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COMMUNICATIONS 2
By: TOMASI
BSECE
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
35 views64 pagesChapter 9 - Digital Modulation
COMMUNICATIONS 2
By: TOMASI
BSECE
Uploaded by
ikigainami4Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 64
> HAP TE R
Digital Modulation
4APTER OUTLINE
Iniroduction
Information Capacity. Bits, Bit Rate, Baud, and
M-ary Encoding
Amplinide-Shift Keying
Frequency-Shift Keying
Phase-Shift Keying
Quadrature-Amplitude Modulation
}
:
;
)
JECTIVES
Define electronic communications .
Define digital modulatiori and digital radio
Define digital communications
Define information capacity
Define bit, bit rate, baud, and minimum bandwidth
Explain Shannon's limit for information capacity
Explain M-ary encoding
Define and describe digital amplitude modulation
Define and describe frequency-shift keying
Describe continuous-phase frequency-shift keying
Define phase-shift keying >
Explain binary phase-shift keying
Explain quaternary phase-shift keying
9-7 Bandwidth Efficiency
9-8 Carrier Recovery
9-9 Clock Recovery
9-10 Differential Phase-Shift Keying
9-11: Trellis Code Modulation
9-12. Probability of Error and Bit Error Rate
9-13. Error Performance
Describe 8- and 16-PSK -
Describe quadrature-amplitude modulation
Explain 8-QAM
Explain 16-QAM
Define bandwidth efficiency
B Explain carrier recovery
Explain clock recovery
Define and describe differential phase-shift keying
Define and explain trellis-code modulation
Define probability of error and bit error rate
Develop error performance equations for FSK,
PSK, and QAM
345 ROU TON
Arne communicates W the HansnvinNion, reception
aud
Twesseneey ne } ce Brn,
eat electianie civuits, dyfermation ys detine, ; oT
Cormation with the Use of electuaniy vity ys dotin 8 hte
: 5 conmmunigated (he, (atime or rey CE) be Ween two ay
ede Seatally med anatoy agra he
ect) (ve or mene points iA a communications Yston. Digital anna Uy
ie Gigiia? nndianbocause digitally modulated signats ean be plopag
ae hero and usedd in wireless Comimunic ation ystems, Tradition
ities syaonts that axe Conventional Abalog modulation, Mich as
(ADD, fiegtectey aiantiddattion (IMD, aed phase modulation (eM),
wath more modem dyad moduhimtion systems that utler several ou ‘nding
over eatittonal analog systems, such as ease of Movessing, case of WHO
ununuanty : mony
Digital connaunication? is a rather ambhwuous torn that coud have
meanings to different poople, ly the context of this boak, atigit
aystoms where relaavely high-frequency analog cations are me
frequency digital mformation signals (digital radio) and syst Ny the ia
ston of dhgital pulses (digital transmission) Digital transmission SYSEEMS teaNspon
mation in dasidal form and, therefore, require a physical facility bene,
teveiver, such as a metallic wire DALE, & Couxial cable, or uy
transmission is covered in Chapters W) and AL. In digital y
could be a physical cable, or it cauld be free space.
The property that distinguishes digntal radio systems from conventional
Modulation communications Systems is the nature of the modulaung Signal. Both
and digital modatation systems use analog carriers to {ranspont the information through
system, However, with analog modulation systems, the information Signal is also
whereas with digital modulation, the information Signal is digital, which could be
generated data or digitally encoded analog signals,
Referring to Equation ©), if the information signal is digital and the auplitude
of the carrier is-varied Proportional to the information signal, a digitally modulated
called amplitude’ shift keying (ASK) is produced, If the frequency (J) is varied
(o the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is Produced, and if the phase of
camer (8) is varied Proportional to the information Signal, phase shift keying (PSK)is ,
duced. If both the amplitude and the phase are. varied Proportional to the information
nal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM are
forms of digital modulation:
Ne LAU typ
je
nly
Mate
al communication, "
oulited by tclatvels
involy.
Sport
CH the transite
Omical fiber cable
adio systems, the cAMer fag)
WN*Vsin Qn fee 0)
ASK PSK PSK
x ‘
“agaue
Digital ‘modulation ts ideally suited to a multitude of ices w
including both cable and Wireless systems. Applications include the fol a ie
tively low-speed voice-band data communications modems, such as ced sda
Personal computers; (2) high-speed:data transmission Systems, such as sora ysl
subscriber lines (DSL); (3) digital microwave and satellite communicati
(4) cellular telephone Personal Communications Systems (PCS) ration syste
Figure 9-1 shows a simplified block diagram for a digital modu! the incor
transmitter, the precoder performs level conversion and then beens is shape?
into groups of bits that modulate an analog cartier, The modulat
Chapter 9 HFRODUCTION
In essence, @lectronic communicanoits is the transmission, reception, 4,
formation with the use of electronic circuits. Zyformation is detined ys if
ligence that is.communigated (i.¢., wansmitted or received) betwee), ia
i modulation is the wansmittal of digitally modulated anal f sig
9 or more points in a communications system. Digital moqy),,
{igital radidybecause digitally modulated signals can be p; 2
atmosphere and used in wireless communication
i ms that use conventional analog modulation, sweh a5 jp
(AM), frequency nodulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM), are raping
with more modem digital moduluation systems that offer several on:
over traditional analog systems, such as ease of processing, ease of mn
immunity.
“Digital communication? is a rather ambiguous term that could have »
meanings fo different people. In the context of this book, digital commun,
systems where relatively high-frequency analog carriers are mod,
frequency digital information signals (digital radio} and syste
sion of digital pulses (digital rraismission). Digital transmission systep,
mation ind
by
yb
ding
ples
Nite)
transpen
is Xa.
receiver, such as a metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, or an optical aes tr
ay
ns
tal form and, therefore, require a physical facility between the
transmission is covered in Chapters 10 and 11. In digital radio systems,
could be a physical cable, or it could be free space.
