americas and increased the demand for slave labour.
The French and the British involved themselves in this lucrative trade.
The British captured the leading role from the Dutch and they dominated
the Trans-Atlantic slave trade in the 18th century.
The increased demand for precious stones, sugar, cotton and to-
bacco in the European markets and the demand for fire arms, cloth, alco-
holics, tobacco, utensils, glassware ornaments, sugar, sweets and iron
bars in West Africa accelerated trade.

The Trans-Atlantic trade developed and grew rapidly due to the following
factors:

1. The commodities which were required by the Africans as well as

the Europeans and Americans, were available in the three conti-
nents that took part in trade.

2. The goods were also in great demand in the continents especially

during the industrial revolution.

3. The West African coast had natural harbours where ships anchored.

4. The West African rulers provided foreign traders with security.

5. There existed enterprising merchants in America, Europe and West

Africa who engaged in trade.

6. The steamships provided efficient transport and communication

means between the three continents.

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7. The acquisition of new knowledge of navigation enabled sailors to

sail across the deep and stormy seas and oceans.

8. The decline of the Trans-Saharan trade enabled a big volume of

goods to be taken to the West African coastal markets.

iii) The organisation of Trans-Atlantic trade

The Trans-Atlantic trade was well organised inform of a triangle which

connected Europe, Africa and America. It involved European traders,
African middlemen and American plantation owners.
Ships loaded with European manufactured goods such as fire arms,
cloth, wines and spirits, cigarettes, iron bars, utensils, glassware, orna-
ments and sweets left Europe and anchored along the West African coast.
Slaves captured in the interior of West Africa were marched along the
coast. There were established places where the slaves were kept while
awaiting shipment.

The ships from Europe were unloaded and the European manufactured
goods exchanged for slaves, colanuts, precious stones, hides and skins.
The ships were once more loaded with the West African commodities
which were shipped across the Atlantic ocean to Americas.
In Americas, the slaves were sold through auction. The ships were
then filled with indigo, cotton, tobacco, rum, sugar, rice, timber and the
precious stones like gold and silver. They were then shipped to European
markets.

How the slaves were obtained during the Trans-Atlantic trade

a) Raids were conducted for capturing slaves.

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b) Free men were kidnapped and thereafter sold as slaves.

c) Two communities conducted wars and the one which was defeated had is
people captured as slaves.

d) Leaders sold criminals and even some of their innocent subjects.

e) Slaves were battered with other commodities African traders required.

f) Children and women were enticed with sweets and thereafter captured.

g) The weaker states were forced to pay tributes imposed on them by use of
slaves.

h) The people who failed to pay debts were captured and sold as compensa-
tion. Alternatively, they surrendered a family member to be sold instead.

The impact of the Trans-Atlantic trade

1. The Trans-Atlantic slave trade caused immense pain and suffering to in-
nocent Africans who were captured, chained, beaten and forced to walk
long distances to the West Africa coast.

2. The trade caused an incalculable number of deaths especially during inter

community wars, raids and during shipment. The death tool is estimated
to be about 20 million.

3. There was a decline in the local industries because the able bodied people
were sold away leading to loss of labour and because of sale of cheap
manufactured goods.

4. There were changes in the role of chiefs who instead of protecting their
people sold them as slaves.

5. There was intensification of warfare in a bid to capture slaves. This re-

sulted to division among and within communities which caused bitterness
and disunity of the Africans. The wars between communities were accel-
erated by the acquisition of firearms.

6. A class of slave merchants emerged in West Africa. Examples of the slave

merchants were Jaja of Opobo and Nana of Isekri. The two were very
powerful and wealthy.

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7. Some states such as Asante, Benin, Oyo and Dahomey rose to power and
expanded due to the great wealth obtained from trade.

8. The Trans-Atlantic trade led to expansion of urban centres along the West
African coast where commodities were exchanged. Such towns were
Whydah, Accra, Porto Novo and Badgry.

9. To some extent some parts of West Africa where raids were conducted be-
came depopulated. This contributed in retarding economic development
in those areas.

10. The European traders intermarried with the people of the West African
coast giving rise to halfcaste (mulato).

11. Africans developed a taste of the European goods.

12. Some weaker kingdoms such as Ketu declined due to constant raids con-
ducted by stronger states such as Dahomey.

13. The Trans-Atlantic trade contributed to the decline of the Trans-Saharan

trade because the goods flowing Northwards across the Sahara desert got
reduced and instead were taken to the West African coastal markets.

14. Some powerful rulers such as King Geso of Dahomey emerged as a result
of the introduction of fire-arms.

15. The trade encouraged slave raids which destroyed property. Houses and
crops for instance were burnt into ashes during slave raids.

16. The Trans-Atlantic trade led to the development of agricultural planta-

tions in the Americas.

17. The trade gave rise to people of African descent in Americas. These are
referred to as American Negroes.

18. The final blow as a result of this trade was that West Africa was colonised
and therefore came under European control.

The decline of the Trans-Atlantic trade

The Trans-Atlantic trade declined in the 19 th century because of a number of
factors. The industrial revolution in USA led to use of machines to work in the
farms. Slave labour was no longer necessary.

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There emerged the humanitarian movement and the Christian Missionar-

ies in Britain who considered slave trade and slavery as unjust and inhuman. A
typical example of humanitarians was Sir William Wilberforce who presented
the issue of slave trade and slavery to the British parliament. Dr. Livingstone
also advocated slave trade to be abolished.
Some economists and scholars were of the feeling that free labour was
more paying and productive than slave labour. Some of them argued that mass
migration of the Africans should be discouraged to ensure retention of the mar-
kets for the European manufactured goods. The decline of plantation economy
in America and the Carribeans reduced the demand for slaves for use in the
farms. Also the slaves in the Carribeans and America resisted because they
wanted to be left free from being enslaved.
Lastly, some Europeans felt that it was necessary to retain Africans in
their motherland so that they could produce raw materials needed in the Euro-
pean industries. In order to achieve this, it was necessary to abolish the Trans-
Atlantic slave trade which was draining Africa of its labour force.

Review Questions
1. a) Define the following:
i) Barter trade
ii) Currency trade
iii) Local trade
iv) Regional trade
v) International trade
b) Explain the advantages of using currency over barter trade.

2. a) Explain the origin and organisation of local trade.

b) Discuss the factors which contributed to the development of the
Trans-Saharan trade.

3 a) Describe the role of Takshifs during the Trans-Saharan trade.

b) Give five trade routes traders followed during the Trans-Saharan
trade.
4 a) what problems did the traders encountered during Trans-Saharan
trade?

b) Discuss the effects of the Trans-Saharan trade on the people of

western Sudan.

5 a) What factors contributed to the development of the Trans-Atlantic

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trade.

b) Explain the impact of the Trans-Atlantic trade under the following

headings.
i) Social impact
ii) Economic impact
iii) Political impact

6 Why did the Trans-Atlantic trade decline in the 19th century?

Students’ Activities

1 Visit the nearest shopping centre and find out the problems the traders en-
counter as they carry out their business.

2 Draw relevant maps indicating the trade routes during the Trans-Atlantic
trade and Trans- Saharan trade.

3 Demonstrate the methods used to obtain slaves and the way they were fi-
nally transported to the market along the West Africa Coast and sold.

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CHAPTER 2

Development of Transport and Com-

munication
Transport is the movement of people and goods from one place to another.
Communication is the transmission of information in form of news, messages
and ideas over some distances. It includes sending and receiving of information.
The early forms of transport included land transport, water transport, hu-
man transport and animal transport. Human transport involved carrying goods
from one place to another on one’s back, head and shoulders. Animals were also
used to carry goods and people on their backs from one place to the other.
The earliest forms of communication were smoke signals, drum beats,
messengers, horn blowing and written messages on scrolls and stone tablets.

Traditional Forms of Transport

a) Land transport
This form of transport involved movement of people and goods on land.
They either walked or they were transported by use of tamed animals
which pulled carts and wagons.
Land transport developed mainly because of the invention of the wheel.
The invention of the wheel made transport easier because at first it was used to
move war chariots and carts which carried agricultural produce. This also en-
couraged the development of trade and wars. The invention of the wheel there-
fore eased transportation of bulky loads and speeded transportation of people to
various destinations. It also facilitated travel over long distances within a lim-
ited period of time. Wheeled vehicles were pulled by horses, donkey and oxen.
The invention of the wheel was followed by the development of roads.

b) Human transport
Human transport involved carrying of goods from one place to the other
on the backs, shoulders and heads. Sometimes people used shoulder poles
to transport goods. The slave traders in East Africa captured slaves and
forced them to carry ivory from the interior to the East African coast.
Human transport exists even today. It is common to see Kenyan women
carrying firewood, coffee, picked tea and cattle feed either on their heads
or back.

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Porters

c) Animal Transport
After man domesticated animals, he learnt that some could be used to
transport goods from one place to the other. These animals carried loads
on their backs and they also pulled wheeled vehicles such as carts and
wagons.
The beasts of burden such as camels, oxen, horses and donkeys were also
referred to as pack animals. Donkeys were commonly used in Kenya by the
Maasai and the Kamba to fetch water. In many other places, donkeys carried
trade goods to the markets. Oxen transported people and goods from one place
to the other. They were also used for ploughing.

Oxen drawn carts

Horses were used to transport soldiers during war times. The soldiers
sometimes fought on horseback. Horses also pulled chariots which trans-
ported soldiers to battle fields.
A camel was a very efficient beast of burden in the desert because it could
stay for a long time without water or food. This is because it has a store of fat in
its hump. Camels were used to transport goods during the Trans-Saharan trade.

Other animals which are used for transport are elephants, water buffaloes,
dogs and Llamas.

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d) Water transport
Water transport began due to the need to cross rivers and lakes to look for
food on the other side.
Man’s first boat like vessel was made of a tree trunk. It was later
improved by hollowing it to make a dug-out canoe.
Man also discovered that he could make rafts with animal skins or
from bundles of reeds tied together. The canoes and rafts were used to
move across the shallow waters.
The Phoenicians, the Egyptians and the Greeks made the earliest
ships many years before the birth of Christ. These ships were used in seas
and oceans. The Arabs made dhows that were driven by wind.

A dhow

Development of modern means of Transport

Modern means of transport involves road transport, railway transport, water
transport, air transport and space exploration by use of rockets.

Road transport
The Romans were the first to introduce good quality roads which were of very
high standards. This occurred before the birth of Christ. Roman roads survived
for hundreds of years because they were well drained and durable. These roads
were used by carts chariots and wagons which were pulled by horses, donkeys
and oxen.
In the 17th and 18th century, British engineers began constructing better
roads and bridges. Some of these engineers were George Wade, John Macadam
and Thomas Telford. These engineers brought about the construction of high
quality roads that were durable and well drained.
By the close of the 19th century various modes of modern transport such
as bicycles and motor vehicles had been invented and were in use especially in
Europe. The invention of the pneumatic tyres by Dunlop to replace the solid

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ones and the invention of steam power engines revolutionised land transport.
Etienne Lenoir from France invented the first internal combustion engine.
A German citizen, Nicholas Otto, invented the four-stroke compression
engine. Later in 1883 Gottliep Daimler of Germany came up with an efficient
and portable petrol engine which he used to make the first motorcycle and later
petrol driven car which was the first ever made.
Others who joined in the league of manufacturing vehicles were Karl
Benz of Germany and Henry Ford of USA who founded Ford motor company in
USA and began manufacturing cars for sale.
The vehicle industry since then has been greatly improved. Vehicles that
move at very high speed have been introduced. This has resulted to many acci-
dents. As a result of this, in January 2004, Kenya government took the follow-
ing measures to reduce the increasing number of accidents on the Kenyan
Roads and to make travel comfortable and enjoyable:

Modern cars

i) All motor vehicles were to be fitted with seat belts.

ii) All public service vehicles were to be fitted with speed governors and
were to move at a speed not exceeding 80 kilometres per hour.
iii) The carrying capacity of public service vehicles was reduced.
iv) Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were to be permanently
employed.
v) Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were to be issued with
uniforms and badges and photographs for identification.
vi) Drivers and conductors of public service vehicles were required to have
certificates of good conduct.

There are millions of motor vehicles in the world today. The number is still in-
creasing each day because they are manufactured in thousands each day in the
world.

Railway transport
The idea of making railway lines came earlier than the invention of the locomo-
tive engines. For instance the Germans used wooden rails for their trucks. The

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trucks were pulled by horses and donkeys. Later iron rails replaced the wooden
rails.
The first steam engine that could be mounted on a truck was made by
Richard Trevithick but it was slow and heavy. It was George Stephenson, a coal
miner in England who came up with the best and powerful steam locomotive
which was called the Rocket. Later diesel and electric engines were designed. A
German called Rudolh Diesel designed a diesel engine. The Siemens brothers
designed the electric locomotives in Britain.
After these inventions the railway transport spread to other parts of the
world. The European colonialists developed the railway transport in Africa in
the 19th century and 20th century.

Water transport
The first sailing ships were propelled by wind. These ships were made of wood.
When steam power was discovered, ships began being propelled by steam en-
gines.

A ship of the 17th century

A Scottish engineer known as William Symington built a steamship which was

driven by a paddle wheel. An American called Robert Fulton built a steamship
called Clermont that was used to carry passengers between Albany and New
York. Some years later, internal combustion engines were invented. Since then
oil replaced the power from coal in driving engines.
From 1881 iron and steel ships began replacing wooden ships. From
1840s, fast moving ships were developed when propellers or screws replaced
paddle wheels. Between 1953 and 1962, the Americans were able to make war
ships called submarines which used nuclear power.
The ships of today are propelled by very powerful engines and are resis-
tant to strong waves.

Air transport
The first person to fly used a balloon. The use of balloons was followed by the
introduction of airships that carried passengers within the first half of the 20 th
century. The airships used hydrogen gas that caused accidents because it was
highly flammable. The Wright brothers made the first aeroplane that used a

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petrol engine. Their findings helped to develop aeroplanes that were used in the
First World War.
Further improvements of engines brought about the development of jet
planes that carry many passengers and travel at supersonic speed.

An aeroplane

Space Exploration
The first satellite was launched into orbit round the earth by the Soviet Union in
1957. The USA also sent satellites into orbit round the earth in 1961. Yuri
Gagarin from Soviet Union became the first man in space.
The USA sent the first man, Neil Armstrong, to the moon in 1969. Since
then a number of countries have engaged themselves in space exploration. The
USA for example have a programme called Space Shuttle which helps to pro-
mote space exploration.

Impact of modern means of transport

The development of modern means of transport has positive and negative im-
pact in the world.

Positive impact
The development of water transport, railway transport, road transport and air
transport has improved trade between nations because it has quickened move-
ment of business people and urgent documents and messages relating to trade.
Goods are quickly and easily transported from one place to another. Job
opportunities have been created in the transport sector. For example people have
taken careers such as driving, mechanics, engineering and piloting.
Industries for manufacturing engines, spare parts and other accessories
have been established. Air transport has encouraged international co-operation
and facilitated quicker and easier movement of perishable items such as fruits
and meat. It has also enabled pests such as locusts to be sprayed from the air. It
has enabled countries to conduct student exchange programmes.

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Air transport has encouraged space exploration by use of satellites. Geol-

ogists have used aeroplanes to explore and map oil pools. Geographers have
used aeroplanes when conducting aerial survey.
Water transport has provided cheaper means of bulky goods across seas
and oceans for example the transportation of crude oil, machinery, agricultural
products and chemical fertilizers. It has also promoted the fishing industry.
In addition railway transport encouraged settlers to settle in the colonies
acquired by their mother countries. It also encouraged migration of people to
other places and enhanced colonisation. Railway transport encouraged urbanisa-
tion on railway junctions. It encouraged mining and farming as it opened up re-
mote areas during the colonial rule in Africa.
Road transport has helped to link communities leading to rapid cultural
interaction. Road transport has also enabled many countries to have effective
administration through quick transportation of administrators and police to the
areas they are needed.

Negative impact
Modern means of transport have encouraged pollution of environment. Trains
and vehicles emit fumes while aeroplanes produce a lot of noise. When ships
carrying oil or mercury wreck, they contaminate the ocean waters and cause de-
struction of marine life.
Modern means of transport have led to loss of life of many people due to
accidents. Plane and vehicle hijacking has increased. There is piracy in seas and
oceans. International terrorism has been encouraged through air transport. Mod-
ern transport has encouraged wars because ships, vehicles, trains and aeroplanes
transport soldiers and weapons during wars.

Traditional forms of communication

The traditional forms of communication involve smoke signals, drum beats,
messengers, horn blowing and written messages on scrolls and stone tablets.
Communities used these forms of communication to make their members in-
formed of what was happening and what was expected of them. The messages
were sent quickly and easily over considerable distances.
The traditional forms of communication alerted people of impending dan-
gers in times of war. For instance warriors used them in times of crisis to inform
others of the approaching enemies. Lastly they enabled relatives who were liv-
ing apart to keep in touch with each other.

Smoke signals
Fire was lit in the areas that were visible for example on hills. The smoke pro-
duced was used to convey certain information. The smoke signals reached peo-

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ple very fast. It was a convenient method because firewood was readily avail-
able and therefore making it easy to make fire.
The method was disadvantageous in the sense that smoke signals could
not be sent at night because smoke could not be visible. Smoke signals could
not be used during cloudy and foggy weather.
For the message to reach, people had to be on lookout. It was not possible
to use this method to communicate with people who were blind. It was difficult
to make fire during the rainy season on hilltops. Strong winds also hampered
lighting of fire. Sometimes the receiver could wrongly interpret the message
signalled. The message was also never recorded or stored for future reference.
Confidential messages could not be transmitted without being revealed to peo-
ple.

