Faculty of Science and Technology

School of Electrical and Communication Sciences

S.Y. B. Tech. (Electrical Engineering)

Course Name: Analog and Digital Circuits Course Code: 240GEEB02_03

Unit I Diode and Its Applications (05 Hours)

Introduction: PN junction diode, VI Characteristic of diode, Rectifiers: Types, Half wave and
full wave rectifiers, bridge rectifiers, comparison. Filters: capacitor filter, Zener diode,
Voltage regulators using ICs 78xx, 79xx, and LM 317

1.1 Introduction: PN junction diode

1.1.1 P-N Junction

Inside a semiconductor, a p-n junction is an interface or a border between two
semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-type.
The semiconductor’s p-side, or positive side, has an excess of holes, whereas the n-side, or
negative side, has an excess of electrons. The doping process is used to produce the p-n
junction in a semiconductor.

Formation of P-N Junction

When we utilize various semiconductor materials to form a p-n junction, there will be a
grain boundary that will prevent electrons from moving from one side to the other by
scattering electrons and holes, which is why we employ the doping procedure.

For example, Consider a p-type silicon semiconductor sheet that is very thin. A portion of
the p-type Si will be changed to n-type silicon if a tiny quantity of pentavalent impurity is
added. This sheet will now have both a p-type and an n-type area, as well as a junction
between the two. Diffusion and drift are the two sorts of processes that occur following the
creation of a p-n junction. As we all know, the concentration of holes and electrons on the
two sides of a junction differs, with holes from the p-side diffusing to the n-side and
electrons from the n-side diffusing to the p-side. This causes a diffusion current to flow
across the connection.

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When an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, it leaves an ionized donor on the n-
side, which is stationary. On the n-side of the junction, a layer of positive charge develops
as the process progresses. When a hole is moved from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized
acceptor is left behind on the p-side, causing a layer of negative charges to develop on the
p-side of the junction. The depletion area is defined as a region of positive and negative
charge on each side of the junction. An electric field direction from a positive charge to a
negative charge is generated due to this positive space charge area on each side of the
junction. An electron on the p-side of the junction travels to the n-side of the junction due
to the electric field. The drift is the name given to this motion. We can observe that the drift
current runs in the opposite direction as the diffusion current.

Biasing Conditions for p-n Junction Diode

In a p-n junction diode, there are two operational regions:
 p-type
 n-type
The voltage applied determines one of three biasing conditions for p-n junction diodes:
 There is no external voltage provided to the p-n junction diode while it is at zero bias.
 Forward bias: The p-type is linked to the positive terminal of the voltage potential,
while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal.
 Reverse bias: The p-type is linked to the negative terminal of the voltage potential,
while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal.

Forward Biased PN Junction

The p-n junction is said to be forward-biased when the p-type is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and the n-type to the negative terminal. The built-in electric field at
the p-n junction and the applied electric field are in opposing directions when the p-n
junction is forward biased.
The resulting electric field is smaller than the built-in electric field when both electric fields
are added together. As a result, the depletion area becomes less resistant and thinner. When
the applied voltage is high, the resistance of the depletion zone becomes insignificant. At
0.6 V, the resistance of the depletion area in silicon becomes absolutely insignificant,
allowing current to flow freely over it.

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Reverse Biased PN Junction
The p-n junction is said to be reverse-biased when the p-type is linked to the negative
terminal of the battery and the n-type is attached to the positive side. The applied electric
field and the built-in electric field are both in the same direction in this situation.
The resultant electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field, resulting in
a more resistive, thicker depletion zone. If the applied voltage is increased, the depletion
area gets more resistant and thicker.

Current Flow in PN Junction diode

When the voltage is increased, electrons move from the n-side to the p-side of the junction.
The migration of holes from the p-side to the n-side of the junction occurs in a similar
manner as the voltage rises. As a result, a concentration gradient exists between the
terminals on both sides.
There will be a movement of charge carriers from higher concentration regions to lower
concentration regions as a result of the development of the concentration gradient. The
current flow in the circuit is caused by the movement of charge carriers inside the p-n
junction.