The property that distinguishes digital radio systems from conventionay
modulation communications systems is the nature of the modulating signal, Boy
and digital modulation systems use analog carriers to transport the information thc
system. However, with analog modulation systems, the information signal is alcg th
whereas with digital modulation, the information signal is digital, which coul Deconpa
generated data or digitally encoded analog signals. .
Referring to Equation 9-1, if the information signal is digital and ‘the amplitude
of the carrier is varied proportional to the information signal, a digitally modula sp
called amplinide'shift keying (ASK) is produced. If the frequency (f) is varied Proportion
to the information signal, frequency shift keying (FSK) is produced, and if the ‘phase ofthe
carrier (6) is varied proportional to the information signal, phase shift keying (PSK) isqre
duced, If both the amplitude and the phase-are: varied proportional to the informatica.
nal, quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) results. ASK, FSK, PSK, and QAM weil
forms of digital modulation:
the canigy fee
wt) = V sin (2m + fr + 8)
ASK FSK PSK vo
QAM
Digital niodulation is ideally suited to @ multitude of communications apr
including botly cable and. wireless systems. Applicationsinclude the following: ( )
tively low-speed voice-band. data communications.medems, such as those fount me)
personal computers; (2) high-speed:date transmission ‘systems, such a8 broad e532
subscriber lines (DSL); (3) digital microwave-and satelite coramunications 5)
(4) cellular telephone Personal Communications Systems (PCS). an gystes BE
Figure 9-1 shows a simplified block diagram for a'digital modulation Y* yp
: transmitter, the precoder performs level conversion and then encodes the ined ¢
into groups of bits that modulate an analog carrier. The modulated cartier
Chapter 9 Tranamisoion Recover
media
BPF and i =
ee | SL oes |_maee
——= pr | ecer
Noise r ——
on Buttor |
LL
‘Analog |
eae [so lesa
L_ recovery | — clock
rest sinpified block diagram of a digital radio system
tered), amplified, and then transmitted through the transmission medium to the receiver.
The transmission medium can be a metallic cable, optical fiber cable, Earth’s atmosphere,
or a combination of two or more types of transmission systems. In the receiver, the in-
coming signals are filtered, amplified, and then applied to the demodulator and decoder
circuits, which extracts the original source information from the modulated carrier. The
clock and carrier recovery circuits recover the analog carrier and digital timing (clock)
from the incoming modulated wave since they are necessary to perform the de-
$2. INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE, BAUD,
AND MARY ENCODING
92-1 Information Capacity, Bits, and Bit Rate
Information theory%s a highly theoretical study of the efficient.use-of bandwidth to prope-
‘gate information through electronic. communications systems. Information theory can be
used to determine the information capacity of a data communications system. Information
capacity is a measure of how much information can be propagated through a communica-
tions system and is a function of bandwidth and transmission time.
Information capacity represents the number of independent symbols that can be car-
ried through a system in a given unit of time. The most basic digital symbol used to repre-
sent information is the binary digit? or bit. Therefore, itis often convenient to express the
information capacity of a system as a bit rate: Bitrate is simply the number of bits trans~
mitted during one second and is expressed in bits per second (bps).
In 1928, R. Hartley of Bell Telephone Laboratories developed a useful relationship
among bandwidth, transmission time, and information capacity. Simply stated, Hartley's
law is
’ 1=BXt (9-2)
where I = information capacity (bits per second)
B= bandwidth (hertz)
. £ transmission time (seconds)
bean : 347 { From Equation 9-2, it can be seen that information capacity is 4 Jing
bandwidth and transmission time and is directly proportional to both, 4 ca Mn,
width or the transmission time changes, a directly proportional change vo¢ ur rh
mation capacity. el ing
In 1948, mathematician Claude E. Shannon (also of Bell Telephone L
published a paper in the Bell System Technical Journal relating the information, "ton,
a communications channe} to bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. The higher iy
to-noise ratio, the better the performance and the higher the information cae i
matically stated, the Shannon limit for information capacity is Y. My
1= Blo {1 + 3)
= Blog. q
or 1 = 3.32B lo; i+ =
5 S10 N
where / = information capacity (bps)
B = bandwidth (hertz)
5 = signal-to-noise power ratio (unitless)
For a standard telephone circuit ‘with a signal-to-noise power ratio of 1000 (39,
and a bandwidth of 2.7 kHz, the Shannon limit for information capacity is
“7 = (3.32)(2700) logo (1 + 1000)
= 26.9 kbps,
Shannon’s formuta is often mistinderstood. The results of the preceding example
dicate that 26.9 kbps can ed through a 2.7-kHz communications channel,
maybe tme, Kat it cannot be done with a bisiary-system-To achieve an information
mission rate of 26.9 kbps through a 2.7-kHz channel, each syn | transmitted rust coat
more thanone bit, : :
9-2-2 Mary Encoding ~. . ce :
M-aryis'a term derived fromthe word binary. simply represents a digit that 4
- tothe number of conditions, levels, or combinations possible for a given number af
variables. It is often advantageous to encode at a'level higher than binary (somelit
ferred to as beyond binary or higher-than-binary encoding) where there are more that
- conditions possible. For example, a digital signal with four-possible conditions (
fevels, frequencies, phases, and so on) is an M-ary system where M = 4. If there at”
possible conditions, M = 8 and so forth, The number of bit§ necessary t produce #
number of conditions is expressed mathematically as
| eo N= log, M
| where: N = number of bits necessary :
M = number'of conditions, levels, of combinations possible with N
Equation 9-5 can be simplified and rearranged to express the number of condition
ble with N bits as
3 :
bits
Wt on
W=M . :
For example, with one bit, only 2! = 2 conditions are possible. With 1v0 D1 e
ditions are possible, with three bits, 2° = 8 conditions are possible, and 8°
Chapter 9 92-3 Baud and Minimum Bandwidth
Baud ie 8 'm thai often misunderstood and common
rate refers to the rate of change of it monly confused with bit ra
Baud, like bit rate, is also a rate of Ce information signal, which ie woah ee
renal on the transmission medium aft Be: however, bad refers to the rate of chonge af
Pear fer encoding and modi rate of change of a
vais wn of ansmission ae, odulaion a or ym ave occurred, Hence,
8c . rate and, therefore
roedl of the time of atid wre often used interchangeably. Mathematically asthe
reciprocal of | of one output signaling element, and a signali ly, baud is the
sent several information bits. Baud is expressed as ing element may repre-
baud = 1 on
7)
where baud = symbol rate (baud per second)
1, = time of one signaling element (seconds)
signaling element is sometimes called a symbol and could be encoded as a change in the
iinpltude, frequency, or phase. For example, binary signals are generally encoded and
transmitted one bit at a time in the form of discrete voltage levels representing logic Is
(highs) and logic Os Cows). A baud is also transmitted one at time; however, a baud may
represent more than one information bit. Thus, the baud of a data communications system
nay be considerably less than the bitrate. In binary systems (such as binary FSK and bi-
PSK), baud and bits per second are equal. However, in higher-level systems (such as
QPSK and 8-PSK), bps is always greater than baud.