Drum beats
Many communities used drum beats as means of communication. People made
special drums for communicating. The drums were made in such a way that
they produced different sounds. Messages were conveyed through the sounds.
The Buganda people used drums for communicating. The Ibos of Nigeria used
talking drums to communicate matters concerning deaths and festivals. Sounds
from drums were heard by people who were several kilometres away.
This method was advantageous because messages were sent quickly.
Sending the messages was not tiresome. People knew the meaning of the sounds
produced by the drums so communication was easy.
The method however had some disadvantages. The drums could not be
heard by people who were separated by hills because of echoes. Sometimes
people could interpret the sounds wrongly.
Drumbeats required specialists to send accurate sounds for accurate inter-
pretations. Deaf people could not communicate using the method.

Messengers
Messengers were people who were sent to deliver messages by word of mouth.
They travelled on foot for some distances before they conveyed the messages to
other messengers who also conveyed the messages to others. This continued un-
til the message reached the recipient. These organised groups of messengers
were known as runners. The messengers relayed the information and sometimes
brought the feedback. They made people of a community to keep in touch with
one another and to be aware of what was happening. Messengers informed
rulers of the approaching enemies.
The disadvantages of this method were as follows:
The messengers sometimes gave wrong information in case they forgot the mes-
sage. Sometimes the message could be distorted. Messengers were at times at-
tacked by wild animals and killed. This resulted to the failure to deliver mes-
sages.

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Sometimes messengers delayed the information in cases of sickness or an

accident. Messengers delivered limited ranges of messages because of the prob-
lems of memory. The information relayed could not be easily kept confidential.
The relay method was tiresome because one had to run for considerable
distances.

Horn blowing
Horn blowing was a method which was widely used among the African commu-
nities to send important messages. Sometimes horn blowing was used to call
people for urgent meetings. It gathered warriors together in times of war. Spe-
cial horns were blown to call hunters together especially among the Ameru peo-
ple of Kenya.
Horns were also blown to alert people about important ceremonies such
as circumcision among the Chuka people who are part of the Meru communi-
ties. Use of this method was advantageous in the sense that horn blowing could
be used successfully at any time of both day and night except when it was rain-
ing heavily accompanied by thunderstorms because people could not hear.
Horns relayed specific messages and could be used in all seasons. They
spread messages very fast without delay. Horns were obtained from domesti-
cated animals such as cows and goats and from wild animals such as antelopes
and gazelles.
The disadvantage of this method is that people who were specialised in
blowing horns to produce meaningful sounds were required. Sometimes the
messages could be wrongly interpreted if the horns were not accurately blown.
People who were deaf could not get the message. People could not use
the method to communicate with others if they were separated from them by
mountain ranges and hills. This is because the hills acted as a barrier and re-
flected the sound back.

Written messages on scrolls and stones tablets

A scroll was a roll of paper which was rolled round a piece of wood for writing
on. Scrolls were used in Egypt, Greece, China and Japan.
Before the introduction of papers, the Egyptians used several sheets of
papyrus to make a long sheet, which was known as a Scroll. They wrote mes-
sages on the scrolls. Part of the Old Testament Bible was written on scroll.
Stones were also shaped and messages written on them. These were
called stone tablets. The Ten Commandments in the Bible were at first written
on stone tablets. These stone tablets are sometimes called clay tablets. Writing
was done on wet clay which later dried and left permanent marks. In
Mesopotamia this type of writing was called cuneiform.

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Developments in modern means of commu-

nication
The modern means of communication are Telephones, Televisions, Radios,
Telegraphs, Electronic mails, Facsimile transreceivers, Telex, Pager, Internet as
well as the print media which includes newspapers, magazines, journals and pe-
riodicals. All these send messages over long distances. They also keep people
informed of what is happening and enable them to keep in touch with one an-
other.

Telephone
The first telephone was invented in 1875 by Alexander Graham Bell. It enabled
speech to be transmitted along wire. The following year it became possible to
send the first telephone messages after Thomas Edison made improvements on
the initial model.
At one end speech sound was converted into electric vibrations while at
the other end the vibrations were converted into original speech. The telephone
provides a very quick means of communication that enables the caller to get im-
mediate feedback. Today, the telephone is competing stiffly with mobile phones.

Modern Telephone
The Cellphone
Cellphones are the so called mobile phones. They are manufactured by a num-
ber of companies and they use radio waves for transmitting messages.
Mobile phone service providers in Kenya such as Safaricom and Kencell
companies have established transmitter-receivers which detect radio signals sent
by cellphones. The transmitter-receivers then send the signals back to the
phones.

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Cellphones

Cellphones vary in sizes and they are convenient as means of communication.

They can be used anywhere so long as there is the network.
The only disadvantages of cellphones is that they are easily stolen. Some
phones have poor reception while others are very delicate and can get damaged
easily. cellphones cannot be used in places where there are no sources of electri-
cal power because their batteries require continuous charging. They are expen-
sive to buy and also to maintain.

Television
The invention of the cathode ray tube in USA enabled the development of the
modern television to take place.
This enabled people to receive news through sound while seeing pictures
on screen. The televisions also became educational and entertainment facilities.
The first televisions showed black and white pictures. Later colour televisions
were introduced.
Today televisions are important because they entertain people, provide
educative programmes and provide local and international news. However, the
televisions are expensive to buy and require power from electricity or batteries
which are expensive to buy and maintain. It is only the middle and upper class
people who can afford to purchase and maintain televisions.

Radio
The first wireless messages were sent in form of electromagnetic signals
through frequencies by Guglielimo Marconi. The wireless telegraphy became
popular and more experiments were carried out which led to the transmission of
speech by radio waves.
During the First World War, more experiments were carried out. In 1920
the first radio broadcast was made in Britain by the Marconi Company. The
same year the Westinghouse Company also begun sending out regular radio
broadcasts in America.
The British Broadcasting Company (B.B.C) began its regular transmis-
sions in 1922. The first BBC radio broadcast was transmitted in Kenya in 1928.
Later during the Second World War English and Kiswahili programmes were in-
troduced in Kenya. The radio transmitted local and foreign news.

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Radio

Today the radio has become a very useful means of communication. It sends
messages to distant places in the shortest possible time. The radio transmits ed-
ucative programmes in form of Radio broadcast to schools as well as local and
foreign news.
It also provides programmes to the general public, which give them
awareness on HIV/AIDS, good morals, need for unity and how to become good
law abiding citizens.
The radio serves a large number of people at the same time and it is
cheaper to use than many other means of communication. It plays a big role in
promoting trade through advertisement.
Lastly the radio entertains many people with songs and plays. This is pos-
sible because anybody can listen to the appropriate radio programme transmit-
ted in a language he or she understands best.

Telegraph
Two scientists namely, Charles Wheatstone and William Coke invented the elec-
tric telegraph in 1837. The initial telephone wires were laid along railway lines
in Britain inorder to alert railway officials about the movement of the locomo-
tives.
Later an American scientist called Samuel Morse improved the telegraph
communication by inventing one which never used needles but used a code of
dots and dashes. This new device came to be known as Morse Code. It was used
to send telegrams to many parts of the world. In Kenya the telegraph wires were
laid down during the construction of the Kenya-Uganda railway.

Electronic Mail (E-mail)

Electronic mail sometimes called E-mail is a device which allows computer
users locally and internationally to exchange messages. The E-mail allows dis-
tribution of messages (mails) to and from computers in a network. Each user of
the E-mail has a mailbox address to which messages are sent. Messages sent
through e-mail arrive within a very short period irrespective of the distance the
sender is. Messages sent merely take seconds to reach.

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The E-mail has some advantages when used as a means of communica-

tion:

a) It delivers messages very fast.

b) It is cheap because the cost of delivering messages far away is relatively

low.

c) Volumes or several copies of messages can be sent at the same time.

d) The same message can be sent to many different people instantly.

e) The E-mail messages are secure and one does not need to own a com-
puter to use the facility. All one is required to do is to open an account
through an Internet Service Provider.

Facsimile transreceivers (Fax)

This is a machine which enables transmission of written information like draw-
ings, diagrams and maps in their exact form. Messages to be transmitted are fed
into the machine which is connected by a telegraphic or telephone wire to a sim-
ilar machine elsewhere which produces the message in photographic detail.
The sender makes first contact by telephone and then presses a button at
the sending point. Both the sending machine and the receiving machine have
drums with photographic papers. When the drums on both sides start to revolve,
the facsimile copy is produced at the receiving end. The facsimile copy pro-
duced is exactly the same as the original copy at the sending end. It is transmit-
ted in about half a minute.

Fax

This method of sending information is advantageous in that actual information

is transmitted within a very short time.
One disadvantage is that it is more expensive to send messages using fac-
simile transreceiver compared with some other means of communication such

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as e-mail and telephone over short distances. However, the method is cheaper
when used to transmit messages over long distances.

Telex
Telex uses a teleprinter which prints messages and send them to the other places
instantly. Telex machines are switched on the whole day. The telex subscribers
have numbers which must be typed and the exchange operator advises when the
connection is made so as to start typing the messages.
When information is typed on a teleprinter, it is automatically typed and
reproduced the same time by the machine at the receiving end in typescript. To-
day teleprinters are used all over the world to send urgent messages.

Pager
This is a device which enables the where about of a person to be located so that
the person can be brought on telephone to hear a message and perhaps also re-
ply to it immediately. It involves sending a signal that is received by a particular
person who is alerted by the beeping of the pager.
It is common where people do not sit in offices but move from one place
to another within a specified area. Its disadvantages are that it only receives a
signal and one cannot send back the reply using the machine. It operates within
a specified area where the signals can reach.

Internet
This is a computer network made up of thousands of networks world-wide. Mil-
lions of world computers are connected to the Internet and the number is still in-
creasing at alarming rate.
There is no single individual, organisation or government which may
claim ownership of the Internet. However, some organisations develop technical
aspects of the Internet network and set standards for creating applications on it,
but no single governing body is in control.

The backbone through which the Internet traffic flows is owned by private com-
panies. All computers on the Internet communicate with one another using the
transmission control protocol.
An Internet user has access to a wide variety of services which include
shopping opportunities, real-time broadcasting, interactive collaboration, file
transfer and electronic mail.
Users of Internet can search and find information of interest aided by spe-
cial software and data stored in ready usable formats. This is called information
browsing. Individuals are able to gain access to a wide range of information top-
ics.
The Internet allows a person to use electronic mail and to transfer data in
form of files across the Internet from one side to the other. The Internet also al-

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lows people to use other computers across the network. The use of computers is
becoming popular in Kenya today. Many people and organisations are trying to
connect their computers to the Internet so that they can interact with the rest of
the world.

The impact of modern means of telecommunica-

tion

1. The development of telecommunication has improved communication in

the entire world by easing communication within countries, between vari-
ous countries and between citizens and their governments as well as com-
munication among individuals themselves.

2. It has helped to improve travel. Pilots in ships and planes for instance
communicate with others in control stations by use of telecommunication
facilities.

3. Trade has been promoted due to the development of telecommunication

services which provide speed and efficiency of business transactions
through advertisements.

4. Radio and television provide mass entertainment to people all over the
world. They have also kept people busy during their leisure time.

5. Telecommunication technology has created employment opportunities for

many people in the world.

6. It has been used in modern warfare to communicate and to provide infor-

mation to soldiers in war.

7. It has enabled astronomers to explore the outer space in order to conduct

space research. Satellite communication is mainly for this purpose.

8. Many people have been able to learn a lot of new things as they watch the
television and listen to radio programmes.

9. Telecommunication services have enabled people to learn the cultures of

other people in the world. The television has played a great role in
achieving this therefore promoting cultural interaction.

10. Means of communication such as the telephone enable direct delivery of

messages to the recipients.

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11. The message can be delivered very fast within seconds to a person very
far away by use of telephone, telex, fax and e-mail.

12. The computers have enabled storage of information while the Internet has
enabled access to other information in computers world wide. This is a
great achievement in the development of telecommunication.

Print media
The print media includes communication through Newspapers, Magazines,
Journals and Periodicals.

Newspapers
These are written messages containing local and foreign events. Before the in-
troduction of regular newspapers, messages reached people through word of
mouth and short letters posted to them or pinned on the notice boards for any-
one to read.
The Germans were the first to introduce the newspaper system following
the invention of the printing press by Johann Gutenberg in 1440. By the close of
the 18th century almost all the countries in Europe except Britain had regular
newspapers.
Britain however introduced the first newspaper entitled the Daily
Courant in 1702. More and more publications followed in Britain after 1861
when printing of newspapers was legally allowed. Newspaper printing and cir-
culation then spread to the rest of the world.

Newspapers are printed on daily or weekly basis. They contain news, advertise-
ments and various articles on many fields.

In Kenya for example, we have daily newspapers such as the Daily Nation, The
East African Standard, Kenya Times, The People, Taifa Leo, and weekly news-
papers such as Sunday Nation, Sunday Standard and Taifa Weekly.

Magazines
Magazines resemble newspapers except the fact that they are not published fre-
quently. They may be published after a week, after a fortnight or after a month
or even three months. Magazines cover articles, stories and announcements.

During the colonial rule Jomo Kenyatta was the editor of a magazine entitled,
“Muigwithania”. Since independence, we have had magazines like the Kenya
Gazette, Parents, Today, Weekly Review and Finance among others.

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Journals
These are newspapers which deal with certain specialised subjects for instance
they may deal with trade, medicine, education, science and specific topics in
history. They are published at certain intervals.
We may therefore have titles such as ‘The Journal of African History’,
The Medicine Journal and The Scientific Journal but each of them covering a
specific area in a specified field.

Periodicals
These are magazines or other publications published at regular intervals for in-
stance on weekly or monthly basis.

Advantages of print media

1. Written information through the print media is preserved for a long period
without being distorted, forgotten and damaged.

2. Written of information through print media can be done any time because
it is not effected by weather or any other physical aspects.

3. It is cheap to store and also transport written material such as newspapers

and magazines that contain written information.

4. It is easy to use written information in the print media for future reference
because one can easily review the message when necessary.

5. It is easy for the literate to get information and directives from the gov-
ernment by use of newspapers and magazines.

6. Newspapers and magazines are used to advertise business. This promotes

business transactions.

7. Ideas are able to spread fast.

8. Printing and sale of newspapers and magazines has created employment

opportunities.

9. Print media provides foreign news therefore enabling people to be aware

of what happens outside the country.

10. Print media is not discriminative because it serves all the people who can
read since newspaper and magazines are written using several languages.

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For instance, some newspapers are written in English, others in Kiswahili

and some in various local languages (mother tongues)

Disadvantages of print media

1. They can be used to spread propaganda.

2. They can be used to tarnish the name of individuals for example the
politicians.

3. They sometimes include information that is not suitable for young chil-
dren. This can affect the morals of the youth.

Review Questions
1 a) Define transport and communication.
b) Explain why the camel is regarded as the best beast of burden for
use in deserts.
2 a) Outline the impact of the invention of the wheel.
b) Describe the main stages in the development of water transport.
c) What is the impact of the development of modern water transport.

3 a) List the inventions, which helped to promote road transport.

b) What was the impact of the development of rail transport.
4 a) Explain the development of space exploration.
b) Describe the advantages of the development of air transport.
5 a) Identify the traditional forms of communications.
b) Explain the importance of radio as a means of communication.
6 a) What is the print media?
b) Discuss the impact of modern telecommunication.

Students’ Activities
1 In groups discuss the problems of various means of transport and commu-
nication.
2 Collect newspapers and magazines and then in groups classify the types
of news reported.

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CHAPTER 3
Development of Industry
Industrialisation is the process of producing goods from raw materials. Before
the Industrial Revolution of the 19 th century, wood, wind and water were the
major sources of energy in the world.

The sources of energy

Wood
Before the 19th century wood was an important source of energy. Wood was
used for cooking, boiling water and warming houses in winter. In the early 19 th
century, it was also used for making charcoal that was used for smelting iron.
Wood was also used to heat water to prepare the steam power for driving steam
engines and steam ships.

Wind
Energy from wind was used for pumping water from mines and wells. It was
used to separate grains from husks (winnowing). Wind energy was used for
driving ships and boats for instance the Arab dhows. Wind energy was also used
to operate windmills used for grinding grains into flour. The balloons also used
wind energy to fly.

Water
Water provided energy for operating spinning and weaving machines. It oper-
ated water mills for grinding flour. Water also provided energy for operating wa-
ter pumps. It was heated to produce steam power.

Uses of metals in Africa

Bronze
Bronze is a mixture (alloy) of copper and tin. Bronze was used to make
weapons such as daggers, arrowheads, swords, axes and spears. It was used to
make tools which included chisels and hoes. It was used to make ornaments and
utensils.

Bronze was also used to make containers, bronze sculptures and musical instru-
ments such as flutes.

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Lastly, bronze was used for making stones for constructing pyramids in Egypt
and also for decorating king’s palaces.

Gold
Gold is an attractive metal that was used by rulers to decorate their palaces. It
acted as a sign of wealth. The rulers of the Asante Kingdom in West Africa re-
garded gold as their sole property. Anyone who obtained a gold nugget had to
hand it over to the king.
Gold was used to make golden ornaments and sculptures. It was an im-
portant commodity of trade among the people of the Mwene Mtapa Kingdom
and the city-state of Kilwa that minted gold coins. Gold was also used to make
knife handles, utensils and containers.

Copper
Copper was found in many parts of Africa such as Egypt, Zaire and Zambia.
Copper was used to make ornaments such as bangles. It was used to make tools
such as needles and to mint copper coins that acted as a sign of wealth and
medium of exchange.
Copper utensils were also made from it. It was also used for decorating
the kings’ palaces and for making brass and bronze alloys. Copper was used to
make water pipes in Egypt. Lastly it was used for making weapons.

Iron
There were several early iron working centres in Africa such as Meroe, Nok,
Taruga, Axum, Korotoro, Kwale and Kavirondo gulf. These early iron-working
centres were famous for making a variety of iron tools such as hoes, knives and
axes. In some places cattle bells and jingles for festivities were made.
Iron was widely used for making high quality weapons of the time such
as daggers, swords, spearheads, arrowheads and stabbing knives.
Gold sculptures which represented people were made in West Africa in
Nok and Taruga iron working sites. The Bantu are associated with the spread of
iron working technology in Africa.