"According to H. Nyquist, binary digital signals can be propagated through an ideal
noiseless transmission medium at a rate equal to two times the bandwidth of the medium.
‘The minimurn theoretical bandwidth necessary to propagate @ signal is called the minimum
Nyquist bandwidth ot sometimes the minimum Nyquist frequency. Thus, f, = 2B, where f,
vant Crate in bps and B isthe ideal Nyquist bandwidrh. The actual bandwidth pesess
to propagate a given bit rate depends on several factors, including the type of encoding and
modulation used, the types of filters used, system noise, and desired error performance. The
ideal bandwidth is generally used for comparison purposes only.
Ha is ee penween bandwidth and bitrate also applies tothe opposite situafon FS
agiven bandwidth (B), the highest theoretical bit rate is 2B. For example, a standard telephone
cet has a bandwidth of approximately 2700 Hz, which has the capacity to propagate
rod brutheegh However fmore than two levels are used for signaling higher 7 800
ae ae rons it may be ansnited at atime, an itis possible 1 ropes >
rate thatexceeds 2B. Using multilevel signaling, the Nyquist formulation for channel capacity is
‘fy = 2B log, M (9-8)
where f, = channel capacity (bps)
'B = minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
M = number of discrete signal or voltage levels
Equation 9-8 can be rearranged to solve for the minimum bandwidth necessary t
Pass M-ary digitally modulated carriers .
fe ) ;
= 9
B ( 77 9)
It ;
‘Nis substituted for log, M, Equation 9-9 reduces to
9-10)
Where N is
‘Nis the number of bits encoded into each signaling element. IF information bits are encoded (grouped) and then converted 4, «;
than Owo levels, transmission rates in excess of 28 ute possible, ay wi, ie al
quent sections of this chapter. In addition, since baud is the encoded pug “My
equals the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded ito One signal Nye.
alll sta
Me
te Mh
baud > 4 "
N
ny
By comparing Kquation 9-10 with Equation 9-11, i€ean be seen thy yy
Ndi
iy
ulation, the baud and the ideal minimum Nyquist bandwidth have the gay ne
equal to the bit rate divided by the number of bits encoded. This statement int
ce ; if
forms of digital modulation except frequency-shift keying, 18 try :
‘
>LITUDE-SHIFT KEYING
The'sinptest digital modulation technique is.amplisudewshift keying, (ASK), yy
information signal directly modulates the amplitude of-an anetuy carrie, ASK "bing
to standard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplityges” iil
Amplitude-shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude modulation (Day,
matically, amplitude-shift keying is : M) Mat
anf!) SE + o9(0) foots |
where —Va.4(7) = amplitude-shift keying wave
V(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
@, = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2n ft)
In Equation 9-12, the modulating signal (v,[‘]) is a normalized binary waveform,
+1.V = logic 1 and —1 V = logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1 input, v,,(t) = +1, Equations.
reduces to i . “
Yao(t) = [1 + 1] Seaso.)
|= A cos(w,t)
and for a logic 0 input, v,,(t) = —1 V, Equation:9-12 reduces to
Yax(t) = [1 1] 4eostou)
=0
Thus, the modulated wave Vaus(t), is ¢ither A cos((9,t) or 0. Hence, the carrier is either i
“off,” which is why amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to Fo
Figure 9-2 shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK modulator iso"
figure, it can be seen that for every change in the input binary data steam, Wei
change in the ASK waveform, and the time of une bit (t,) equals the time of one ist
naling element (1,), It is also important to note that for the entire time the binary "it
the output is a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency signal, and for the eat
nary input is low, the carrier is off. The bit time isthe reciprocal of the bit gd
‘of one signaling element is the reciprocal of the baud. Therefore, the rate ©
Chapter 9 11 information bite are encoded (grouped) and then converieg 4
than two levels, transimnaon rates in excess of 21 ate powible » wi |
quent sections of this chapter, In addition, since baud Wn the encodea py, i Mei,
equals the bit rate divided by the pumber of hits encoded inte one spn shiny ‘ay os
i ten
baud ~ 7
: f 1%
By comparing Pxjuation 9-10 with Fquation 9 11, it can be: seen thy 7
tilation, the baud and the ideal minimum Nyquirt bandwidths have the sth in
equal to the bitrate divided by the nurnber of bits encawed “This statcmnern nal
forma of digital modulation except frequency: shift keying, Mn My
3) AMPLITUDE-SHIFT KEYING
‘The simplent digital modulation lechaique is amplisuderahift keying {ASK
information signal directly modulajes the amplitude of an anatyy, Carrier, 45 ”
to slandard amplitude modulation except there are only two output amplinugs
Amplitude shift keying is sometimes called digital amplitude Imusdulation sypyy?” Mh
matically, amplitude-shift keying is ag
Youft) {1 + vt) zomons)| |
where — vaa(t) = amplitude-shift keying wave /
Yq(t) = digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
A/2 = unmodulated carrier amplitude (vofts)
©, = analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2x ft)
In Equation 9-J2, the rnodulating signal (alt) 18 a normalized bi
+1.V > logic | and ~1 ¥ = logic 0. Therefore, for a logic 1 ingat, vf
reduces to
mary Wavefom, hay
= +1. beta
(= A cos)
|
A
VYouft) = [1+ 1 Scots |
and for a logic 0 input, v,{f) = ~1 V, Equation 9-12 reduces to |
rat) = (1 ~ 1] Aco) |
=0
‘Thus, the modulated wave vay), is either A cos(«y,4) or 0. Hence, the carrier is tha"
“off” which is why amplitude-shift keying is sometimes referred to i
Figure 9-2 shows the input and output waveforms from an ASK modular Free
figure, it can be seen that for every change in the input binary data seam,
change in the ASK waveform, and the time of one bit (t,) equals the time of on 8
naling element (1,) Its also important to note that for the entire time the binary 9
the output is a constant-amplitude, constant-frequency signal, and for the entite We
nary inpatis low, the cari is off, The bit time is the reciprocal of the bit: gg
‘of one signaling element is the reciprocal of the baud. Therefore, the rate
Chapter 9 DAM
output
FIGURE 92 Dit erp mode
lun: (a) input binary; (b) outpu
DAM waveform Sea
[ASK waveform (baud) is the same as the rate of change ofthe binary input (ops): ths, the
With ASK, the bit rate is also equal to the minimum Nyquist band-
bit rate equals the baud
fied by substituting into Equations 9-10 and 9-11 and setting N to 1:
width. This can be veri
a=! aud = 4 = f
Example 9-1
etemnine the baud and minimum bandwidth necessary ops 10 Kops inary signal sing
tude shift keying.
Solution For ASK, N = 1, and the band and minimum bandwidth are determined from Equations
9-11 and 9-10, respectively:
p= 1222 - 0000
= 10202 - 10,00
sre use of amplitude-modultedsnalo caters to transport digital information i lave
sow gan eco ype of Ggal modulation nd, therefore, seldom used exept fo Yen lew
speed telemetry circuits.
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is another relatively simple, low-performance type of digital
it ‘modulation similar to standard fre-
modulation. FSK is a form of constant-amp!
except the modulating signal isa binary signalihat varies betwee
quency modulation (FM)
Tio discrete voltage levels rather than a continuously changing analog waveform. Conse~
‘quently, FSK is sometimes called binary FSK (BFSK). The ‘general expression for FSK is
vpalt) = Vecost2nlfe + Ym() AA (9-13)
Where vju(t) = binary FSK waveform
V, = peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
(f= analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
Af = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier frequency (hert2)
q(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)
From Equation 9-13, it an be seen tht the peak shift in the care frequency (A)
Proportional to the amplitude ofthe binary input signal (qf), and the diection of the shift
351 af
we
. ee | ie
te te tm
Logic 1 |
aa ean
Jee Binary Input FIGURE 8-3 i
signal fone Othe rea,
in determined by the polarity. The modulating signal is a normalized binary w
where a logic 1 = +1 V and a logic 0 = ~1 V. Thus, for a logic 1 input, v,,(t) = "em
tion 9-13 can be rewritten as Ea,
Vpult) = V cosl2m(f, + Aff)
For a logic 0 input, v(t) = ~1, Equation 9-13 becomes
Malt) = V, cos[2m(f, — Aft)
With binary FSK, the carrier center frequency (f,) is shifted (deviated) ‘up and dow
in the frequency domain by the binary input signal as shown in Figure 9-3. As the binay
input signal changes from a logic 0 to a logic 1 and vice versa, the output frequency sity
between two frequencies: a mark, or logic | frequency Gn), and a space, or logic 0 fr
quency (f,). The mark and space frequencies are separated from the carrier frequency by te
peak frequency deviation (Af) and from each other by 2 Af
With PSK, frequency deviation is defined as the difference between either the mak
or space frequency and the cénter frequency, or half the difference between the mark anf
space frequencies. Frequency deviation is illustrated in Figure 9-3 and expressed matte-
matically as
Af= Va 19
where Af = frequency deviation (bertz) :
Vin — f,| = absolute difference between the mark and space frequencies (her)
Figure 9-4a shows inthe time domain the binary input vo an FSK malas
corresponding FSK output As the figure shows, when the binary input
logic | va logic and vice versa, the FSK output frequency shift froma mark [90
(fp frequency and vice versa. In Figure 94a, the mark frequency is the highs fete
{f+ A). and the space frequency isthe Jower frequency (J. ~ Af) although ey ts
srg could be just the opposite. Figure 9-4b shows the ruth table fora bina) FS
lor. The truth table shows the input and output possibilities for a given
scheme. ;
94-1 FSK Bit Rate, Baud, and Bandwidth time
In Figure 94a, it can be seen thatthe time of one bit (f) isthe same a8 OD Fats sp
output is a niark of space frequency (F,). Thus, the bit time equals the time
naling element, and the bit rate equals the baud.