The spread of iron working technology had the following impact:

a) More land was cultivated due to the introduction of better iron tools such
as hoes and axes which cleared forests.
b) Trade increased especially between the blacksmiths and the cultivators.

c) It encouraged migrations because the iron weapons made the migrating

communities to have confidence of conquering others and settling in their
land since security was guaranteed.

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d) The iron weapons made some communities to expand through conquest.

This led to the growth of strong states such as Nubia, Mwene Mtapa,
Buganda, Axum and Ancient Ghana.

e) The iron making in Africa encouraged wars because people acquired su-
perior iron weapons which gave them courage to advance and conquer
others.

f) Iron working encouraged job specialisation. Some people became black-

smiths others began making specific items such as knives, daggers, axes,
hoes and spear heads.

g) There was rapid increase in food production because of increase in farm-

lands.

h) The early mining centres attracted more people. This encouraged urbani-
sation.

i) Iron weapons enables various communities to improve their systems of

defence.

j) The weak communities were displaced by the stronger ones and some-
times assimilated during migration.

k) In some areas iron became a medium of exchange.

Uses of various sources of energy during

the Industrial Revolution in Europe
Coal
Coal was the main source of energy in the 19 th century. It heated water to very
high temperatures to produce steam which drove water pumps for removing wa-
ter in the coal mines. Coal was used to produce steam for driving steamships
and the locomotives. It was also used for heating and lighting houses.

Today, coal is used for generating electricity and providing power for industries.

Oil
The use of petroleum became popular during the industrial revolution. At first
oil was used to light lamps which were used in houses and streets.

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When the first internal combustion engine which used petrol was in-
vented by Gottlieb Daimler, petroleum began being used for driving motor vehi-
cles. Petroleum was also used for lubricating machines in factories and for gen-
erating thermal - electricity. Petroleum was used as medicine by the Chinese and
the Indians. Today petroleum products are used in industries to make drugs,
synthetics, plastics and fertilisers.

The disadvantages of petroleum

It is expensive to mine. Once extracted and exhausted it cannot be renewed.
Lastly it pollutes the environment.

Steam
Steam was produced by heating water to very high temperatures. When steam
was produced it was used as follows:

a) To drive heavy machines in factories.

b) To pump out water out of mines.

c) To drive steam driven vehicles.

d) To drive steam driven trains and locomotives.

Steam locomotive

e) To drive steamships and steam boats.

f) To operate spinning and weaving machines.

Electricity
There are two forms of electricity, Hydro-electricity and Thermal electricity.
Hydro-electricity is produced by converting the energy of moving water to elec-
trical energy. Thermal electricity is produced by burning oil or coal to provide
heat which is used to produce steam which turn steam turbines and hence gener-
ate electricity.

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The electrical power was used and is still used as follows:

a) To drive machines in industries and factories.

b) To light houses.

c) To drive electric trains and cars

d) To heat houses.

e) To supply power to radios, televisions, cinema and computers.

f) To supply power to refrigerators and electric cookers.

g) For welding.

h) To boil water.

i) To fence game parks.

Uses of iron and steel

The smelting of iron started very early when communities started separating it
from rock. In the 18th and 19th centuries new iron smelting techniques were dis-
covered. This came about because iron was very much in demand during the In-
dustrial Revolution especially in the transport sector where it was used for mak-
ing ships, trains, rails and bridges. Iron was also used to make textile machines,
water pipes and ploughs.

In the mid 19th century, Henry Bessemer discovered the method of converting
iron into steel. There after, steel replaced iron in the making of many equipment
required in the transport industry. For instance rail bars, trains, ships and bridges
were made by use of steel because it is stronger than iron. Later steel was used
for reinforcing concrete during construction of permanent buildings.

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Steel producing plant

Today steel has a wide range of uses for instance it is used in the motor vehicle
industries, ship building industries, in the industries for making trains and also
in the industries which make building materials such as iron sheets, roofing
bars, nuts and bolts. Steel is therefore widely used to make many kinds of tools
and machinery.

Industrialisation in Britain
Britain was the first European nation to industrialise. During the first half of the
19th century, it was the leading industrialised nation in the world. It manufac-
tured textiles and a variety of items made of iron.
Britain had rich coal mines which provided enough coal for industrial
power. The surplus was exported. This made Britain to be the leading trading
nation during the first half of the 19th century.
The other European countries and USA borrowed the industrial technol-
ogy from Britain. By 1870s Britain ceased to be the world’s leading industri-
alised nation.
The last half of the 19th century was associated with many scientific in-
ventions and discoveries which promoted industrialisation not only in Britain
but also in other nations like USA, France and Germany. Britain became the
first nation to industrialise because of the following factors which contributed to
the development of industries:

1. Britain had good transport and communication network.

2. It had enough capital to invest in industry.

3. There was sufficient raw materials in Britain in form of coal, iron and
cotton for use in the industries.

4. Britain enjoyed a long period of peace and political stability.

5. The British army was strong and superior. It defended the waters of
Britain effectively from competitions by rival nations from sea pirates.

6. Britain had well advanced insurance and banking systems.

7. Trade barrier such as tariffs which could hinder trade never existed in
Britain by then because it had adopted the policy of free trade.

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8. Britain had enterprising merchants who manned trade and also encour-
aged industrial growth and development.

9. It had well developed cottage industries which laid the basis of the indus-
trial take off.

10. There was adequate skilled and unskilled labour.

11. The acquisition of colonies overseas provided Britain with more raw ma-
terials for the industries.

12. The rapid population growth in Britain expanded the internal market for
the manufactured goods while the acquisition of colonies overseas pro-
vided external markets.

13. The technological advancement of the people in Britain brought about

new inventions which stimulated industrialisation.

14. There was availability of energy from coal.

15. The Agrarian Revolution had provided industrial workers with sufficient
food.

The effects of the industrialisation in Britain in the 19th century

a) The industrialisation of Britain in the 19th century stimulated the rural-ur-

ban migration of the landless who went to seek for employment in the
emerging industrial centres. This led to expansion of industrial centres
and hence urbanisation.

b) Transport and communication facilities such as roads, railways, and tele-

phones were developed to serve the industrial centres by facilitating trade
and transportation of raw materials to the factories and manufacture of
goods to the market.

c) There was the expansion of the banking industry and insurance. These
provided services to both industrial owners and workers. They also cre-
ated new employment opportunities.

d) The industrialisation in Britain led to enormous expansion of local and in-

ternational trade. The manufactured goods were sold to the British citi-
zens and the surplus was sold to the rest of Europe and to the British

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colonies overseas. The British colonies provided raw materials such as

palm oil, iron, copper and cotton in return.

e) Colonialism was encouraged as a means of acquiring sources of raw ma-

terials for the British industries. Britain was able to acquire colonies such
as India, Egypt, Ghana and Nigeria.

f) The standards of living of many Britons was raised due to income ob-
tained from the industries. The rise of the standards of living of the mid-
dle class in particular resulted to the class struggle between the rich and
the poor in Britain therefore sharpening the social stratification.

g) The industrialisation in Britain led to development of agricultural produc-

tion in Britain as well as in USA and other British colonies. The industrial
workers in Britain required food. The machines required lubricating oil
which was obtained from the palm oil grown along the West African
coast. Cotton was obtained from America and used in the British textile
industries to manufacture cotton cloth.

h) The industrialisation in Britain encouraged establishment of many kinds

of machines. These industrial machines produced fumes which polluted
the environment. There was also excessive noise which made some peo-
ple deaf.

i) Poor living conditions of factory workers encouraged emergence of poor

housing or slums. In these slums there was overcrowding of houses which
were not properly ventilated. The poor living conditions were as a result
of the low wages of the factory workers.

j) The industrialisation in Britain also encouraged exploitation of labour.

Children and women laboured for long hours in industries before manual
labour was replaced by use of machines.

k) Industrialisation in Britain caused unemployment especially after ma-

chines were introduced which could do the work formerly done by
labourers. The jobless still remained living in slums but they turned to
new careers which were immoral such as robbery and prostitution as a
means of their survival.

l) The overcrowding of people in towns and poor sanitary facilities resulted

to outbreaks of diseases such as dysentery, cholera and tuberculosis.

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Industrialisation in continental Europe

It is necessary to note that industrialisation technology spread to other countries
of Europe from Britain in the second half of the 19 th century. Countries such as
Germany, France and Belgium which had abundant deposits of coal, iron and
steel as well as the supply of both skilled and unskilled labour became industri-
alised next.
To achieve this, industrial research was carried out. The discovery of the
method of converting iron into steel by Henry Bessemer revolutionised the in-
dustrial sector. Electricity and petroleum were also discovered and they became
important sources of energy for the industries.

The rapid industrialisation of continental Europe was characterised by the fol-

lowing:
1) Improved transport and communication to ease transportation of raw materi-
als and marketing of ready manufactured goods.
2) Increased exploitation of coal and iron ore.
3) Improvements in agriculture in order to produce enough food for urban
dwellers and industrial workers and also to provide some industrial raw ma-
terials.
4) Mass production of manufactured goods as well as the coming up of many
new inventions as a result of increased industrial research.

Problems the industrial workers experienced

a) Workers were paid very low wages making them to experience poor liv-
ing conditions.

b) Workers were exposed to very dangerous machines, noise and chemicals

which resulted to injuries, suffocation, accidents and deaths.

c) Diseases attacked workers because their living conditions were very poor.
Such diseases were typhoid, cholera, dysentery and tuberculosis.

d) Women and children toiled in the factories and they were also subjected
to long working hours which denied them leisure and rest.

e) The environment they worked in was polluted due to improper disposal

of industrial waste.

f) Workers lived in overcrowded houses where there was inadequate light-

ing conditions and poor ventilation.

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g) The poverty as a result of low wages increased crime rate in towns.

Workers were therefore exposed to constant robbery.

h) The factory workers were not insured.

Effects of the industrial revolution in Europe

1. The Industrial Revolution in Europe stimulated rural urban migration of

the landless who wanted to look for jobs in the expanding urban centres.

2. There was scramble for colonies as a means of acquiring sources of raw

materials for the industries in Europe and looking for market for the sur-
plus manufactured goods as well as suitable areas for investing their sur-
plus capital.

3. There was increased urbanisation because employment opportunities at-

tracted many people. Trade that developed in towns attracted business-
men who opened other commercial activities that also attracted many
people. The development of transport and communication systems and
the use of machines in the cottage industry also made people to move to
urban centres and hence promoting urbanisation.

4. The standards of living of the people in Europe were raised due to income
from the industries.

5. It stimulated expansion of factories instead of cottage industries. Banking

and insurance were established.

6. Industrial Revolution in Europe created employment opportunities in the

industrial sector in form of mechanics, plant operators, engineers and
managers.

7. The Industrial Revolution led to the rise of trade unionism in the Euro-
pean countries such as Britain, France and Germany.

8. There was replacement of human labour with the use of machines.

9. The Industrial Revolution in Europe led to production of goods in large

quantities. These goods were exported in bulk.

10. It encouraged the development of transport and communication systems

such as railways and roads.

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11. The industries led to pollution of the environment, overcrowding of peo-

ple and crime.

12. The Industrial Revolution in Europe promoted the development of agri-

culture because the industrial workers needed food.

13. The Industrial Revolution in Europe caused unemployment in the coun-

tries where the use of machines had replaced manual labour.

14. The Industrial Revolution in Europe stimulated local and international

trade.

15. The Industrial Revolution finally led to exploitation of labour. Children

worked in factories for long hours.

Emergence of the world industrial powers

The USA
The USA has led in industrialisation for a long period. Before it became indus-
trialised the Americans were largely agricultural people. The Britons who mi-
grated from Britain to America are the one who stimulated industrialisation in
the USA.

Many factors however contributed to the success of the industrialisation in the

USA. These factors are as follows:

1. The USA had abundant natural resources such as iron ore and coal as well
as forestry resources.

2. There was adequate skilled and unskilled labour due to the high popula-
tion in USA. Slaves also provided labour in the American farms leading
to production of raw materials for use in the American industries.

3. The USA had adequate energy resources such as coal and iron ore. Later
uranium, petroleum, electricity and natural gas were introduced.

4. There was the development of transport and communication in form of

railways, roads, airways, telegraph, radio, telephones, telegrams and tele-
visions.

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5. The technological advancement in North America in the 19th and 20th cen-
turies contributed to the industrial advancement in the USA because a lot
of discoveries and inventions on industry were made.

6. Banks and insurance were introduced in the USA. They contributed a lot
to the industrial sector.

7. The government of the USA encouraged foreign investors from Germany

and Japan to come and invest in industry.

8. The USA had adequate capital obtained locally as a result of the Agrarian
Revolution as well as from the foreigners who had invested there.

9. The USA enjoyed a long period of political stability. Even in the 20 th cen-
tury the USA joined the two world wars almost the time they were end-
ing. Also there were few strikes and industrial disputes.

10. The British citizens who migrated to the USA introduced plantation agri-
culture that provided the initial industries with the agricultural raw mate-
rials. This laid the basis for heavy industries that used iron and steel.

11. In the 20th century the USA embarked on intensive research aimed at pro-
moting industry. The institutions of learning emphasised on Science and
scientific research. The universities in particular became devoted to in-
dustrial development.

12. The government policies favoured the growing industries. The USA gov-
ernment for example encouraged the home market by discouraging the
imposition of tariffs on locally manufactured commodities.

13. The USA had a strong agricultural base that contributed to her industrial
take off. This is because the industrial labour force could get enough food
supply and raw materials for the processing industries based on agricul-
tural product.

The effects of industrialisation on the USA

a) The people’s standards of living has been improved. The USA govern-
ment supports the unemployed US citizens.

b) The USA economy has been diversified. It now attains income from both
agriculture and industry.

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c) The USA has been able to boost her industrial technology by encouraging
education based on science and research.

d) The USA has become the major world power after the break of the former
USSR.

e) The USA has been able to use its industrial product and technology to
mechanise agriculture in order to increase the agricultural yields. This has
enabled the USA to provide the growing population with sufficient food.

f) The industrial development in the USA has enabled it to take part in

space exploration. The first human being to land on the moon, Neil Arm-
strong, was from the USA.

g) The USA has been able to earn foreign currency which has enabled it to
acquire abundant foreign reserve. This has also enabled the USA to be
one of the world’s leading donor states. For example the USA provided
financial and technical aid to Brazil and Egypt which enabled them to in-
dustrialise.

h) The US businessmen have been able to invest locally because of the

wealth obtained from the industrial sector.

i) Industrialisation has enabled the USA to develop its military might. This
military might enabled US to oust Saddam Hussein of Iraq from power.

j) Industrialisation has encouraged urbanisation.

k) Industrialisation has encouraged pollution of the environment.

l) Industrialisation created job opportunities for the Americans.

Germany
Germany began being industrialised in the 19th century. By 1900 it was second
to USA in industrialisation.

Several factors facilitated the industrial development in Germany. These were as

follows:

1. The creation of German customs union (Zollverein) unified the Germans.

This was followed by rapid economic development.

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2. Germany had large amounts of raw materials such as iron ore and coal.
Iron ore was obtained from Alsace-Lorraine while coal was obtained from
Ruhr and Saar mines.

3. The USA through the Marshall plan provided Germany with financial aid
for reconstruction after the Second World War.

4. The German population was increased rapidly. This growing population

provided skilled and unskilled labour.

5. Germany had well-developed transport and communication facilities in

form of railways, roads and canals.

6. The German government supported industrialisation by encouraging am-

bitious Germans to invest locally in industry and also through protection
of tariffs and subsidies.

7. The industrial base that existed before the Second World War in Germany
was revoked even after the war.

8. Germany enjoyed political stability after the Second World War. This en-
couraged industrial development.

9. There was sufficient power for the German industries from coal.

10. The manufactured goods from Germany had markets in South America
and Far East.

11. The development of education based on science and technology in Ger-

many enabled it to produce scientists and very skilled manpower.

12. The second unification of East and West Germany widened the scope of
industrial output.
13. There were improved agricultural techniques in Germany that resulted to
the increased yields that provided agricultural raw materials for the pro-
cessing industries.

The impact of industrialisation of Germany

a) Industrialisation improved the standards of living of the German society.
Their purchasing power was raised.

b) Germany was able to develop a network of transport and communication

to be able to transport raw materials and manufactured goods.

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c) Industrialisation enabled Germany to become a strong power before the

First World War. This made Germany to join other European nations to
look for colonies overseas.

d) Industrialisation diversified the economy of Germany because the country

was able to manufacture vehicles, machinery, chemicals, electronics and
textiles that were exported in the local and international markets.

e) It created employment opportunities for the people in West Germany and

the neighbouring states such as Yugoslavia, Turkey and Italy.

f) Industrialisation in Germany encouraged the growth of urban centres

such as Berlin and Warsaw.

g) Germany’s foreign reserve was boosted due to sale of her manufactured

goods for instance machinery of all kinds.

h) Industrialisation boosted local and international trade.

i) Industrialisation of Germany contributed in reducing inflation.

j) Industrialisation in Germany also boosted foreign reserve due to sale of

the manufactured goods.

Japan
Industrialisation of Japan began in the second half of the 19 th century after the
USA made treaties with Japan aimed at creating trade partnership. The introduc-
tion of compulsory primary and secondary education and the establishment of
universities and other colleges followed this. Many students were sponsored
abroad where they acquired education.
Japan was engaged in wars with China and Russia between 1894 and
1905. It also fought on one side with Britain, France and Russia during the First
World War against Germany and her allies.
During the Second World War, Japan attacked the American naval base at
Pearl Harbour in the Hawaiian Islands. The USA responded by bombing the Ja-
panese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. This act affected the economy
of Japan but there was economic recovery and continued industrialisation in the
later years.