Chapter 9 inary
input
eects
cof Y\ iy binary
ovo! WM, Ino —
pg tmite nite nite Smite Smite °
woue
fom mark frequency; f, space frequency 4 mark fn)
te »»
GURE 94 FSK in the time domein: (e) waveform; (b) truth table
“The baud for binary FSK can also be determined by substituting N= 1 in Equa-
tion 911:
twos = 4 =f
sk isthe exception tothe ral for digital modulation as the minim bantwih's
not determined from Equation 9.10, The minimum bandwidth for FSK is given as
B=1G,- fd ~ Um fol
=U, — Sol + 2fo
st sincef~ fl equa 2, the minimum bandwidth an be approsimai 8
B= df +h) (9-15)
where B= minimum Nyquist bandwidth (hertz)
Af = frequency deviation Vm — fy) (bertz)
‘fy = input bit rate (bps) 7
Note how closely Equation 9-15 resembles Carson's rule for determining tbe #P-
ifference in the two equations is that, for
proximate bandwidth for an FM wave. The only differes
PSK. the bit ate (,) is substituted forthe modulating-signal frequency a)
Example 9-2
bandwidth, and (c) baud fora binary FSK
Determine (a) the peak frequency deviation, (b) minimum
Demin (0) th pak un oe reieny of 51H, dan ipa track? SP
jon 9-14:
Solution a, The peak frequency deviation is determined from Equa
ay 3 Mon SU
Aeon = 1 kz
‘minimum bandwidth is determined from Equation 9-15:
B = 2(1000 + 2000)
= 6k
© ForFSK, N = 1, and the baud is determined from Equation 9-11 as
baud = 22 2000 Bessel functions can aly be used to determin
FSK wane. As shown in Figure 9-5, the fastest rate of
ge (highest fy
queney) in 4 nonretumn-(0-2610 (NR) binary staal veces when alterna
sccarring (1e. 8 sare wave), Since i aes hip and at low to prod
est fundamental frequency Pe
tn a square wave equals the repetition
wwave, which with a binary signal is equal 1 half the bit rate, Therefore.
where f= highest fundamental frequency of the binary input sig
‘he = input bic rate (ops)
‘The formuls used for modulation index in FM is also valid for FSK; thus,
h (unitless)
7
FM modulation index called the h-factor in FSK
fundamental frequency of the binary modulating signal (hert2)
Af = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
‘The worst-case modulation index (deviation ratio) is that which yields the wi
width, The worst-case or widest bandwidth occurs when both the drequewe,
the modulating-signai frequency are at their maximum values. i
peak frequency deviation in FSK is constant and always at its maximum
highest fundamental frequency is equal to half the incoming bitrate. Thus,
FIGURE $5 FSK modulator, th, time of one bit = 1 /fy; fm» mark frequency: fe
‘space frequency; T;, period of shortest cycie; 1/7,, furdemental frequency of
binary squere wave, input bt rate (bps)
Chapter 8
i
"dae
ndanen
Hy
49)
ial (hertz)
on
ies a.
deviation a
As described eater he
Value, and te
ow
ifs
= hefactor (unite
where 7s mark frecpien’
Jon © space frequenc
Fe rate (bits Pe
93
ymple ine
4 ble, determ'
8 ee roatk frequency ©
:
wine
pe The modulation
‘The
solution
o
asi
“The bandwidth determi
‘etermined in Example 9-2.
942 FSK Transmit
9-6 shows a simpli
tional FM modulator and.
“frequency (f,) is chosen st
‘Alogic | input shifts the
VCO output to the space |
and forth between logic |
and forth between the ma
Ina binary FSK mi
equal to the difference be
frequency (or half the dif
she space frequency (or hi
~ FSK modulator can be ©
Ju here f= Refactor (unitless)
J, = mark frequency (hertz)
if = space frequency (hertz)
7, = bit rate (bits per second)
exemple 9-3
vrei a sill, termine he mim Bandi fr he same FSK sil descrbedin Exam
vet with amar frequency of AH, apace Frequency of $1 kis, and an input bit a aaa
tion The modulation inex i found by sstitting nto Bquation 9.17
49 ki ~ 51 KI
or a 2kbps
ps
kHz
2 kbps
roma Bessel table, three sets of significant sideband are provuced fora modulation index of
ane. Therefore, the bandwidth can be determined as follows
B= 2G x 1000)
= 6000 Hz
‘The bandwidth determined in Example 9-3 using the Bessel table is identical to the bandwidth
determined in Example 9-2.
94-2 FSK Transmitter
Figure 9-6 shows a simplified binary FSK modulator, which is very similar to 2 conven-
ree FM modulator and is very often a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The center
frequency (f,) is chosen such that it falls halfway between the ‘mark and space frequencies.
‘Alogic | input shifts the VCO output to the mark frequency: ‘and a logic 0 input shifts the
‘VCO output tothe space frequency. Consequently, asthe binary input signal changes back
serrath between logic 1 and logic 0 conditions, the VCO output shifts or deviates back
‘and forth between the mark and space frequencies.
Tha binary FSK modulator, Afs the peak frequency deviation ofthe carrier and is
qual ta he diference between the carrier rest frequency and either the mark othe Spar .
frequency (or half the difference between the carrier rest frequency) and either the mark or
‘ween the mark and space frequencies). A VCO-
‘mode where the peak frequency deviation is
the space frequency (or half the difference be
SK modulator can be operated in the sweep
7E 9.6" FSK modulator
355° - | Oe 5
FSK input —»| Power | : leh
| spimer| Cartier |
| oe Data out
t x>—>{ lpr L__
Cartier
simply the product of the binary input voltage and the deviation sensiti
the sweep mode of modulation. the frequency deviation is expressed ity of the VOO. Wig
Matically as
AF = vn(Dky oy
where Af = peak frequency deviation (hertz)
Vm(t) = peak binary modulating-signal voltage (volts)
k, = deviation sensitivity (hertz per volt).
With binary PSK, the amplitude of the input signal can only be one of two values ce
for a logic 1 condition and one for a logic 0 condition. Therefore, the peak frequency dev-
ation is constant and always at its maximum value. Frequency deviation is simply psa
minus the peak voltage of the binary signal times the deviation sensitivity of the VCO.
Since the peak voltage is the same for a logic | as it is for a logic 0, the magnitude of te
frequency deviation is also the same for a logic 1 as it is for a logic 0.
$43 FSK Receiver a
FSK demodulation is quite simple with a circuit such as the one shown in Figure 9-7. he
FSK input signal is simultaneously applied to the inputs of both bandpass filters -
through a power splitter. The respective filter passes only the mark or only the spe =
quency on to its respective envelope detector. The envelope detectors, in tam. init
total power in each passband, and the comparator responds to the largest of the 1°
ers. This type of FSK detection is referred to as noncoberent detection; there is noe
involved in the demodulation process that is synchronized either in phase, feay®
both with the incoming FSK signal. oe
Figen A coe ba bine dagrne hia chews EK civ. THOSE,
signal is multiplied by a recovered carrer signal that has tbe exact same fTC0P0 yt
8 the transmitter reference. However, the two transmitted frequencies (ie i
frequencies) are not generally continuous; it is not practical to reproduce & oat
is coherent with both of them. Consequently, coherent FSK detection is seldom
Chapter 8 ‘
—— fn
‘The most common circuit used
locked loop (PLL), which is shown in bl
for
lock dis
demodulator. As the
t
FIGURE 9-10 Noncontinuous FSK
waveform
demodulating binary FSK signals is the phase-
in Figure 9-9. A PLL-FSK de~
input to the PLL shifts be-
modulator works ‘similarly to a PLL-FM
the de error voltage at the
ihe mark and space frequencies,
‘output of the phase
frequencies (mark
comparator follows the freq
there are also only two outpu
ther a logic 0. Therefore, the output is @
and space),
put, Generally, the natural frequency of the PLL is
the FSK modulator.
As a result, the cl
uency shift. Because there are only two input
error voltages.
two-level (binary) representation
hhanges in the dc error voltage fol
cal around 0 V.
‘One represents a logic 1 and the
of the FSK in-
made equal to the center frequency of
jow the changes in
the analog input frequency and
Binary FSK has a poorer error perf
are symmetri
‘ormance than PSK or QAM and, consequently,
is sel-
dom used for high-performance
digital radio systems.
Its use is restricted to low-performance,
jems that are used for data
communications over analog,
low-cost, asynchronous data mod
voice-band telephone lines.
844 Continuous-Phase Frequency-Shift Keying
vying (CP-FSK) is binary
Continuous-phase frequency-shift ke:
space frequencies are synchronized with
plies that there is a precise time relationship |
With CP-FSK, the mark and s
pace
the center frequency by an exact multiple
‘n= any integer). Thi ‘ensures a smooth phase transition in the analog output
ler rom amarko a space frequency oF vice vers FA
{5k waveform ca be sea that when he let Conn
ther is an abrupt phase discontinuity i the anaog
ae tor has trouble following the frequency shift; consequently,
fg EN shows a comtinsous phase PSK waveform Noe
dion eee itis a smooth, continuous transition. Consequently,
for a given a, . CP-FSK has a better bit-error performance than con’
ization ci 2ignl-w-oise ratio. The disadvantage of CP-FSK tat
‘ircuits and is, therefore, more expensive to implement.
the input binary bit rate. ‘Synchronous
of one-half the bit rate (fq and f, = "lf
ies are selected such that they are separat
simply im-
between the two; itdoes not mean they are equal.
ted from
/2}), where
when it
igure 9-10
shows a noncontinuous
ogic 1 to a logic 0 and
jgnal. When this occurs, the
‘an error may occur.
that when the output
there are no phase
ventional binary FSK
it requires synchro-
357 ——j
Mark frequency, fin
‘Space frequency, fy
Continuous phase MSK wavetorm
PHASE-SHIFT KEYING
(PSK) is another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude
18. an M-ary digital modulation scheme similar to conventional
modulation except with PSK the input is a binary digital signal and there are a limited
Phase-shift keying
modulation. PSK
by the number of bits in the group (n).
9-5-1 Binary Phase-Shift Keying
The simplest form of PSK is binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), where N = 1 and y=
Therefore, with BPSK, two phases (2' = 2) are possible for the carrier. One phase
Sents 2 logic 1, and the other phase represents a logic 0. As the input digital signal
State (Le., froma 1 to.a0 or froma 0 toa 1), the phase of the output carrier shifts
i two angles that are separated by 180°. Hence, other names for BPSK are phase reversal
ing (PRK) and biphase modulation. BPSK is a form of square-wave modulation of
continuous wave (CW) signal. :
9-5-1-1 BPSK transmitter. Figure 9-12 shows a simplified block diagram of
BPSK transmitter. The balanced modulator acts as a phase reversing switch. Depenting
filter PSK output inant
sin mgt
~V (Binary 0)
c)
FIGURE'8.13 (8) Balanced ring modulator: (b) logic 1 input; (c} logic O input
the logic condition of the digital input, the carrier is transferred to the output either in phase
180° out of phase with the reference carrier oscillator.
Figure'9-13 shows the schematic diagram of a balanced ring modulator. The balanced
Modulator has two inputs: a ¢arrier that is in phase with the reference oscillator and the bi-
"wry digital data, For the balanced modulator to operate properly, the digital input voltage
Tmust be much greater than the peak carrier voltage. This ensures that the digital input con-
“il the on/off state of diodes DI to D4. Ifthe binary input i «logic 1 (positive voltage)
wun D1 and D2 are forward biased and on, while diodes D3 and D4 are revere
off (Figure 9-13b). With the polarities shown, the carrier voltage is developed across
359 Binery input | Output ph
Logic o
loge t rol
(a) :
~20t xt
oor
®
coe at
i aun ®
2100 @ ===
Logic 0 where
solving f
FIGURE 9-14 BPSK modulator: (a phasor
diagram: (c} consteleton dagram ae ‘Thus, th
transformer T2 in phase with the carrier voltage across T1. Consequently, the ouput sign)
is in phase with the reference oscillator.