Industrialisation in Japan was promote by the following factors:

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1. Japan had enough capital for carrying out research and for industrial de-
velopment. Japan also benefited from the American aid obtained after the
Second World War.

2. There was ready internal and external market for the Japanese manufac-
tured goods.

3. Japan enjoyed a long term of political stability mainly after the Second
World War. This peaceful atmosphere encouraged industrial progress.

4. Japan has a network of transport and communication for instance rail-

ways and roads.

5. The Japanese industrial base which existed before the first world war was
improved and made better after the second world war.

6. Power was available from coal, uranium and hydro-electric power for in-
dustrial use.

7. Skilled and unskilled labour was readily available in Japan.

8. Japan had abundant raw material for instance, iron ore and coal.

9. Japanese are hardworking people. This promoted industrial development.

10. Japanese goods are of very high quality and at the same time very cheap.
This encouraged internal and external market.

11. Japan natural harbours encouraged trade through export and import of
goods.

12. Japan has been politically neutral since the Second World War. It trades
with any nation.

13. Japanese introduced a new form of taxation aimed at raising funds for
promoting industrialisation.

14. The Japanese government encouraged home market and imposed tariffs
on foreign goods to discourage them from competing with goods pro-
duced in other countries.

15. Japan encouraged foreign investors to come and invest in the country.
Japan also invested in other countries.

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The effects of industrialisation in Japan

1. Industrialisation has led to improvement of the standards of living of Japan

People.

2. The Japan foreign reserve has been boosted due to sale of Japanese manu-
factured goods.

3. Japan has been recognised as one of the developed industrialised country of

the world.

4. Japan has diversified her economy from a predominantly agricultural coun-

try to a country which also obtains wealth from Industry.

5. Japan has promoted trade by using locally manufactured ships to carry im-
ported raw materials and goods for export.

6. Job opportunities have been created in the industrial sector.

7. Industrialisation has encouraged development of better and sufficient

means of transport and communications.

8. Many people prefer Japanese manufactured goods mainly because they are
of high quality and at the same time cheap.

Industrialisation in the third world

Brazil
Industrialisation in Brazil began in the last quarter of the 19 th century. The coun-
try’s industrial process later developed tremendously because of the following
factors.

1. Large deposits of minerals such as iron ore, gold, bauxite and manganese
were available for industrial use. Other raw materials in form of wood for
lumbering and agricultural products were available for the Brazilian indus-
tries.

2. The Brazilian government provided capital for developing industries.

3. The U.S.A. also provided technical and financial aid to Brazil, such aid was
used to develop heavy industries like the Volta and Rendonda steel works.

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4. Brazil had cottage industries that laid the basis of its modern industries.

5. There was development of transport and communication in Brazil. This was

through the construction of roads and railways for transporting raw materi-
als to the industries.

6. Brazil encouraged foreign investors who established companies from Eu-

rope and the U.S.A.

7. The Brazilian government introduced five year development plans to pro-

mote industrial development.

8. The first and the second world wars influenced the industrial take off in
Brazil by encouraging mass production of locally manufactured goods,
which were sold cheaply.

9. Brazilian goods were in demand in Britain, which provided a ready market.

10. The government nationalised industries to enable them to be supervised

properly. It also encouraged industrialisation.

11. Coal, petroleum and hydro- electric power were available for providing en-
ergy in the industries.

12. There was internal market of the goods from the industries. For example
the Brazilians purchase pharmaceuticals transport materials and spare parts,
farm tools and machinery and textiles.

Obstacles to the industrialisation of Brazil

Industrialisation of Brazil has not been smooth A number of factors have under-
mined Brazilian effort to industrialise. These are:

1. A large percentage of Brazilian citizens are poor and they can not establish
industries or provide a high purchasing power for the industrial goods.

2. Still there is inadequate transport and communication facilities even after

the government’s efforts to improve transport and communication.

3. The Brazilian wealth in owned and controlled by a majority group.

4. The Brazilian population is concentrated along the coastal belt. The interior
has labour problems because majority of the Brazilians prefer to work along
the coastal belt.

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5. Constant inflation in Brazil makes goods to be expensive.

6. Brazil has accumulated many foreign debts. This hinders steady progress of
the country.

7. The available resources in the Amazon forest are under exploited due to the
sparse population there. These are resources that can be used in industries.

Impact of the industrial growth in Brazil

1. The Brazilian industrial sector has boosted her foreign reserve.

2. At least there is an improvement in the living standards of the local people

in Brazil who survive from the spill of industrial gains. This has succeeded
due to reduction of the inflation that has to the rise of the purchasing power
of the Brazilians.

3. Exports have been increased due to increase in manufactured goods.

4. Brazil has emerged as one of the most industrialised third world countries.

5. Industrialisation of Brazil has encouraged modernisation of port facilities in

order to provide an outlet of goods being exported.

6. It has accelerated the development of transport and communication in

Brazil.

7. Employment opportunities have been created especially in the heavy and

light industries.

8. Industrial growth has encouraged growth and expansion of urban centres

especially those along the coastal belt such as Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro
and Recife.

South Africa
South Africa first started as an agricultural country but later there was the dis-
covery of gold and diamonds that promoted the industrialisation of the country.

The industries which developed in South Africa, included textile industries, iron
and steel industries, chemical industries, cement industries and locomotive in-
dustries among others.
The factors which contributed to the industrialisation of South Africa:

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1. Availability of minerals such as coal, gold, diamonds, silver and iron ore
some of which provided raw materials for the industries.

2. Availability of capital from the sale of some minerals such as gold and di-
amonds.

3. Availability of power for industries in form of coal and hydro-electric

power.

4. Availability of network of transport and communication in form of rail-

ways, roads, air transport and telephones.

5. Encouragement of foreign investors who invested in the mining industry.

6. Availability of skilled labour and unskilled labour obtained from the

neighbouring states such as Malawi and Mozambique.

7. Existence of local and international market especially after South African

majority attained independence in 1994.

8. There has been a considerable period of political stability after the major-
ity Africans took over the government after independence was granted to
them in 1994.

9. The manufactured goods from South Africa are of high quality. These en-
able them to compete favourably with imported ones.

10. The government of South Africa supported industrialisation by imposing

tariffs on imported goods.

Factors that hindered industrialisation in South Africa

a) Majority of Africans were impoverished by the colonial regime and for

this reason their purchasing power is low.

b) The international community banned South Africa from trading with

countries that were United Nations (UN) members. Therefore, there was
no external market for South African manufactured goods.

c) There was no political stability during colonial rule because Africans

were always fighting against apartheid. This affected industrial growth
and also discouraged investment.

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d) South African goods have faced stiff competition from those from the de-
veloped nations like Japan and China.

e) The high crime rate in the South African cities discouraged those who
wanted to invest in industry.

India
India was colonised by Britain and it supplied the colonial master with cotton. It
attained independence in 1947 and since then it engaged itself in industrial de-
velopment.

A number of factors enabled India to industrialise. These are:

1. India had raw materials such as cotton and iron ore for use in industries.

2. India established a well developed infrastructure for instance its transport

and communication facilities.

3. The cottage industries existed in India. These industries formed a basis

for industrial growth.

4. There was adequate power from coal, natural gas and oil. Currently hy-
droelectricity and uranium are in use.

5. India’s high population provided skilled and unskilled labours. The gov-
ernment of India trained people to acquire technical skills and industrial
technology.

6. The high population provided internal and external market for the manu-
factured goods.

7. India embarked on a series of five-year economic plans aimed at develop-

ing industry. The first of these plans was the 1950 - 1955 development
plan.

8. India established state enterprises and assisted the private sector through
loans. This boosted industrialisation.

9. The Indian government encouraged foreign investment in the industrial

sector.

10. The political stability in India after the attainment of independence en-
couraged industrialisation.

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11. Protective tariffs were imposed to enable local industries to grow.

The main industrial cities in India

Impact of Industrialisation of India

a) India’s foreign exchange earnings have been increased due to sale of

cheap manufactured goods.

b) There is a lot of improvement in the living standards of some sections of

the Indian community. Even the purchasing power of the people has
risen.

c) India has boosted the agricultural sector through manufacturing of farm

tools and machinery.

d) India’s industrial development has created employment opportunities for

the citizens.

e) Local and international trade has been encouraged through sale of the
manufactured goods.

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f) It has encouraged new urbanisation and expansion of the existing urban

centres such as Bombay, Karachi and New Delhi.

g) India’s revenue has been increased and its economy diversified as a result
of establishment of light and heavy industries as well as development of
agriculture.

h) India has become technologically advanced and a nuclear power.

i) India is now one of the most industrialised third world nations.

j) India has used the income from industry to develop transport and commu-
nication network.

k) Today India is able to provide public services such as education and

health care to its citizens.

l) Modern industrialisation in India has also boosted the cottage industries

that include making of garments, plastics, shoes, hosiery and some house-
hold items.

Plastic buckets and shoes

Scienti昀椀c Revolution
Scientific revolution refers to the period when man made many inventions and
discoveries as a result of his improvement in knowledge and the interest to find

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out new thing about the universe. The scientific inventions began before the
birth of Christ. A number of scientific discoveries and inventions were made in
agriculture, industry and medicine. These discoveries and inventions improved
man’s conditions of living after he indetified various ways of solving his prob-
lems.

The early civilizations for example in Greece, India, Iraq, Egypt and China in-
fluenced the development of early science. The Greeks and the Egyptians were
great mathematicians. The Greek mathematician called Pythagoras came up
with the right-angled triangle. The Egyptians used mathematical skills to con-
struct pyramids. They also came up with Geometry and used it in farms.

The Chinese also contributed to scientific knowledge in that they discovered the
way of making silk cloth, gunpowder and paper.

The Indians introduced ‘Zero’ in mathematics and also use of the decimal
points.

The Iraq people were in ancient times called the Sumerians or the Mesopotami-
ans. Their scientific inventions were mainly in the fields of medicine, architec-
ture, mathematics and astronomy. During ‘Renaissance’, scientific knowledge
spread to many countries especially in Europe. This was followed by Agrarian
Revolution and Industrial Revolution.

Individual scientists contributed a lot to the scientific inventions as from the 15th
century. Some of these notable scientists were:
1. Nicolas Copernicus
He learnt that the earth went round the sun within a period of one year.
He also discovered that the earth rotated on its own axis.

2. Galileo Galilei
He agreed with the theory of Copernicus that the earth and the remaining
planets moved round the sun in one year after using a telescope to ob-
serve the universe.

3. Sir Isaac Newton

He discovered the force of gravity and the spectrum.

4. Antoine Lavoisier
He found that air is composed of hydrogen and oxygen elements.

5. John Dalton

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He came up with the ‘Atomic Theory’ and also discovered colour blind-
ness.

6. Michael Faraday
He discovered electricity. This enabled him to make a dynamo which
gave out electricity.

7. Thomas Edison
He came up with electric lamp.

8. Charles Darwin
He formulated the evolution theory which stated that all living things de-
veloped from simple life forms to complex ones over millions of years.

9. Edward Jenner
He came up with the vaccine for small pox

10. Louis Pastour

He found that diseases and decay were caused by microbes. He intro-
duced pasteurisation as a method of conserving liquid foods.

11. Alexander Graham Bell

He invented the telephone.

12. George Stephenson

He invented the steam locomotive.

13. The Wright Brothers (Wilber and Oville Wright)

They invented the first aeroplane.

Important scientific inventions on agriculture

1. Jethro Tull
He invented seed drill which was used to plant seeds in rows and a horse
drawn hoe.

2. Robert Bakewell
He found out that the quality of animals could be improved through cross
breeding. Using the method, he came up with quality sheep.

3. Andrew Meikle
He came up with a mechanical thresher.

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4. Justus Von Liebig

He came up with the modern fertiliser industry. In his experiments, he
found that plants obtain nitrogen phosphorus and salt from the soil.

5. Cyrus Mc Comic
He invented the reaper which could be used for harvesting.

6. Sir John Bennet Lawes

He began a super phosphate factory for making fertiliser.

Impact of scientific inventions on agriculture

a) Scientific invention promoted agriculture leading to rapid increase in
food production. Fertilisers added nutrients to the soils while farm ma-
chinery helped in ploughing, planting, harvesting and threshing.

b) Scientific inventions improved farming techniques and livestock rearing.

For instance cross-breeding brought about quality livestock breeds, while
the invention of the seed drill encouraged farmers to plant in rows.

c) Before the invention of agricultural machines such as tractors, combined

harvesters and seed drills, human labour was very popular in farms. After
the machines were introduced, manual labour was reduced. This resulted
to unemployment of many people in the agricultural sector.

d) It became easy to preserve foods and even transport them over long dis-
tances and over a long period of time because of the invention of refriger-
ators and the canning process. This led to increase in cultivation.

e) The introduction of pesticides reduced crop destruction by pests while the

development of fungicides reduced crop diseases. Food production there-
fore increased as a result of the reduction of crop diseases and pests.

f) The invention of farm machinery led to increase in cultivated land. This

was followed by the establishment of large estates leading to plantation
farming.

g) The desire to make more inventions and to improve what had already
been established for instance the need to come up with better breeds of
livestock and to come up with more efficient farm tools and machinery

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led to establishment of scientific research centres and schools which em-

phasised on science.

h) There was diversification of agriculture as well as diversification of econ-

omy. This was important because people stopped depending on a single
source of livelihood.

i) Increase in food production led to increase in population growth. This is

because the fertility rate rose as people obtained sufficient and nutritious
food which also reduced the death rate.

j) The invention of farm machinery which replaced manual labour resulted

to rural urban migration of the unemployed. There were therefore large
populations in towns which required food. For this more land had to be
cultivated to feed the town folk. This therefore indirectly promoted the
development of agriculture.

k) Continuous application of fertilisers in farms have affected soils therefore

leading to reduction in yields.

l) Indigenous crops and livestock have been replaced by exotic breeds

which are mainly hybrids.

m) Inhaling of various chemicals and pesticides cause respiratory diseases

e.g whooping cough and other diseases like tuberculosis and cancer.

Important discoveries in industry

a) The textile industry had so many discoveries. These were:

i) James Hargreaves
He invented the spinning jenny which prepared large amount of
cotton threads.

ii) Edmund Cartright

He invented the power loom which facilitated weaving.

iii) Samuel Crompton

He invented the spinning mule. This machine produced high qual-
ity threads.

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iv) John Key

He invented the flying shuttle.

v) Thomas Bell
He made a cylindrical calico printing machine.

vi) Eli Whitney

He invented the cotton gin which removed seeds from cotton fibre.

b) Others who made inventions on industry were:

i) Michael Faraday
He discovered electricity and he made a dynamo for generating
electricity.

ii) Benjamin Franklin

He proved that lightning was a form of electricity.

iii) Otto Hahn and Stressman

They discovered nuclear energy.

iv) George Stephenson

He made the locomotive which was called ‘The Rocket’.

v) James Watt
He invented the steam engine

Impact of scientific inventions on industry

1. As a result of people getting exposed to the industrial goods, their living

standards have improved.

2. Jobs have been created in industries. The textile industries for example
employ a large number of people.

3. There is diversification of economy as a result of introduction of indus-

tries. This has stopped man from depending on agriculture only.

4. New sources of energy were introduced as a result of scientific research.

These were like solar energy, atomic and nuclear energy, and electric
power.

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5. Space exploration has been carried out due to invention of rockets, satel-
lites, and digital cameras.

6. Dangerous weapons such as atomic and nuclear weapons have been in-
vented. This has increased wars in the world.

7. Inventions of engines, motorcars, supersonic planes and locomotives en-

couraged manufacture of spare parts and vehicles and also refining of oil
to get fuel for vehicles. Transport has therefore been revolutionised
through scientific inventions.

8. Scientific inventions had reduced the labour burden. Machines do most of

the work especially in developed countries.

9. The invention of computers has helped workers to perform their duties ef-
ficiently and accurately for example in the banking sector where comput-
ers are used to process information and many other types of data.

10. Trade has been encouraged due to the growing demand of the manufac-
tured goods.

11. The industries cause pollution in cities. Industrial fumes, noise and smell
affect people. Some are affected by diseases like tuberculosis.

12. Communication network has been improved through the use of Email and
Internet.

13. Some countries of the world have become highly industrialized. This has
given them the opportunity of becoming world powers. They use the
products of their industries to overpower others.

Important scientific inventions and discoveries in medicine

1. Joseph Lister
He discovered he use of carbonic acid as an antiseptic to sterilise surgical
apparatus. Then he developed an antiseptic spray for making the air clean
during operations. He also discovered the use of carbonic acid for de-
stroying microbes around the wound after an operation.

2. William Marton
He discovered the use of chloroform sometimes refered to as carbonic
acid during surgery.

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3. Edward Jenner
He invented the first vaccine for controlling smallpox.

4. Lous Pasteur
He discovered that certain bacteria caused certain disease. He discovered
that heat could kill bacteria. He therefore discovered that food could be
preserved through the method he called pasteurisation. This is heating
food to a certain temperature and then making it maintain the same tem-
perature for a specific period of time before it is cooled quickly. He also
came up with cures for anthrax and rabies.

5. Sir Ronald Ross

He found out that the anopheles mosquitoes carried parasites that caused
malaria. He also discovered that proper drainage systems could prevent
the breeding of mosquitoes and therefore reduce malaria infections.

6. Rontgen
He discovered the x-ray radiation which later enabled doctors to observe
the internal organs of man and his bony framework..

7. Alexander Flemming
He discovered penicillin, which was an antibiotic capable for curing
coughs, pneumonia, sore throat and wounds.

8. Dr Christian Bernard
He introduced the method of transplanting the heart of a death person to a
body of a living patient with heart problem.

Impact of scientific inventions on medicine

1. There has been rapid increase in life expectancy of human beings. This
has resulted to rapid increase in human population.