If the binary input is a logic 0 (negative voltage), diodes D1 and D2 are reverse biased
and off, while diodes D3 and D4 are forward biased and on (Figure 9-13c). As a resul the
carrier voltage is developed across transformer T2 180° out of phase with the carrier voltage and bect
across TI. Consequently, the output signal is 180° out of phase with the reference oscillator
Figure 9-14 shows the truth table, phasor diagram, and constellation diagram for a BPSK
modulator, A constellation diagram, which is sometimes called a signal state-space dir
gram, is similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire phasor is not drawn, Ina conse
lation diagram, only the relative positions of the peaks of the phasors are shown. where E
9-5-1-2 Bandwidth considerations of BPSK. A balanced modulator is a product Pe ee
‘modulator: the output signal is the product of the two input signals. In a BPSK modula,
the carrier input signal is multiplied by the binary data. If +1 V is assigned to a logic | ai gle, anc
Vis assigned to a logic O, the input carrer (sin «1 is multiplied by either a + of “1 binary
Consequently, the output signal is either +1 sin @.f or —J sin wz; the first represents 4 BPSK:
nal that is in phase with the reference oscillator, the latter a signal that is 180° out of phast the anz
with the reference oscillator. Each time the input ‘logic condition changes, the output pha betwee
‘changes. Consequently, for BPSK, the output rate of change (baud) is equal to the input tween |
of change (bps), and the widest output bandwidth occurs when the input binary data ats one BE
alternating 1/0 sequence, The fundamental frequency (J,) of an alternative Obit sequen™ dicate;
is equal to one-half of the bit rate (f,/2)- Mathematically, the output of a BPSK modula
is proportional to Examy
BPSK output = [sin(2r.f)] [sin(2n/2)] om Fora
Mine ¢
ternin
Chapter 9 ‘eg
H
GUE 9-15 Output phese-versustime relationship for 8 BPSK modulator
where f= maximum fundamental frequency of binary input (he
“f. = reference carrier frequency (hertz) a
Solving for the trig identity for the product of two sine functions,
L 1
zoos 2mlfe — fat] ~ 500s[2m(f. + f,)t]
Thus, the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth (B) is
f+ Sa Set fa
~K +h)
or eth
and because f, = f,/2, where f, = input bit rate,
a= tag
where B is the minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth.
Figure 9-15 shows the output phase-versus-time relationship for a BPSK waveform.
AAs the figure shows, a logic 1 input produces an analog output signal with a 0° phase an- .
ie, and a logic 0 input produces an analog output signal with a 180° phase angle, As the
input shifts between a logic 1 and a logic 0 condition and vice versa, the phase of the
BPSK waveform shifts between 0° and 180°, respectively. For simplicity, only one cycle of
the analog carrier is shown in each signaling element, although there may be anywhere
between a fraction of a cycle to several thousand cycles, depending on the relationship be-
‘Ween the input bit rate and the analog carrier frequency. It can also be seen that the time of
one BPSK signaling element (1,) is equal to the time of one information bit (5), which in-
‘cates thatthe bit rate equals the baud.
Boma 94 :
wg BPSK medulator wih cartier frequency of 70 MHz and an input bitrate of 10 Mbps, deter-
‘ermine ‘maximum and minimum upper and lower side frequencies, draw the output spectrum, de-
the minimum Nyquist bandwidth, and calculate the baud. :
- 361 . Level .Biny
ie
Balanced
>| LPF
modulator
=I — output L
sin(cogt)
| Clock
| recovery
FIGURE 8-16 Block diagram of a BPSK receiver
Soiution Substiosting into Equation 9-20 yields
Output = (sin @r\sin oo)
= [sin 21(5 MHz)A{sin 22(70 MHz)1]
= Fos 2n(70.MHa — 5 Mibiz)1 ~ 4 cos 2n(70 Me + 5 MHz)
Siig Reema —
Jower side frequency upper side frequency
Minimum lower side frequency (LSF):
LSP = 70 MHz ~ 5 MHz = 65 MHz
Maximum upper side frequency (USF):
USF = 70 MHz + 5 MHz = 75 MHz
‘Therefore, the output spectrum for the worst-case binary input conditions is as follows:
‘Phe mininwm Nyquist bandwidth (B) is
; ~<——8 = 10 MHz ——>
65 MHz 70 MHz 78 MHz
(Suppressed)
B’= 75 MHz ~ 65 MHz = 10 MHz
° and the baud = f, or 10 megabaud.
9-5-1-3 BPSK receiver. Figure 9-16 shows the block diagram of a BPSK
The input signal may be +sin 0,4 or —sin wt. The coherent carrier recovery circuit
and regenerates a carrier bignal that is both frequency and phase coherent with the
transmit carrier. The balanced modulator is a product detector; the output is the product
the two inputs (the BPSK signal and the recovered carrier). The low-pass filter (LPF)
arates the recovered binary data from the complex demodulated signal. Mathematically,
demodulation process is as follows,
For: a BPSK input signal of +sin «1 (logic 1), the ¢ ‘output of the balanced modula
output = (sin @s)\sin @.1) = sin? Ot
Chapter 8 1
sin? wd = 5(1 ~ 60% 2u,)
2
: 1
output = +5 lope
iin
sean be sen that te Output of the Balanced meu contains
yv)and acosine wave at twice the carrier frequency (2.0, ) The 1 iP vn ve voltage
(2112) a ower than 200, and, thus, blocks the second harmmancy n acut fre
ym Of the carer a
ene) ly the positive constant component, A positive volage represents a emeriiaay
ic |. ;
loti ca BPSK input signal of ~sin ,£ (logic 0), the output ofthe balanced modulator is
output = (~sin ,1)(sin 0,1) = ~sin? op
(rtee.en
wsint wt = -4(1 - cos2us) = —1 4!
o ee A) = 9 + 5 eos Quo
1 7
reaving oulput = —5V = logic 0
‘The output of the balanced modulator contains a negative voltage (—[1/2]V) and a
cosine wave at twice the carrier frequency (2«,). Again, the LPF blocks the second har-
monic of the carrier and passes only the negative constant component A negative voltage
represents a demodulated logic 0.
952 Quaternary Phase-Shift Keying
Quaternary phase shift keying (QPSK), or quadrature PSK as it is sometimes called, is an-
ther form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude digital modulation. QPSK is an M-ary
encoding scheme where N = 2 and M = 4 (hence, the name “quaternary” meaning “4”.
With QPSK, four output phases are possible for a single carrier frequency. Because there
are four output phases. there must be four different input conditions. Because the digital in-
put to a QPSK modulator is a binary (base 2) signal, to produce four different input com-
binations, the modulator requires more than a single input bit to determine the output con-
dition, With two bits, there are four possible conditions: 00, 01, 10, and 11. Therefore; with
QPSK, the binary input data are combined into groups of two bits, called dibits. In the mod-
ulator, each dibit code generates one of the four possible output phases (+45°, +135°,
45°, and ~ 135°). Therefore, for each two-bit dibit clocked into the modulator, a single
output change occurs, and the rate of change at the output (baud) is equal to one-half the
input bit rate (ic., two input bits produce one output phase change).
9-5-2-1 QPSK transmitter. A block diagram of a QPSK modulator is shown in
Figure 9-17. Two bits (a dibit) are clocked into the bit splitter. After both bits have been se-
tally inpotted, they are simultaneously parallel outputted. One bit is directed to the I chan-
nel and the other to the Q channel. The I bit modulates a carrie that is in phase with the ef-
trence oscillator (hence the name “I” for “in phase” channel), and the Q bit modulates
‘arr that is 90° out of phase or in quadrature with the reference carrier (hence the name
‘Q'for “quadrature” channel). . :
athe ct be seen that once a dibit has been spit into the I and Q channels os ops
‘att stmne as in a BPSK modulator. Essentially, a QPSK modulator is wo BPSK modula-
‘88 combined in parallel Again, fora logic 1 = + Vanda logic 0 = ~ 1 Va two pines
Possible atthe output of the I balanced modulator (+sin @.1 and —sin @!), and two
363 Logie 1-1
topicO="1V | petanaes
Q channel Ra” | Modulator | ea ae
FIGURE 8-17 QPSK modulator
phases are possible at the output of the Q balanced modulator (++c0$ 0! and ~cos
When the linear summer combines the two quadrature (90° out of phase) signal
are four possible resultant phasors given by these expressions: + sin @.t + cos a. +
@4 ~ 608 Wt, ~sin @.t + cos 0, and ~Sin w.t — cos wt
Example 9-5
For the QPSK modulator shown in Figure 9-17, construct the truth table, phasor diagram, and co
stellation diagram.
Solution Fora binary data input of Q = Oand I = 0, the two inputs to the [balanced modulstra
~1 and sin 4, and the two inputs to the Q belanced modulator are —1 and cos at
the outputs are
T balanced modulator = (—1)(sin a.) = ~1 sin os
Q balanced modulator = (—1)(c0s w.4) = ~1 608 «3.1
and the ouiput ofthe linear summer is
Leos od ~ L sin ot = 1.414 sin(as — 135°)
For the remaining dibit codes (01, 10, and 11), the procedure is the same. The results ae sow
Figure 9-18a,
In Figures 9-18b and c, it can be seen that with QPSK each of the four possible ot
ut phasors has exactly the same amplitude. Therefore, the binary information must bee
coded entirely in the phase of the output.signal. This constant amplitude characteris #
the most important characteristic of PSK that distinguishes it from QAM, which is
plained later in this chapter, Also, from Figure 9-18b, it can be seen thatthe angula
ration between any two adjacent phasors in QPSK is 90°. Therefore, 2 QPSK sign ee
dergo almost a +45° or ~45° shift in phase during transmission and sill retain the
encoded information when demodulated at the receiver. Figure 9-19 shows the
phase-versus-time relationship for a QPSK modulator.
Chapter 9 oon a + ti
e 1 e
elas o aot a
9-5-2-2 Bandwidth considerations of QPSK. ‘With QPSK, because the input data
12: divided into two channels, the bit rate in either the I or the Q channel is equal to one-balf
of toe inpat data rte (f,/2). (Essentially, the bit splitter stretches the I and Q bits to twice their
‘ngat bit length.) Consequently, the highest fundamental frequency present at the data input
‘oe or the Q balanced modulator is equal to one-fourth of the input data rate (one-half of
JW2~ {44), As 2 result, the output of the I and Q balanced modulators requires a minimum
than the incoming bit rate). Also, because the QPSK output signal does not change phase
‘sail two bits (a dibit) have been clocked into the bit splitter, the fastest output rate of change
a is also equal to one-half ofthe inpot bitrate. As with BPSK, the minimum bandwidth
‘he baud are equal. This relationship is shown in Figure 9-20. sare
sievagt 4 +
1 |
con at sete fd !
\iiohest
~ pundamnente!
‘roveney
Geran! js
‘Betanced date fy?
moouistor [Trae
{GURE 8-20 Bandwidth considerations of a SPSK modulstor
ce-case input consition £0 the Lor Q
weigh occurs when the Dinery input di
Trinary transition (a 10 sequeng
za bits. Consequently te high
c the ousput of the balan
In Figure 9-20, it can be seen that the w‘
anced modulator is an alternative 1/0 pattern.
have 8 1100 repetitive pattem. One cycle of the fastest
in the I or Q channel takes the same time as four input di nt
fundamental frequency at the input and fastest rate ef canes
iors is eg 0 oe fou of ab espesse mathematical
‘The output of the
ourput = (sin @,f)¢sin @.t) @.
and wd = 2M
oe
: where carrier
ee eee
Thus, _* oumput = {sin Be (sin nef.)
fos ar( - 4), - 30s an{ * 4)
“The'outpat frequency spectrum extends front. + /o/4 tofe — fol and the minimutn bai
wide (fy) is
f)_(, 8) =%ah
(+4) (é *) 42
. Example 8-6 : *
For a QPSK modulator with an ioput data rate (f,) equal to 10 Mbps and a carrier frequen