2. Drugs have been discovered which reduce pains therefore reducing hu-
man suffering. Others cure diseases completely.

3. Machinery for use in hospitals have been invented. These are used by
doctors for locating and treating diseases.

4. Industries for manufacturing drugs (curatives) have been established.

This has created employment opportunities in the pharmaceutical indus-
tries.

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5. Preventive measures have been applied such as vaccination which has led
to eradication of many diseases.

6. Excess use of drugs may affect the health of many people. This is because
certain diseases become resistant to certain drugs.

Factors influencing scientific inventions in Africa and other developing na-

tions

i) Inadequate capital for the use in scientific research.

ii) Illiteracy of the people. Many people who are not educated cannot be able
to apply scientific principles to come up with new findings.

iii) Over-depending on donor countries. This occurs because African coun-

tries are poor.

iv) Little emphasis in the teaching of science in school. This occurs because
of shortages of science equipment for experimental work.

v) Failure for the governments to assist researchers. Many African countries

cannot afford to fund researchers. Even those countries which may afford
do not take research work as their first priority.

vi) Excessive dependence on items for instance engines, pharmaceuticals and

other machinery reduce the importance of engaging on scientific research.

vii) Lack of initiative on the side of researchers. Therefore others are not en-
couraged to carry out research.

Review Questions
1 a) Identify the early sources of energy.
b) How was energy from wind used?

a) Give the uses of the following metals:

i) Copper
ii) Iron
b) Explain the effects of the spread of iron smelting in Africa?

3 What factors contributed to the industrialisation in Britain?

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4. What were the social and economic effects of industrialisation in conti-

nental Europe?

5. a) What is scientific revolution?

b) Discuss the impact of scientific inventions on:
i) Agriculture
ii) Medicine

6. a) What are the main factors which contributed to the industrialisation

of the developed countries?
b) What are the major obstacles to the industrialisation of the devel-
oping nations?

Students’ Activities
1 Compare the type of industries found in the developed countries and
those found in the third world (developing) countries.

2 In groups discuss various discoveries and inventions which have pro-

moted Industry, Medicine and agriculture.

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CHAPTER 4

Urbanisation
Urbanisation is the process of people’s migration from rural areas to live in
towns or cities. It can also imply the establishment of towns or cities. It can also
be defined as the concentration of people in settlements usually referred to as
urban centres. An urban centre according to the United Nations is a settlement
with a population of 20,000 people and above.

A modern town

Early urbanisation in Africa

Early urbanisation began in Africa before the birth of Christ. Early urban cen-
tres which declined such as Meroe and Aksum are suitable example of such
towns.
Several factors led to the establishment of the early urban centres before
the establishment of the colonial rule. These are:

1. Due to development of trade, convergent centres emerged which became

the meeting places for many people from different places. They later de-
velopment into towns. Examples are Mombasa and Kilwa.

2. There was development of ports and harbours where ships anchored such
as Cape Town and Malindi.

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3. Some areas like Meroe where local industries were established attracted
many people who settled there. These settlements later developed into
towns.

4. Areas which had reliable water for irrigation, industrial use and domestic
use attracted people who established settlements which later developed
into towns.

5. Some administrative centres and palaces of rulers expanded to become

towns after the subjects came to settle close to rulers for security reasons.

6. Urban centres developed at major cross-roads and where several trade

routes met. Examples are Tuat, Timbuktu and Sijilmasa.

7. Notable religious centres became the meeting places for many people.
They attracted people who settled nearby and thereafter towns developed.

8. Development of early education centres such as Timbuktu, Gao and Cairo

contributed to development of urbanisation in those centres.

9. The development of Agriculture made people to settle permanently to-

gether because food was available.

10. Areas that were secure and were sheltered from possible attacks attracted
people who concentrated there. These settlements later developed into
towns.

Cairo

Modern Cairo is situated at the delta of River Nile where some earlier settle-
ments had been established about 2000 years ago. Egypt was invaded by the Fa-
timids who established a walled town. By mid 14 th century Egypt had grown
into a big city with many mosques and palaces. It served as an early religious
centre.
The town had narrow streets, bazaars, shops and crowded living quarters.
There was a market where people sold their produce.
The Ottoman Turks took control of Egypt in 1517 and remained under
their control until 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte of France captured it from
the Turks. Three years later in 1801 the French were driven out of Cairo and it
was thereafter made the capital of Egypt by the then ruler, Mohammed Ali.
During the reign of Ismaili, Egypt was first modernised. Later it expanded as
more buildings reflecting the European style were constructed. Today it is the

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largest town in Egypt. It has a modern international airport and a railway net-
work which links Cairo with the other towns. Cairo has many entertainment fa-
cilities and museums. It is an important religious centre.

Meroe

Meroe is an ancient city in Africa that emerged in an iron working site North of
modern Khartoum. The inhabitants of Meroe developed the style of building in
brick and plaster during the first century BC. They white-washed the outer walls
of palaces and also decorated them with glowing mural-paintings. The inner
walls were also painted and decorated with ornaments.
Meroe started expanding when it was made the capital of Kush instead of
the former capital, Napata because the people of Kush had learnt the knowledge
of iron working from the Assyrians and they also traded with the Greeks by ex-
porting ivory, slaves, animal skins, ostrich feathers, timber and gold which pro-
vided them with income to expand the town.
The city of Meroe declined during the first century AD mainly due to
trade rivalry from the growing kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia. When Meroe be-
gan becoming weak, the King of Axum known as Ezana attacked Meroe, burnt
it and took everything of value. Ezana destroyed their stores of corn and cotton
and the statues in their temples. This marked the decline of the great city of
Meroe.

Kilwa

The origin of Kilwa is associated with the Persian immigrants who established
settlements on the Indian Ocean coast. At the beginning of the 13 th century
Kilwa began expanding due to wealth obtained from the gold trade. From the
end of the 13th century, it was the most important trading town on the East Coast
of Africa.
It controlled the coastal settlement in the North as far as Pemba Island.
Kilwa was a walled town which minted its own coins. It controlled the gold
trade with Sofala and Zimbabwe. The inhabitants were mainly Muslims.
The town of Kilwa had beautiful buildings such as the Great Mosque and
the large palace known as Husuni Kubwa. The town began declining first in
the second hand of the 14th century. The fine buildings were ruined. Between
1420 and 1440 the mosque was renovated. The town of Kilwa lost its glory and
prosperity and declined completely almost at the close of the 15th century be-
cause of the following reasons:

j) There were dynastic quarrels in Kilwa.

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ii) The Sofala gold trade was interrupted by wars in the interior.

iii) Mombasa became a strong rival of Kilwa.

iv) The arrival of the Portuguese interfered with the gold trade because the
Portuguese soldiers attacked and conquered all the coastal city states.

v) There were constant rivalries between Kilwa and other coastal city states.

Early urbanisation in Europe

London

London is the capital city of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland. It is in the continent of Europe. The city is situated in South East Eng-
land.
The town of London originated before the first century AD. When the
Romans occupied Britain in the 1st century AD, London was already a town of
considerable importance.
The Romans expanded the town and made it an important religious cen-
tre. They also established Christianity which became the dominant religion in
England.
London continued to expand even after it was burnt in the first century
AD. When the Romans left England, London had already been established with
a large population.
The withdrawal of the Romans did not affect the growth of London be-
cause what they did in Britain perished after they left.
In the 9th century, King Alfred made London the capital of his kingdom.
Later King William I established himself in England and developed the town of
London. He built the Tower of London and also rebuilt the London bridge. Ini-
tially it was built of wood but he rebuilt it using stone.
Throughout the Middle Ages the growth of London was slow as a result
of wars, epidemics and commercial crisis.
When Queen Elizabeth I opened the Royal exchange in 1566 AD, the city
of London grew into an important city of the world. By 1580 AD Queen Eliza-
beth I issued a proclamation which prohibited construction of any new buildings
within a radius of about 4 kilometres outside the city gates.
In 1665 AD London was affected by plague. The following year a great
fire burnt the city.

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In 1667 the rebuilding act was enacted. It stipulated that all buildings be
of stone and brick. In the 1760s the walls and gates of old medieval city of Lon-
don were demolished. During the 19th century, London was modernised through
the construction of many suburbs, rebuilding of bridges and through lighting of
city streets. By the close of the century, London had grown into a beautiful city
served by a well developed networked of transport and communication.
During the First World War, London became the German target. London
was heavily bombed. The Tower of London and the British Museum were de-
stroyed. Many other buildings were also damaged.
After the war, the British government reconstructed the war damage.
Many tall storey buildings were constructed such as the Museum Radio Tower
of the General Post Office building. This was followed by construction of
shops, residential houses, school, hotels and cultural centres.
The city of London got most of its water from river Thames. There were
several city markets which provided people with food, meat, fruits and flowers.
Today the city of London is under the control of the local government headed
by mayors.

Several factors contributed to the growth of the city of London. These were:

1. Development of transport and communication. London had a network of

roads and railways. Underground roads and railways were established in
underground tunnels to reduce traffic congestion.

Modern international airports such as Heathrow airport were also estab-

lished. London was connected to the rest of the world with telegraphs,
telephones and radio transmissions.

2. Trade enabled the town of London to grow into city status. Many people
migrated to London to conduct business as a way of earning a living.
The success of their businesses made them wealthy and they settled
permanently. As this process continued, the town also continued to ex-
pand.

3. The establishment of industries attracted the people who came to seek for
employment and those who came to survive on cheap manufactured
goods.

4. The development of port facilities in London encouraged many people to

go and do the jobs of loading and unloading cargo. The sailors from Eng-
land also started their journeys from the seaports like London. Those who
came from abroad on their way to England regarded London as their port
of call. This contributed to the growth of London.

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5. London served as a political and an administrative centre for a long time.

The Romans constructed a fort and surrounded it with a wall for security
reasons. The colonies Britain acquired were under the colonial secretary
who was based in London.

6. The city of London had several museums and theatres that made it an im-
portant cultural centre. Many people were attracted by the activities in the
city making them to settle there in great numbers.

Functions of London
a) London is the capital of the United Kingdom. It acts as an administrative
headquarters.

b) It is an industrial centre that has both heavy and light industries.

c) It is a cultural and recreational centre. London has many theatres and mu-
seums.

d) London is a centre of international transport and communication. This is

because there are international airports in London and there is the harbour
where ships from all over the world anchor.

e) London is a centre of learning. It has international Universities and col-

leges.

f) It is also a commercial centre that has many banks and insurance. It has
many shopping centres.

g) London is a religious centre. It has many churches and cathedrals.

h) London is also the common wealth headquarter.

The problems London has encountered since it was founded

i) Problem of overcrowding of houses, vehicles and people.

ii) Epidemics such as plague affected London during the Romans era and in
1665 AD.

iii) London was burnt down in 1666 AD.

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iv) There was the problem of unemployment.

v) There was the problem of rural - urban migration of the jobless.

vi) There was inadequate housing facilities and poor sanitation.

vii) There was high crime rate.

viii) There was pollution of the environment due to fumes from industries and
vehicles.

ix) London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War. This re-
sulted to deaths of people and destruction of property.

x) There was the demolition of the old city of London in the 1760’s.

Athens

The growth and prosperity of Athens is based on trade and commerce. The land
surrounding Athens was rocky. It could not support a large population. The peo-
ple of Athens depended mainly on imported food that they exchanged with olive
oil, wine and wool.

Athens was a famous centre of learning. The city state provided education in
such fields as philosophy, architecture, drama, science and medicine. The
democracy that is enjoyed in the world today originated in Athens where it was
actually practised.

Athens was surrounded by a protective wall for security purposes because of

constant wars with the other city states. The town itself looked clumsy. The
streets were merely narrow earth roads that became dusty during the dry spell
and muddy during the rainy season.

Some houses were made of unbaked brick while others were made of mud. A
few beautiful and well-built buildings such as Parthenon temple and the temple
of Athena Nike existed.

There was a market place in the centre of the town which also acted as a meet-
ing place for people and also the place where people assembled for debates. On
top of the high cliff was the Acropolis (Fortress) which provided protection for
the village below.

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The biggest problem of Athens was that it had inadequate sanitary facili-
ties for disposing human waste and refuse. Due to this the town was exposed to
very bad smell from rotting garbage.
Athens weakened and lost its glory between 430 BC and 335 BC due to
the following reasons:
i) Athens was affected by constant rivalries and wars with other city states.

ii) Athens was conquered by King Philip of Macedonia and put under the
Macedonian domination.

iii) Constant epidemics like plague led to death of many Athenian citizens
therefore weakening the military might of Athens.

iv) The final blow, which made the town to disintegrate, was the death of
Alexander the Great whose empire controlled Athens. Other towns such
as Rome and Cathage rose to power to fill the political vacuum left by
Macedonia.

Emergence of modern urban centres in

Africa
There are many urban centres in Africa that began when the Europeans acquired
colonies and settled there. Such towns never existed in Africa before the coming
of the Europeans.
Some of them began as administrative centres for the colonial authority.
Some emerged as mining towns, others as commercial centres some as agricul-
tural centres or farming centres while others began as industrial centres.
The Europeans at first settled in those places and established administra-
tive and commercial buildings. The emerging settlements attracted rural people
who also migrated there to look for employment, start business and seek for
other fortunes. Examples of the modern urban centres in Africa are Nairobi and
Johannesburg.

Nairobi

Nairobi began in 1899 during the construction of the Uganda railway. It first
started as a depot for storing the railway equipment before approaching the
steep rift valley escarpment.
The place looked suitable for a depot and for resting because of its mild
climate that was preferable by Europeans. There was also the Nairobi River

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which provided water to the railway builders. The site was somehow flat for
construction compared to the land ahead of them before they reached the Rift
Valley. At the same time Nairobi was the midpoint between Mombasa and Lake
Victoria.
In 1907 the Imperial British East Africa (IBEA) company transferred its
capital from Mombasa to Nairobi. During the colonial period the Europeans and
Asians dominated the town.
Migration of Africans to Nairobi was restricted but quite a number went
there to work as labourers.
The town was associated with racial discrimination in employment, com-
merce and housing.
Today Nairobi lies at the heart of Kenya’s rail and road network. It has a
modern international airport known as Kenyatta International Airport. It has
several other small airports such as Eastleigh, Embakasi and Wilson airports.
Nairobi is the seat of the government and the commercial centre of Kenya.
Nairobi is also industrial, cultural, educational, communication and transport
centre.
It has modern buildings that are used as offices, hotels and shopping cen-
tres. The city attracts Kenyan citizens from all parts of the country and also for-
eigners who include tourists from many countries of the world. However,
Nairobi City is facing a number of problems as below:

a) The city has inadequate drainage and sanitary facilities.

b) There is the problem of pollution as a result of many industries producing

fumes and noise.
c) There is acute problem of water.

d) There are inadequate educational facilities such as schools for the rapid
growing urban population.

e) There is congestion of traffic leading to traffic jams.

f) There is a high rate of crime such as robbery and prostitution.

g) There is inadequate housing facilities leading to development of slums

and overcrowding in residential areas.

h) There is high rate of unemployment. School leavers flock in Nairobi to

look for jobs.

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Johannesburg

Johannesburg is a city of the Republic of South Africa, in Transvaal province.

The discovery of minerals during the second half of the 19th century was largely
responsible for the emergence of a number of towns in South Africa.

Location of the city of Johannesburg

Johannesburg mushroomed after large gold deposits were discovered in Witwa-

tersrand in September 1886. This was followed by a gold rush. At first Johan-
nesburg began with a very small population. Within a very short time people
flocked to Johannesburg on the Witwatersrand in great numbers from Britain,
America, Australia and other countries of Europe.

At first the early settlements were mere shanties made of galvanised iron. These
shanties were the basis of a miraculous growth of the city of Johannesburg.
Within a decade, the town had a population of about 100,000 people.

Other factors that contributed to the growth of Johannesburg are:

1. There was cheap labour from the Africans. Labour was also obtained
from the neighbouring countries like Malawi, Namibia and Botswana.
These labourers increased the population of the city.

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2. River Vaal provided enough water for mining, industry and domestic use.

3. There was development of transport and communication in form of road

and railway.

4. The land surrounding Johannesburg was suitable for farming. This pro-
vided enough food for the people in the mining centre and industries.

5. The availability of other minerals such as iron ore and flourspar in the
outskirts of the city contributed in the industrial growth.

6. The availability of coal, which provided energy also, promoted industrial

development.

Today, Johannesburg is the largest city of the Republic of South Africa and the
industrial and commercial centre. It is the centre of the country’s gold mining
industries and the site of the Johannesburg stock exchange.
It is a strategic rail, road and air hub with an international airport. It is a
mining as well as an industrial centre whose industries include manufacture of
mining and railway equipment, automobile parts, chemicals, textiles, electrical
and communication equipment.
Johannesburg is a cultural and educational centre of South Africa. It has a
number of museums, theatres, a symphony, orchestra and an opera company. It
has schools and universities.

Review Questions
1 a) What is urbanisation?
b) What favoured development of early urbanisation in Africa?

2. a) Describe the factors which contributed to the growth of:

i) London
ii) Kilwa
b) What problems did each of the two towns above encounter that af-
fected its growth.

3. Explain the factors which led to the decline of the city of Athens in the
first millennium AD?

4. Describe the major problems of the modern urban centres.

5. Explain the growth of Johannesburg as an important urban centre.

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7. Describe the functions of Nairobi City.

Students’ Activities
1. Compare the factors that led to the growth of the early urban centres with
those which led to the growth of modern urban centres.

2. Draw a map of Africa and indicate the locations of Nairobi, Cairo, Meroe,
Johannesburg and Kilwa.

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CHAPTER 5

SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANI-

SATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETIES IN THE 19TH
CENTURY

Buganda

The Buganda Kingdom was one of the Kingdoms in Uganda. During the 19 th
century Buganda expanded to become the largest and most powerful kingdoms
in Uganda. Several factors brought about the rise of Buganda. These were:

a) The Baganda were agriculturists. They grew bananas which was their sta-
ple food. This enabled them to feed the army. The fertile soils and suit-
able climate enabled them to grow crops.

b) During the 18th and 19th centuries, Buganda was under very strong and
competent rulers entitled Kabaka. One such ruler was Kabaka Mtesa I.

c) Buganda kingdom was centralised and it had a well-organised political

system. The centralisation of Buganda enhanced effective control of the
kingdom, enhanced loyalty to one single ruler, promoted control and
unity of other traditional leaders and also led to emergence of able rulers
who strengthened the Kingdom.

d) Buganda had a strong army, which defended the kingdom, and a navy that
conquered people living in the islands of Lake Victoria such as the people
of Sese Island.

e) The decline of Bunyoro Kitara Kingdom enabled Buganda to expand to

fill the power vacuum left by Bunyoro.

f) Participation in the long distance trade by the Baganda people enabled the
kingdom to attain wealth that was used to maintain the kingdom. The
rulers also taxed the Arab and Swahili traders who ventured into the king-
dom to trade.

g) The annexation of Buddu iron fields enabled Buganda to manufacture su-

perior iron weapons.

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h) When the British occupied Uganda, she handed over the ‘lost counties’ of
Bunyoro to Buganda. These counties included Bungaizi and Buyoga. This
action of the British contributed to more expansion of Buganda.

Buganda at its peak in the 19th Century

Social organisation of Buganda

The social organisation of the Baganda was based on clans made up of members
of several related families.
There were also social classes with members of the loyal family on top
followed by local chief and then below were the commoners followed by slaves.
The Kabaka existed who played social roles such as presiding on various
ceremonies and rituals, being the chief priest and therefore being in charge of all
religious activities.
The Kabaka’s power was symbolised by his loyal regalia that included
the royal drums, the stools and the spears.
The Baganda worshipped a god entitled Katonda. They believed in the
spirits of the dead ancestors. They thought that the death affected the affairs of
the living people.
They had a traditional religion they called Lubaale. They consulted the
spirits of the dead through prophets. The mediums who consulted the spirits
were usually given gifts. The Baganda had medicinemen and sorcerers.
They conducted marriage and initiation ceremonies. During the reign of
Kabaka Mwanga, same people of Buganda were converted to Christianity while
others were converted to Islam. After the arrival of many Christian Missionar-
ies, Christianity took the dominance that was followed by rivalry between vari-
ous religious groups.

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Economic organisation of Buganda

Buganda Kingdom was located on the northern shores of Lake Victoria. The
Kingdom’s geographical location, the nature of its environment and climate in-
fluenced the economic activities of the Baganda.
The Baganda were mainly cultivators. They grew bananas, millet and
sorghum. Bananas (matoke) were the staple food of the Baganda. The high rain-
fall and fertile soils enabled them to cultivate. The Baganda kept livestock such
as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. They also conducted raids and captured
slaves and cattle from the neighbouring weaker communities such as Bunyoro
and Busoga.
The Baganda benefited by fishing due to their proximity to Lake Victoria
that had a lot of fish. This supplemented their diet. The Baganda like many
other Bantu communities in Uganda had acquired the skills of iron working
from the Abachwezi. They conducted raids that exposed them to the iron-bear-
ing field in the neighbouring lands. The iron obtained was used for making iron
hoes, spear heads, arrowheads and a variety of other tools.
The Baganda also manufactured bark-cloth, weaved and built canoes for
use in Lake Victoria for fishing and for the navy that was used to conquer peo-
ple living in the islands of Lake Victoria such as the people of Sese Island.
Some of the Baganda hunted animals such as buffaloes and antelopes for
meat. They also gathered fruits and roots that they used as food. The Baganda
conducted local trade which involved exchange of goods within themselves or
with their immediate neighbours. For example trade in salt existed with people
around Lake Victoria.
The Baganda engaged themselves in the long distance trade mainly in the
th
19 century after the Arab and Swahili merchants from the coast penetrated into
kingdom. This trade expanded rapidly during the era of Kabaka Mtesa I. Slaves
and ivory were the main commodities the Arab and Swahili traders demanded.
They in turn brought ammunitions, cloth, beads and swords that were demanded
by the Baganda.

Political organisation of Buganda

Baganda is believed to have originally been a section of the Chwezi State. It is
not known clearly whether it is Kintu or Kimera who established the early king-
dom of Buganda.
What is clear is that Buganda was a centralised kingdom controlled by a
ruler entitled Kabaka whose authority in those early days was limited by the
power of the clan heads each entitled Bataka.

In the later years, the Kabakas assumed a lot of power because they played the
following roles:

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a) They acted as the chief political and religious leaders and heads of gov-
ernment.

b) They were considered as the supreme judges in the kingdom and also as
the final court of appeal.

c) They were regarded as the sole defenders of Buganda and protectors of

their subjects.
d) They commanded the army as well as all other juniors for instance, the
Katikiros, the Saza chiefs and the Gombolora chiefs.

e) It was their responsibility to appoint or fire senior officials like the

Katikiro and the Chief Justice.

f) They controlled trade to such an extent that they even taxed foreign
traders.
The Kabaka was assisted to administer the kingdom by a Prime Minister enti-
tled Katikiro.
In the Kabakas court, their existed the Chief Justice entitled Omulamuzi
and the treasurer entitled Omuwanika, all appointed by the Kabaka. Together
with the Katikiro, they formed the Kabakas advisory body.
There existed a legislature assembly called Lukiko, which acted like the
modern day parliament. It discussed important issues affecting Buganda king-
dom such as issues pertaining to external attacks, relations with foreigners, trade
regulations and the ways to deal with the citizens.
The kingdom was split into counties each called Saza. Each county was
headed by a Saza chief.
Counties were further split into sub-counties each entitled Gombolola.
Each Gombolola was under the leadership of a Gombolola chief whose duty
was to collect the taxes and remit to Kabaka as well to maintain law and order
in his area of Jurisdiction.
Each Gombolola was further split into a small division called Miluka
headed by Miluka chief.
Buganda had a strong standing army and navy. The army defended the
kingdom while the navy controlled Buganda’s possessions in Lake Victoria such
as Sese Island.
Leadership among the Baganda was hereditary (passed from father to
son) at first but later the Kabaka could appoint a minor chief from the citizens
who was royal to him.
The Kabaka strengthened the loyalty bestowed on him by all the people
in the kingdom by marrying from all popular clans and accepting sons of popu-
lar people from various families to come and work in his court.

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Shona

The Shona settled in central Africa south of River Zambezi in the present day
Zimbabwe. It is believed that they migrated to the region from the Congo basin
and they are related to the Kalanga.

Social organisation of the Shona

The Shona worshipped a god who was believed to be all-powerful. They called
their god Mwari. The Shona had priest who presided over religious functions
for instance during the time of offering sacrifices to the supreme being.
The priests also conducted rituals to appease their gods. The Rozwi clan
provided the shona community with priests. Worship was conducted in shrines.
The shona believed in the existence of the ancestral spirits they referred to as
clan spirit, Mhondoro, and the family spirits, Vadzimu. The spirits communi-
cated through intermediaries referred to as Svikiro. The Shona communicated
with the spirits through mediums.
They conducted a number of ceremonies and festivals. The shona were
socially organised into families, several of which made a clan. The clan elders
were highly respected. Polygamy was a very common practice among the
Shona. It was common to find men with very many wives. This was one way of
ensuring that the community had enough warriors and was provided with suffi-
cient labour force.

The Economic Organisation of the Shona

The Shona grew a variety of subsistence crops such as beans, millets and veg-
etables. They also kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats, which provided
them with milk and meat.
The Shona made iron tools such as spears, hoes and knives. They also
weaved and made back cloth.
The Shona supplied the people of Sofala with gold. In return the Shona
obtained cloth, glassware, and firearms obtained from the Portuguese.

The political Organisation of the Shona

An emperor who was the head of state and government controlled the Shona
kingdom. When the emperor died, his son took over leadership. This implies
that leadership among the Shona was hereditary.

The emperor administered the empire with the assistance of his immediate rela-
tives and leading officials. These were queen’s mother, his principal wives, his

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sister, the head drummer, the chancellor, the supreme cook, the chief door
keeper and the commander of his army.
The emperor was the overall military leader and for this reason he acted
as the commander in chief of the standing army which not only defended the
kingdom but also tried to conquer other neighbouring communities in order to
expand it.
The Shona kingdom was divided into smaller divisions that were under
the control of lesser kings who were answerable to the emperor.
The lesser kings ensured that trade was promoted. The emperor was the
sole controller of the entire trade. The profit from trade maintained the army and
also sustained the kingdom. Vassal states were made to pay tribute to the em-
peror.
The Shona priest played political roles in that they acted as the emperor’s
spies. The priests also linked the people with the emperor. In so doing religion
was used to create political unity among the Shona.

Asante (Ashanti)

The Asante is one of the Akan or Twi speaking peoples of the present day
Ghana. The Asante kingdom is believed to have been established as a result of a
number of states which united together and settled at a place called Asante-
manso.
From Asantemanso they dispersed in clans and family groups to new set-
tlements such as Bekwai, Tafo, Nsuta, Mampong, Amakom and Kwaman. Later
in the 17th century these settlements united under the leadership of the Oyoko
clan.
All the Asante states were established surrounding modern Kumasi in an
area referred to as Kwaman forest. By the middle of the 18 th century, the Asante
had become a very large empire as a result of the efforts of Osei Tutu who intro-
duced the golden stool, which became the symbol of Asante union. The Asante
rulers were entitled Asantehene.

Factors that led to the rise and expansion of the

Asante kingdom

We have already seen that the Asante kingdom rose from a number of clans and
families who migrated and then settled together at Asantemanso. Those settle-
ments later united into states.

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The rise of the kingdom was therefore as a result of the unity of those states.
The Asante emerged and expanded into a mighty kingdom because of the fol-
lowing reasons:

1. The area the Asante people settled had abundant rainfall which enabled
them to grow crops and gather wild fruits to sustain the growing popula-
tion.

2. Asantehehe Osei Tutu with an Akwamu priest, Okomfo Anokye cemented

the Asante union when they introduced the golden stool as the symbol of
Asante union.

3. The Asante obtained income for expanding the empire from the trade they
conducted with the Europeans at the coast.

4. The Odwira Festival was organised which enabled the state rulers to
gather together to pay allegiance to the Asantehehe.

5. The Asante kingdom was controlled by strong and able rulers like Osei
Tutu, Opoku Ware and Osei Bonsu who engaged themselves on expan-
sionist missions aimed at enlarging and strengthening the kingdom.

6. The fact that Asante kingdom was highly centralised enabled people to
join in order to fight against a common enemy.

7. The neighbouring states such as Denkyira and Fante were weaker that the
Asante kingdom. This gave the Asante the advantage of expanding its
empire.

8. The Asante army was very strong and well organised. It was made up of
soldiers from all the Asante states.

9. The Asante used modern weapons such as guns which they bought from
the Europeans along the west African coast.

10. The Asante rulers obtained revenue from the tribute paid by conquered
states. This enabled the Asantehene to maintain his army and his king-
dom.

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Social organisation of Asante

In the early beginning the Asante lived in separate clans and family groups.
When the family and groups migrated from Asantemanso, they went to places
where they lived in settlements. At first the settlements were not united but later
they joined together into states.
An Akwamu priest named Okomfo Anokye together with Osei Tutu intro-
duced the golden stool as a symbol of unity, which had religious symbolism. It
united all the states not only politically but also socially.
The Asante introduced the national festival called Odwira that united the
whole of Asante by making state rulers to be royal to the Asantehene. The As-
ante were polytheistic. They worshipped gods and goddesses. The Asantehene
played both political and religious roles. He acted like a religious leader and
presided over religious ceremonies.
The Asante people worshipped their gods through their ancestors. The an-
cestors acted as intermediaries between gods and the people. The Asante people
sacrificed to their gods. They believed in life after death and in punishment of
wrong doers and reward for those who did well.
By the first half of the 19th century, the Asante had embraced Islam. The
Asante Muslim converts therefore adopted Islamic culture and law (sharia). This
became the beginning of the Islamic influence in Asante.

Economic organisation of Asante

The Asante lived in the forest region in the west of River Volta. The land they
occupied received heavy rainfall which enabled them to grow crops such as
vegetables, kolanuts and grains.
The Asante also kept few livestock. They hunted and gathered fruits and
red kolanuts from Kwaman forest for sale. The Asante also participated in the
local trade. They traded with the Ga and the people of Benin.
They exchanged commodities such as salt, cloth and fish. Later they
traded with the Europeans who had settled along the West African coast in set-
tlements such as Accra, Anomabo, Cape Coast, Winneba and Elmina. The As-
ante traders gave Europeans ivory, slaves, gold and colanuts in exchange for
firearms, cloth and ironware.
The Asante mined gold in the Kwaman forest and practised iron working.
They used iron to manufacture tools, bangles, hoes and arrowheads. They prac-
tised traditional crafts such as cloth making, basketry, pottery and sculpture
making. The Asante hunted elephants to obtain ivory. They also gathered fruits
and edible roots.

Political organisation of Asante

The Asante Empire was centralised and divided into three parts. The first part
was the metropolitan or Nucleus State that consisted of the Kumasi State that
was directly under the Asantehehe.

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The second part was the Amatoo or the states within a radius of about 30
to 40 miles of modern Kumasi. These states were outside Kumasi and they
recognised the Golden stool as the symbol of unity of the Asante. Some of them
were Dwaben, Adansi, Bekwai, Nsuta, Mampon and Kokofu.
The third part was the conquered states or provincial Asante states that
consisted of all the outer circle of states which had earlier been conquered and
controlled by the Asante. Examples of them are Akwamu, Akyem, Twifu,
Wassa, Denkyira, Sefwi, Akwapem, Assin, Gonja, Dagomba, Gyaman and
Takyiman.

Gonja Dagomba

Takyiman

Kumasi
Sefwi Akwamu
Denkyira

Asante Kingdom in the 19th century

The Asante kingdom was ruled by kings entitled Asantehene. The Asantehene
was the supreme ruler of the kingdom. He had direct control over Kumasi State.
The Asantehene was the conmmander in - chief of the army. He presided over
political and religious festivals and he acted as the final court of appeal because
he was the supreme judge. Leadership among the Asante was hereditary.
The Asantehene ruled with the advice of the state rulers who formed the
union of rulers. The conquered states were administered by their kings but they
were regarded as the provinces of the Asante kingdom .A representative who
was an appointee of the Asantehene was posted in each province where he acted
as the eyes and ears of the Asantehene. He also levied taxes, supervised trade
and mining of gold nuggets.
Each Asante State was under the rule of Omanhene who took the oath of
allegiance to demonstrate loyalty to the Asantehene. The Omanhene represented

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the Asantehene in the provinces but they were required to pay tribute to the As-
antehene and also to provide soldiers in times of conflicts.
The Asante states were all bound together by the golden stool which was
the symbol of unity of the Asante. This stool was preserved in the capital, Ku-
masi. Every state ruler was presented with a symbolic black stool to signify
unity of the provinces.
There was a national festival organised particularly for state rulers to pay
allegiance to the Asantehene. This festival was known as Odwira festival.
The Asante had a strong standing army consisting of an infantry and a
calvary wing. The Asante army was divided into four segments which included
the left wing, the right wing the van and the rear. Every king of a state was
given a position within the wings. This position was taken by the army he con-
trolled in his state a thing which made him remain powerful.
At its peak, the Asante kingdom consisted of the area surrounding Ku-
masi which was directly under the Asantehene, the states outside Kumasi which
were part of the original Asante union and lay about 90 kilometre radius of
present day Kumasi and the vassal or conquered states.

The Asante government finally collapsed due to the following reasons:

i) Constant rebellions by the vassal states who wanted to reassert their inde-
pendence.

ii) The British supported the Fante to flight against the Asante.

iii) The kingdom had grown too large for the rulers to control effectively.

iv) Asante strained relations with Fante and the British affected Asante trade
and source of income.

v) There was weakness in the system of provincial administration because

vassal states were not fully incorporated to the kingdom.

vi) The Asante ruler, Osei Tutu was forced to grant independence to the
southern states.

vii) Asantehene Prempe I was exiled.

Review Questions
1. Explain the roles of the following in the 19th century:
i) Kabaka of Buganda

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ii) Asantehene of Asante

2. Describe the political and social organisation of Buganda.

3. a) Explain the factors that led to the rise and growth of Asante
Empire.
b) Describe the political organisation of the Asante Kingdom up to the
19th century.

4. Describe the Shona kingdom under the following headings:

a) Economic organisation
b) Political organisation
c) Social organisation

5. What factors contributed to the decline of the Asante Kingdom.

6. Identify the economic and social activities of the Asante in the 19th cen-
tury.

Students’ Activities
1. Draw maps to show the location of the Asante and Buganda kingdoms

2. Discuss in groups the factors which contributed to the rise and decline of
the Asante and Buganda Kingdoms.

3. Compare the administration of Buganda kingdom with the administration

of Asante Kingdom.

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CHAPTER 6

Constitutions and constitution

making
A constitution is a set of fundamental principals and laws established to govern
and regulate the behaviour of citizens of a particular state as they relate to each
other in their daily activities as well as regulating the conduct of the people who
are entrusted with the responsibility of managing the affairs of the state.

A constitution therefore clarifies the duties and rights of the citizens as well as
the duties, rights and responsibilities of the rulers.

The constitution regulates the powers of government by controlling the way it

behaves as it manages the country’s affairs. The constitution also regulates the
relationship between the government and the citizens of the state.

A country’s constitution has the following functions:

1. It clarifies the powers, duties and responsibilities of those in power

(rulers) and their subjects.

2. It protects the rights and freedoms of all citizens.

3. It limits the powers of rulers who would attempt to oppress their subjects.
It also limits the possibilities of the subjects to insurbodinate the rulers.
This is done by limiting some of their rights and freedoms.

4. A constitution enables a country to follow a well defined cause by spell-

ing out the powers of the government. This helps to control national in-
stability.

5. A constitution defines and spells out the formal structure of government

and the functions and powers of each state organ for example the powers
of the regional government in relation to the central government and also
the powers and duties of the executive, the legislature and the judiciary.

6. A constitution offers the legal framework from which the country’s laws
are made.

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7. A constitution also reflects the wishes of the people and their social, cul-
tural, economic and political aspects.

Characteristics of a good constitution

a) A good constitution must define and spell out clearly the structure of gov-
ernment and the functions and powers of each level and arm of govern-
ment.

b) The fundamental rights and duties of all citizens must be clearly spelt out
and the way the rights will be guaranteed specified.

c) Roles and powers of specific rulers such as Presidents and Prime Minis-
ters must be stipulated.

d) The separation of powers of the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Execu-
tive must be very clear to avoid conflicts of roles.

e) The composition, functions and powers of all laws to be enacted by par-

liament must be made clear.

Types of constitution

There are various kinds of constitutions in the world. Some of them are demo-
cratic constitutions, others are undemocratic constitutions. There are also uni-
tary or federal constitutions. We also have two other types of constitutions.
These are written constitutions and unwritten constitutions.

Written constitutions
A written constitution is the one in which the basic principles and laws are writ-
ten down and are therefore available in a formal document. Examples of the
countries with written constitutions are Kenya, USA and France.

The following are the characteristics of a written constitution:

1. It is written in an official volume that one can buy in order to study.

2. It is rigid and not easy to alter. Any amendment is made using a proce-
dure that is usually slow and cumbersome.

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3. A written constitution is usually simple, clear and consistent. A special

body of experts is therefore given the responsibility of drafting it using a
well formulated procedure.

4. It sets clearly the powers of the judiciary, the executive and the legislature
in a particular state.

5. It spells out the fundamental rights and freedoms of the citizens. To en-
sure this is accomplished the draft constitution is taken to the legislature
for approval.

6. In some written constitutions, rules are found in traditions. Some of them

are based on conventions and customs of the people.

7. A written constitution is prepared in such a way that one can be able to

compare the actions and day to day activities of the government with
what is written and expected to be achieved and maintained.

Advantages of written constitution

The following are the advantages of a written constitution:

a) Once prepared, it is not easy to change or amend it so as to favour partic-

ular personalities in power.

b) It becomes easy for the literates to know the expectations of the govern-
ment because they can buy the official copies and read themselves. This
is because it is readily available for reference and use.

c) No individual can alter or manipulate any part of the written constitution.

The legislative body is the one which has a right of making even a minor
amendment or alteration.

d) The legislators and delegates are able to incorporate the traditions, con-
ventions and customs of the citizens into a written constitution which is
people driven and which recognises people’s ethnic groupings.

e) A well written and acceptable constitution can play the role of uniting all
the people in a nation.

f) A written constitution provides a smooth procedure of handing over

power after general elections, death of rulers or resignation. This is be-

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cause it provides a clear guideline of what should be done if such a thing

happens.

g) A written constitution enables a country to operate in favourable and or-

derly manner.

h) A written constitution spells out the fundamental rights of citizens very

clearly therefore making them aware of their rights and also making them
have a reference when their rights are infringed.

Disadvantages of written constitution

i) It is too rigid to be easily altered without a lot of consultation.

ii) Amending a written constitution is slow and cumbersome.

iii) The language used to write the constitution volumes is difficult for people
who have not learnt disciplines such as law. Yet it becomes difficult to
simplify without altering the meaning and the stress.

iv) If the constitution is not properly formulated, it can make various arms of
the government to conflict.

v) For a good lasting written constitution, very qualified experts are re-
quired. These may not be available in some countries.

vi) The constitution making process is costly and very involving if all the
procedures are followed to the dot.

Unwritten constitution

An unwritten constitution is one which does not exist in a single formal official
document. Britain is an example of a country with unwritten constitution. The
sources of the British constitution are the Act of Parliament, British conven-
tions, the Hansard, Legal publications by reputable authorities, decisions made
by the British law courts from time to time and Royal prerogatives of the King
or Queen to declare war or make treaties of peace.

Advantages of unwritten constitutions

1. It is easy to make amendments in order to cope with the prevailing situa-

tions.

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2. It is not rigid. Therefore it can be altered without a lot of consultation.

3. This constitution is long lasting because it is native and therefore accept-

able by the majority.

Disadvantages of unwritten constitution

a) Fundamental rights of citizens are not clearly spelt out in an unwritten

constitution.

b) Unwritten constitution requires very qualified judges and lawyers of the

law courts who are able to cope with the tedious work of referring to
many constitutional documents e.g. statutes, historical documents and
customs in order to make any judgement.

c) An unwritten constitution is not clearly expressed as compared to the

written constitution.

The independence constitution

The first constitution in Kenya was established during the British colonial rule.
This may be referred to as the colonial constitution. The colonial constitution
discriminated against the Africans while it favoured the whites.
As the Africans continued to be aware of their rights they appealed to the
colonial government to grant them their rights. Due to political pressure from
the Africans, the colonial government unwillingly tried to change the constitu-
tion.
In 1960 and 1962, constitutional conferences were held in London.
African representatives attended. The Lancaster House conference held in Lon-
don in 1962 concluded the constitution for independent Kenya. The date for in-
dependence was also set. The constitution made is the one we are calling the in-
dependence constitution.
The conference was attended by representatives of the African political
parties such as Kenya African National Union (KANU), Kenya African Demo-
cratic Union (KADU) and African People’s Party (APP). KANU and KADU
differed in the structure of government they wanted.

KANU preferred a strong unitary constitution while KADU wanted a majimbo

or Federal constitution. KADU was in favour of majimbo constitution because it
feared that smaller communities would be dominated by large ones such as the

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Luo and the Kikuyu. KANU believed that a unitary government would protect
the interests of the smaller communities.
The outcome of the 1962 conference was a federal form of constitution.
This was followed by the formation of a coalition government between KANU
and KADU.

Provisions of the independence constitution

The independence constitution provided a regional (majimbo) government. The

country (Kenya) was therefore split into six regions each with its own regional
government and assembly with full legislative powers.
There was a central government consisting of two chamber national as-
sembly namely the senate and the House of Representatives. The central gov-
ernment was headed by a Prime Minister from the party with majority seats.
Nairobi was the headquarters of the central government.
The Queen remained as the head of state. She was represented by the
Governor General whose duties were to approve legislation, to ensure there was
internal security, to deal with all foreign affairs and to give assent to bills to be-
come laws.
The independent constitution recommended a multi-party system of gov-
ernment. The party with the majority was to form the government. It recom-
mended a Bill of Rights whose role was to protect the fundamental interests of
the individuals.
It also recommended formation of a Central Land Board for dealing with
all issues concerning land and an independent public Service Commission for
appointing, disciplining and firing civil servants.
The independence constitution recommended the setting up of an inde-
pendent electoral commission for setting constitutional boundaries and conduct-
ing elections.
An electoral commission was established. It was made up of the speakers
of both the House of Representatives and the Senate, nominated representatives
of each region and a nominated representative of the Prime Minister.

The independence constitution provided an independent judiciary that showed

complete impartiality when judging cases. No one was allowed to influence the
decisions of judges and they enjoyed security of tenure.
Lastly, the independence constitution organised for the protection of the
minority rights. This was mainly to ensure that the European and Asian minori-
ties were protected and their properties were safeguarded.

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The Kenya Constitution

Kenya is governed by a democratic constitution. A democratic constitution
recognises and protects human rights for instance the right to acquire and own
property, right to life and the rights safeguarding the individual’s freedom of ex-
pression, association, conscience, movement and assembly. It also recognises
the freedom of worship, belief and opinion.
The Kenya constitution ensures that people have full and equal enjoyment
of all rights and freedoms.
It also ensures that all people are equal before the law. An individual has
right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. He has the right to a fair
trial. According to the Kenya constitution, no person may be required to per-
form forced labour or be held in slavery.

Constitutional making process

Constitution making can take place in a number of ways as follows:

a) Having it done by Parliament whereby at least 65% of all parliamentary
members must vote for a change to the Kenya constitution.

b) Using a constitutional review commission. This commission may be set

up by the President or by Parliament.

c) Having a constitutional conference attended by selected people from vari-

ous interests in society. They then make a draft constitution that can if
necessary pass through a referendum.

d) Having a national convention composed of representatives from all walks

of life who identify and discuss important national issues in order to pre-
pare a constitution.

Constitutions are therefore made through established procedures that are agreed
upon by the majority. In Kenya the constitutional making process is as follows:

1. The general public is provided with civic education to enable them to take
part in the constitution making process. To begin with, they are made to
understand what a constitution is and why it is necessary in any state.
They are then enlightened on the shortcomings of the current constitu-
tions and also its strength.
People are then requested to give their views on various aspects of
the constitution. A commission is set to visit all the constituencies in
Kenya to listen and record the views of the public.

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All the views obtained from the constituencies of Kenya are compiled to-
gether. The wishes of the majority are isolated and used to prepare a draft con-
stitution which is forwarded for further discussion.

2. The recommendations are printed, published and circulated to the public.

The commission once more visit the public to give their remarks. All the
provinces are covered to ensure that the outcome reflects the will of the
people.

3. A national constitutional conference is organised and attended by dele-

gates from each district in Kenya. The commission then submits the rec-
ommendations which are largely the opinions of the public for further
discussion and careful scrutiny.
Some of the recommendations may be rejected. Other recommendations
are accepted while some are amended. The National Constitution conference
members may reject some recommendations and replace them with their own.

4. Sometimes the National Constitutional Conference members are unable

to reach a consensus concerning certain recommendations. If this happens
the recommendations causing disagreement are referred back to the pub-
lic to be resolved through a referendum which is organised by the Consti-
tution of Kenya Review Commission. The referendum is conducted
within two months.

5. After this is done the draft constitution is forwarded to the National As-
sembly by the Attorney General after receiving it from the Commission.
The draft constitution is treated as a bill and then published for discus-
sion. Once it is recommended by the Members of Parliament after passing
through all the stages a bill undergoes before becoming law, it is finally
presented to the President for assent.

6. Finally, the constitution is published in the Kenya Gazette and after this
implementation begins.

Features of Kenya constitution

a) The constitution is democratic

Due to the wishes and ambitions of the people since Kenya attained inde-
pendence, the country has developed a democratic constitution based on
the principles of separation of powers between the Judiciary, the Legisla-
ture and the Executive. This is aimed at reducing conflicts between the

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three arms of government. The arms of government are therefore required

to work independently without excessive interference from each other.

b) There is supremacy of the constitution and the rule of law

Kenya is established on the principles of the supremacy of the constitu-
tion and the rule of law. It is governed in accordance with the constitution
that acts as the supreme law that binds all authorities and individuals
throughout the country.
However, the rule of the law emphasises on handling all legal matters in
accordance with the Kenyan laws. Every individual suspects is supposed to be
given an opportunity for self-defence before a competent court of law after be-
ing arrested. The prosecution is supposed to prove the defendant guilty within a
specific period and until the victim is proved guilty beyond reasonable doubt, he
should be presumed innocent.

c) Recognition for and protection of individual human rights and free-

dom
The Kenya constitution accommodates this distinctive characteristic in or-
der to preserve the dignity of individuals and communities, to promote the
realisations of the potential of all the people and also to promote social
justice. The rights and freedom of the individuals are contained in the Bill
of Rights.

d) A government must have relationship with the constitution

It is unlawful to establish a system of government that is contrary to the
constitution.

Constitutional amendments since indepen-

dence
Kenya attained internal self-government on 1st June 1963. The constitution
which the country adopted in 1963 was the independence constitution.

a) In 1964, the independence (majimbo) constitution was abolished. Kenya

became a republic with an executive President. The President was the
head of state and government. The country adopted a republican constitu-
tion with a unitary system of government.

b) In 1966, the two houses of parliament, that is the senate and the House of
Representatives were abolished and replaced with a single chamber Na-
tional Assembly (Parliament).

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d) In 1966, a member who resigned from the party that sponsored him or her
was required to seek fresh mandate from the electorate on the ticket of the
new party. Also a member who missed eight consecutive parliamentary
sittings or who served a prison sentence of over six months would auto-
matically lose his seat.

d) In 1966, for any constitutional amendment to be affected there had to be a

2
/3 majority of the members of Parliament.

e) In 1966, the Public Security Act stated that people could be detained on
public interest without trial. For example, a citizen who was considered to
be a danger to state security was detained without trial.

f) In 1966, it was declared that if the Presidency fell vacant, the Vice-Presi-
dent would take over and act as President for the remaining term of of-
fice. The President was given power to nominate 12 members of parlia-
ment.

g) In 1968, the President was empowered to make changes on the adminis-

trative boundaries. In this case, the Parliament lost control over the
changing of administrative boundaries.

h) In 1968, voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 years. One could qualify
to contest for Presidency at the age of 35 years. Before one could contest
at the age of 40 years and above.

i) In 1968, the presidential election was to be done directly by the people

who qualified to vote.

j) In 1968, If the presidency fell vacant, elections were to be held within 90

days. The Vice - President acted as President for a period not going be-
yond 90 days. The President was also given power to postpone elections
when and if he or she found it necessary. He could also shorten the life of
the Parliament.

k) In 1975, the President was empowered to pardon election offenders en-

abling them to contest in future elections.

l) In 1977, the Kenya Court of Appeal was established to replace the East
African Court of Appeal.

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m) In 1978, Public officers who wanted to contest during parliamentary elec-

tions had to resign six months before election time.

n) In 1982, Kenya was changed from a de-facto one-party state to a de jure

one-party state. This was done through the constitutional amendments
which brought about the ‘Section 2A’. KANU was to be the only legal
political party.

o) In 1982, the security tenure of office of the Attorney General and Con-
troller Audit General was established.

p) In 1982, The office of the Chief Secretary and Head of Civil Service was
established.

q) In 1987, The post of Chief Secretary was abolished and replaced by the
office of the secretary to the cabinet. This occurred because the office of
the Chief Secretary was too powerful.

r) In 1987, The President was empowered to dismiss government officers

such as the Attorney General and the Controller and Audit General at
will.

s) In 1988, The President was empowered to dismiss the High Court judges
and the chairman of the Public Service Commission at will.

t) In 1988, The Police department was empowered to hold suspected crimi-

nals for a maximum of 14 days before presenting them to a court of law
for hearing and trial.

u) In 1990, The tenure of office of the Attorney General, The Chairman of

the Public Service Commission and the Controller and Audit General
were guaranteed.

v) In 1990, The Presidency was limited to 2 five-year terms. For one to

qualify as President he or she had to win 25% of the votes cast in at least
5 provinces of Kenya.

w) In 1991, The section 2A of the constitution was repealed and Kenya be-
came a multi-party state. The voting age was lowered from 21 years to 18
years.

x) In 1997, Political parties were given the mandate to appoint nominated

members of parliament.

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The Kenya electoral commission commissioners were increased while

certain oppressive laws were either amended or repealed. Such laws
were:
i) The public order act

ii) The Chief’s Act

iii) The Preservation of Public Security Act

iv) The Vagrancy Act

Review Questions
1. a) Define the term ‘constitution’.
b) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of a written constitution.

2. Outline the provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya.

3. Discuss the main constitutional amendments in Kenya since indepen-

dence.

4. Identify the differences between written and unwritten constitution.

5. What are the main features of the Kenya constitution?

6. Give reasons why a constitution is necessary in any country.

Students’ Activities
1. Describe the stages in the constitution making in Kenya.

2. Discuss the factors that determine a country’s constitution.

3. Have a class debate on whether Kenya should have a Prime Minister with
more powers than that of the President or not.

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CHAPTER 7

Democracy and human rights

Democracy is a Greek term derived from the Greek words demos, which means
people and Kratia signifies power or rule.
The word democracy may mean people’s rule. It may also imply a system
of government where the people of a country take part in decision making
through elected representatives. Abraham Lincoln defined democracy as ‘a gov-
ernment of the people, for the people and by the people.’
His definition is very popular and easy to comprehend. Any country with
a true democratic system of government allows the people to enjoy the rights
and freedoms such as rights to life, right to liberty and freedom of speech, free-
dom of political opinion and freedom of religion. It handles legal matters in ac-
cordance with the law. All people in the country are regarded as equal before the
law irrespective of their status, race or religion.
In a democratic country, people’s opinions are taken very seriously be-
cause the government has to live to people’s expectations. A country which does
not honour the opinions of the people (public opinion) becomes unpopular and
it is disowned by the majority who later vote it out of power.
From the above explanation we may summarise the main features of
democracy as below:

a) Democracy gives room for consent to various aspects. This is either done
directly or through people’s representatives.

b) Democracy emphasises on equality of all the people. The government

therefore tries to provide all the people with equal opportunities.

c) Democracy gives people freedom to organise and enjoy their rights.

Types of democracy

The two common types of democracy are:

1. Direct democracy

2. Indirect democracy

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Direct democracy
A direct democracy is one which people in a country are allowed to participate
directly in all decision making. It is sometimes called pure democracy. This
kind of decision making was very common among the Bushmen of South Africa
and the people of the Greek city states.
Unfortunately direct democracy cannot work in countries with large pop-
ulations because all the people cannot be consulted before decisions are made. It
therefore succeeds in countries or communities with very few people where the
opinion of every person is considered to be very useful before final decisions on
various issues are made. What is agreed upon by all is accepted by all of them
without any question.
Direct democracy principles have been applied in Kenya in the attempt to
allow people to exercise their democratic rights. Kenyans for example have
been consulted to give their opinion concerning the constitutional review.
Incase some issues are not agreed upon by members of the constitutional
conference, a referendum has to be used so as to act according to the will of the
people.

Indirect democracy

This is sometimes referred to as representative democracy.

In this case, people do not participate directly in decision making. They
normally use their representatives. The people by way of voting elect the repre-
sentatives and they specifically express people’s feelings on public issues. Indi-
rect democracy is practical in large modern states because there are huge in size
and population.
The disadvantages of this method are that the people who are elected can
easily ignore the people who elected them. They can also fail to consult the
electorate in order to be able to air their views in the parliament.

There are two types of representative democracy. These are:

i) Parliamentary democracy
ii) Presidential democracy

Parliamentary democracy

Here people cast votes to elect their representatives. Those who are elected
choose one person to take leadership as Prime Minister.
The one who is chosen appoints the other ministers from among the
members of parliament. Those appointed forms the cabinet. The Prime Minister
can be forced to resign if the other legislators cast a vote of no confidence on
him. If this is done, another Prime Minister is elected to form the government.

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Presidential Democracy
Here the President and other members of Parliament are elected directly by the
electorate. They then form a government that lasts for a specified period of time.
In the Kenyan case, it is 5 years. Non of the two arms of the government, execu-
tive and legislature has full control over the other in this type of democracy.
They only act as checks and balances therefore ensuring that non of them tries
to overshadow the other.

Principles of democracy
Democratic principles are the moral professional standards that are necessary in
a democracy.
They play the role of showing whether a country is democratic or not.
The principles of democracy are found in the Bill of Rights that is the frame-
work for the adoption of social, economic and cultural policies.

The principles of democracy are:

1. Rule of law
This implies that there must be equality before the law. All people in a
country are subject to the same law. People must obey the law. Those who
violate the established laws are prosecuted and punished if found guilty.
The law should apply to all people equally without any discrimination on
the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion, political affiliation, colour,
disability, social status and other physical or social characteristics.

2. People’s participation in governance

In a democratic country, people should participate in the governing of
their country. They should be involved in the decision-making processes.
A person can participate in government by getting involved in vot-
ing to elect the most responsible representative of the people in the coun-
try’s parliament. A person can also contest for a parliamentary or civic
post.
One can be a member of a non-governmental organisation or asso-
ciation that is free to hold discussions on matters affecting the country
e.g. Maendeleo ya Wanawake. Such an organisation can help to control
the activities of the government inorder to prevent it from abusing its
powers.

3. Economic liberty
Democratic governments allow their citizens to have freedom of action,
choice and decision when dealing with issues pertaining to their eco-

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nomic status. This may be achieved through allowing privatisation of

business partners, and market for selling one’s goods. All this gives indi-
viduals lawful authority to genuinely attain and control their own wealth.

4. Respect for and protection of human rights

Human rights should be respected and protected because they are essen-
tial aspects of democracy which promote the respect for human life and
dignity. Human rights are recognised and protected to preserve the dig-
nity of individuals and communities and to promote social justice and the
realisation of the potential of all human beings.

5. Need to conduct free and fair elections

Elections should be held every time after an agreed period of time. In
Kenya elections are held after every five years. Elections should not in-
volve some unfair practices such as corruption, intimidation and rigging.

6. Respect of other people’s opinions

In a democratic country, the opinions of political opponents should never
be dismissed.
The opinions of political opponents should help those in control to
streamline or even adjust their actions.

7. Bill or Rights
Every democratic country should have a Bill of Rights, which contain the
rights and freedoms of all the citizens and the limitations of these rights
and freedoms.

8. Equal status of all people (citizens)

There should be no discrimination based on colour, race, gender, political
position or ethnic group.
All people should be regarded as equal before the law and therefore
be provided with equal opportunities and privileges.

9. Transparency and Accountability

Any country which claims to be democratic must operate in such a way
that the citizens are aware of what the government is doing and what it is
intending to do. There should be high degree of openness on the side of
the government. The government should listen to and respect the views of
its citizens and otherwise act accordingly.
Transparency and accountability may be achieved through constant
meetings of the authorities with the people and through advertisements
done through the mass media and print media.

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10. Application of democratic principles such as liberty and social justice.

11. Separation of functions between the Executive, the Legislature and the
Judiciary.

12. Provision of equal opportunities for all citizens without discrimination.

NB: The process of building a democracy is referred to as democratisation.

The agents of democratisation are interest groups, political parties, civil
society, the mass media and state institutions such as Judiciary, Parlia-
ment, the civil service and other state sponsored bodies such as human
rights commission and anti-corruption authorities

Human rights
Human rights can be defined as set of basic rules of justice to which each hu-
man being is entitled. They can also be defined as things that any individual is
allowed to do or have by the law. One is legally allowed to do or have those
things irrespective of race, religion, political opinion, creed, sex, language,
place of origin, age, one’s tribe, colour or other local connections.
In Kenya, every person is guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, associ-
ation and movement. He or she is also guaranteed the right to life, right to own
property and right to personal liberty. Governments do not give these rights.
They are the rights needed to live a human life.
As one enjoys these fundamental rights, he or she should follow the law.
He or she should not interfere with other people’s rights or with the functioning
of the government or the whole society’s enjoyment of rights. The rights of the
individuals are contained in chapter five of the constitution. The functions of
Human Rights are:

1. To safeguard the individual’s security, life and liberty.

2. To safeguard the individual’s freedom of conscience, movement, associa-

tion and speech, etc.

3. To safeguard the individual’s private property and home.

4. Human rights empower people to air their own views independently with-
out fear. People should have the freedom of expression.

5. They ensure that the weak and the poor are not oppressed by the rich and
powerful.

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6. The human rights fulfil the moral and spiritual requirements of individu-
als.

7. They limit conflicts between people therefore inculcating to people the

need for unity.

8. The human rights guide the government on how to deal with its citizens
so that the citizens can gain confidence with the government.

Features of human rights

The main features of human rights are:

a) Human rights affect all the people in the world. Every human being there-
fore has the right to enjoy these fundamental human rights.

b) There are limitations of human rights. This simply means that sometimes
people abuse the human rights when they fail to honour the rights of oth-
ers. Due to this, the law has put some limitations on some of the rights
and freedoms of the individuals.

c) Human rights are interdependent in that sometimes you must be having a

certain right in order to enjoy the other. You cannot enjoy the freedom of
speech if you are denied the freedom of association because you will not
get somebody to talk to. If you are living in a state of insecurity and your
life is in danger then you cannot enjoy many other rights such as right to
liberty, freedom of association and freedom of movement.

d) If the country is at war, certain provisions of the fundamental rights can

be suspended. Examples of the provisions which can be suspended are:
i) The protection in respect to the rights to liberty

ii) Freedom of expression (speech)

iii) Freedom of movement

iv) Right against forced search or entry.

v) Freedom of association

vi) Anti-discrimination provision

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Violation of human rights

In order to ensure that human rights are not violated, the government of
Kenya set up a standing committee on human rights aimed at providing
citizens with a way they can report abuses of human rights. The role of
this committee is to receive complaints on human rights abuses from the
public. It then makes reports and suggestions to the government on the
action to be taken against those who violate the rights. The Kenyan Hu-
man Rights Commission also draws attention to human rights abuses.
Other groups that observe and report issues on the abuse of human
rights are religious groups, police, newspaper journalists, judges, educa-
tors, lawyers, trade unionists and the civil society organisations.

The Bill of Rights

The Bill of Rights is a statement of human or civil rights in a constitution.

It explains and guarantees the rights of the individuals. It also clarifies the
circumstances which may force the government to deny an individual his
rights and freedoms.
The Bill of rights in the Kenya constitution is derived from the In-
ternational Bill of Rights that is found in the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights.

Some of the provisions of the International Bill of rights are:

a) It states clearly the right to self-determination. Here people are al-

lowed to determine their political position and to continue with
their socio-economic and cultural advancement.

b) There should be equal rights for both men and women as they en-
joy civil and political rights.

c) All people have right to freedom of association.

d) No person shall be subjected to arbitrary interference of his family

or privacy.

e) All people are equal before the law. Therefore no person is above
the law and the law should apply to all people equally without any
discrimination.

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f) All people have a right to freedom of conscience and religion.

g) No person shall be subjected to inhuman treatment or torture.

h) All people have right to liberty.

i) All people living in a particular state lawfully have freedom of

movement in that particular state.

j) Every person has the right to life that must be protected by law.

k) No person should be enslaved because all people have a right to

freedom.

l) Every person has the right of being recognised every where in the
world as a human being (person) before the law.

m) A couple has freedom to marry and start a family so long as they

agree to do so.

n) Minority groups should never be denied their rights for instance re-
ligious rights and cultural rights.

o) Everyone has the right to take part in the public affairs of the state
he belongs either directly or indirectly. So the right to vote and to
be voted for is provided.

The Bill of Rights was included in the constitution of many democratic states
that include Kenya. However the Bill of Rights in Kenya had a number of limi-
tations in connection to the constitution in use from independent up to 2003.
These are:

1. Some bills lost their power due to use of clauses or exceptions. For in-
stance in the constitution there was the freedom of movement at the same
time the parliament was empowered to make laws that could restrict that
freedom.

2. The ways of making sure that the rights in the Bill of Rights were carried
out were not clarified.

3. The Bill of Rights did not include or protect persons with disabilities
against discrimination.

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4. The provisions of suspending some of the rights contained in the Bill of

Rights were generally very wide.

5. The marginalised communities were not very well protected because the
Bill of Rights did not provide clear protection guidelines for such com-
munities.

6. The Kenyan Bill of Rights did not mention the socio-economic and cul-
tural rights as well as the rights to development and the rights to a clean
environment.

7. Some sections of the laws allowed discrimination. For example section

91 of the constitution discriminated against women when it allowed the
child of a Kenyan father married to a foreign woman to get citizenship
automatically while the child of a Kenyan woman married to a foreigner
could not be awarded citizenship automatically.

The UN charter on human rights

The United Nations Organisation (UNO) sometimes referred to as UN was es-

tablished after the Second World War to promote international co-operation by
encouraging the respect for human rights and freedoms.
The Charter of the UN was signed on 26th June 1945 and came into force
on 24th October 1945. It provided the constitutional basis for establishing inter-
national peace and security.
The need to have international peace and security arose as a result of peo-
ple’s concern due to the damages caused by the first world war and the second
world war. During these two world wars, many people were killed and property
worth millions of shillings destroyed.
To prevent such damages occurring again, the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights was written.
The Declaration of Human Rights states that, “all human beings are
born free and equal in dignity and rights”.

The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted this declaration. It de-
clares:

i) Civil and political rights

ii) Cultural rights

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iii) Economic rights

iv) Social rights

1. Civil and political rights

The aliens are protected from expulsion. People are prevented from being
forced to testify against themselves or confess their guilt. It also provides
for a right to be compensated in case of misuse or error of justice. There
is prohibition of racial or religious hatred and ban of wars. Lastly, protec-
tion of ethnic, religious or different language minorities is provided.

2. Cultural Rights, Economic Rights and Social Rights

The rights included here are the right to work, the right to education, the
right to form trade unions, the right to strike, the right to participate in
cultural life, the right to have an adequate standard of living, the right to
social security, the right to fair and favourable conditions of work and the
rights of minorities.

Kenyans enjoying the right to education

Some of the human rights contained in the Universal Declaration of Hu-

man Rights document

1. Nobody shall be subjected to arbitrary detention, arrest or exile.

2. Nobody should be enslaved.

3. All human beings are born free and equal.

4. All people have a right to life and liberty.

5. All people have a right to freedom of association and assembly.

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6. Any person charged with an offence must be presumed innocent until

proved guilty in a court of law.

7. Every person has a right to own property. No property should be taken

away without proper compensation.

8. Every person is entitled with the right to a fair hearing by an impartial

and independent court.

9. The right to freedom of movement within one’s country is provided.

10. Anybody has a right to seek refuge in another country for political rea-
sons.
11. Anybody has a right to freedom of expression (speech).

12. Anybody has a right to belong to a particular nation. One can also change
his nationality if he wants.

13. All people are equal before the law.

14. Anybody is allowed to marry another person and start a family irrespec-
tive of their nationality, religion, colour or race.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights document is important because:

i) It provides an international standard by which governments can be judged

on issues of human rights so that they can be accused of violating them
and therefore be cut off internationally or certain sanctions put in place to
punish them.

ii) It encourages some countries to form regional blocs so as to be able to in-

troduce and protect human rights.

The rights of the child

Children like any other human beings are entitled to certain rights that provide
special protection to them. Children differ from adults in that they have limited
capabilities. For this reason they require protection and support of adults.
The rights of children are contained in the United Nations Convention on
the Rights of the Child.

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The Children’s Act in Kenya was passed by Parliament in the year 2002.
It contained a number of rights for children. Some of them are as below:

1. Right to life
Every child is entitled to the right to life. The parents and the government
should therefore ensure that the children grow up without any obstacles
that may affect their lives.

2. Right to education
Children have a right to be educated. The parents must therefore ensure
that their children obtain basic primary education that is now free. The
government is ensuring that successful primary school pupils acquire sec-
ondary school education by providing bursary funds to students from
poor families.

3. Protection from exploitation

Children can easily be exploited as cheap labour. There should be regula-
tions that protect children against exploitation. Children should not be
forced to do any work that is likely to negatively affect them morally,
physically and mentally.

4. Protection from discrimination

Children should be protected against various kinds of discrimination such
as being discriminated on the bases of colour, race, religion, sex and
many others.

5. Right to good medical care

Parents and the government should ensure that children are provided with
medical care. For instance they can be vaccinated against certain diseases.
Specialists for treating children should also be available.

6. Right to religious guidance

The parents should guide their children on how to practice their religion
and also instruct them on religious matters.

7. Protection from sexual abuse

Children should be protected from rape and from being given money in
exchange for sex by adults.

8. Right to basic requirements like food, shelter and clothing

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Children have a right to be provided with food, shelter and clothing by

their parents. In times of famine, the government should provide children
with food if their parents are not able to do so.

9. Right to adoption
The government has put in place guidelines on the way adoption should
be done.

10. Right to play

Children should be allowed to play. It is when they play that they make
discoveries and also settle their minds. Playing also enables them to so-
cialise with others.

Children socialising

Classi昀椀cation of human rights

Human rights may be categorised as follows:

i) Political and civil rights

ii) Social and cultural rights

iii) Economic Rights

iv) Development and group rights

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Political and civil rights

Political and civil rights are generally referred to as “Civil rights” or “Funda-
mental rights, freedoms and protections”.
They enable individuals to follow their values and interests. They provide
individuals with basic freedoms. Examples of civil rights are:

i) The right to life

ii) The right to personal liberty

iii) Freedom of expression

iv) Freedom of conscience

v) Freedom of association and assembly

vi) Freedom of movement

vii) Freedom of discrimination

viii) Protection against slavery and forced labour

ix) Protection from arbitrary search and entry

x) Right to the secure protection of law.

Social and cultural rights

They provide people with social freedom and basic needs such as education and
health. They also provide people with the right to take part in cultural activities.
They encourage fair treatment of all citizens and discourage inhuman treatment
and interference with one’s body, premises or private life therefore ensuring se-
curity to the people. Examples of social and cultural rights are:

i) Right to education

ii) Right to start a family or marry

iii) Right to health or medical care

iv) Right to housing or good shelter

v) Right to good food

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vi) Right to good clothing

vii) Right to play and leisure

viii) Right to social security

ix) Right to parental love

x) Right to association

xi) Protection from discrimination, sexual abuse, drugs and disaster.

Economic rights
These provide people with economic freedom. They enable people to take part
in the economic activities freely without harassment. Economic rights provide
people with the right to own and use property and the chance to work and pro-
vide for their livelihood. They also provide people with the right to freedom
from forced labour and slavery. Examples of economic rights are:

i) Right to form and become a trade union member

ii) Right to own property

iii) Right to work and to fair judgement

iv) Right to start and operate a business

v) Right to form and join a trade union

Developmental and group rights

These help people to have better life. One of the ways of having a better life is
living in a clean environment which is free from all forms of pollution for in-
stance excessive noise, excessive fumes and smoke, bad smell from rotting ob-
jects and contaminated water due to careless dumping of pollutants. Group
rights represent a specific group of people. Examples of development and group
rights are:

i) The right to culture

ii) The right to clean environment

iii) The right to development

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iv) The right of persons with disabilities

v) The right of minorities

In conclusion, it is vital to note that the new government which took over lead-
ership after 2002 immediately began addressing itself to the issue of discrimina-
tion against women and other minorities which is an important issue on human
rights. For decades women and women’s groups have been disadvantaged yet
they contribute greatly to the economy of the country.
There were also other groups that are marginalised on the basis of gender,
disability, age, customs and traditions.
The new government responded positively after power was handed over
by the previous regime by taking Affirmative action (measures to accelerate
equality and reverse discrimination) which resulted to nomination of more
women to parliament after the general election.
It is hoped that the government will continue to encourage fairness to
both genders in the assignment of responsibilities and leadership roles as well as
making opportunities available for the marginalised groups. By so doing, there
will be fair sharing, distribution and allocation of jobs and resources for every-
one’s benefit and also for the good of everyone in the country.
When this is achieved all Kenyans will begin thinking, talking, trying and
acting to achieve all the goals set by the practical democratic leaders of our
country.

Review Questions
1. a) Define the term ‘Democracy’.
b) Describe the two types of democracy below:
i) Direct Democracy
ii) Indirect or Representative Democracy

2. a) What are Human Rights?

b) Describe the UN Charter on Human Rights

3. Identify the Rights of the Child which are contained in the Children’s Act.

4. a) How can we classify Human Rights?

b) Identify the ways the government is adopting Affirmative Action to
deal with the past discrimination.

5. What are the sources of Kenya’s Bill of Rights?

6. Discuss the following:

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i) Presidential democracy
ii) Parliamentary democracy

Students’ Activities
1. Discuss the principles of democracy.

2. In groups identify various human rights abuses in Kenya.

3. Have a class debate whether it is right or wrong to compel all street chil-
dren to join the National Youth Service.

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