1.2 VI Characteristic of diode

VI Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

A curve between the voltage and current across the circuit defines the V-I properties of p-n
junction diodes. The x-axis represents voltage, while the y-axis represents current. The V-I
characteristics curve of the p-n junction diode is shown in the graph above. With the help of
the curve, we can see that the diode works in three different areas, which are:
 Zero bias
 Forward bias
 Reverse bias

Zero Bias
There is no external voltage provided to the p-n junction diode while it is at zero bias,
which implies the potential barrier at the junction prevents current passage.
Forward bias

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When the p-n junction diode is in forwarding bias, the p-type is linked to the positive
terminal of the external voltage, while the n-type is connected to the negative terminal. The
potential barrier is reduced when the diode is placed in this fashion. When the voltage is 0.7
V for silicon diodes and 0.3 V for germanium diodes, the potential barriers fall, and current
flows.

The current grows slowly while the diode is under forwarding bias, and the curve formed is
non-linear as the voltage supplied to the diode overcomes the potential barrier. Once the
diode has crossed the potential barrier, it functions normally, and the curve rises quickly as
the external voltage rises, yielding a linear curve.

Reverse Bias
When the PN junction diode is under negative bias, the p-type is linked to the negative
terminal of the external voltage, while the n-type is connected to the positive terminal. As a
result, the potential barrier becomes higher. Because minority carriers are present at the
junction, a reverse saturation current occurs at first.
When the applied voltage is raised, the kinetic energy of the minority charges increases,
affecting the majority charges. This is the point at which the diode fails. The diode may be
destroyed as a result of this.

Applications of PN Junction Diode

There are various applications of PN Junction Diode in the field of electronics, some of
those applications are listed as follows:
 A most common use case of a PN junction diode is as a rectifier which means
converting AC current into DC current.
 Zener diode (which is a special type of PN junction diode) is used in circuits for voltage
regulation.
 As Diode only conducts current in Forward bias, so in electrical circuits, it is used as a
switch to turn on and off certain small circuits in a much more complex circuit.
 A reverse-biased p-n junction diode is utilized as a photodiode as it is sensitive to light.
 LED is also a special type of PN junction diode on a forward basis which emits light.

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1.3 Rectifiers: Types, Half wave and full wave rectifiers, bridge rectifiers, comparison.

Rectifier is an electronic component that converts alternating current (AC) into direct
current (DC), ensuring a unidirectional flow of electric charge. Alternating current
periodically changes direction, whereas direct current flows consistently in one direction.
Rectifiers are crucial in many electronic applications where a steady DC voltage is
required.

Types of Rectifiers
There are various types of rectifiers used in electronics for different use cases. Some of
these rectifiers are:

 Half-Wave Rectifier
o The simplest type of rectifier.
o Uses a single diode to allow current to flow in only one direction during one
half-cycle of the AC waveform.
o Efficiency is relatively low.

 Full-Wave Rectifier
o Utilizes two diodes to rectify both halves of the AC waveform.
o Improved efficiency compared to half-wave rectifiers.
o Center-Tap Full-Wave Rectifier: Uses a center-tapped
transformer.
o Bridge Rectifier: Uses four diodes in a bridge configuration,
eliminating the need for a center-tapped transformer.

 Bridge Rectifier
o A type of full-wave rectifier that uses four diodes in a bridge configuration.
o More efficient than center-tap full-wave rectifiers.
o Commonly used in power supplies and electronic devices.

Half-Wave Rectifier

 The name half-wave rectifier itself states that the rectification is done only for half of
the cycle.
 The AC signal is given through an input transformer which steps up or down
according to the usage.
 Mostly a step down transformer is used in rectifier circuits, so as to reduce the input
voltage.

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  The input signal given to the transformer is passed through a PN junction diode which
acts as a rectifier.
 This diode converts the AC voltage into pulsating dc for only the positive half cycles
of the input.
 A load resistor is connected at the end of the circuit. The figure below shows the
circuit of a half wave rectifier.

Working of a HWR

The input signal is given to the transformer which reduces the voltage levels. The output from
the transformer is given to the diode which acts as a rectifier. This diode gets ON conducts
for positive half cycles of input signal. Hence a current flows in the circuit and there will be a
voltage drop across the load resistor. The diode gets OFF doesn′t conduct for negative half
cycles and hence the output for negative half cycles will be, iD=0and Vo =0.

Hence the output is present for positive half cycles of the input voltage only neglecting the
reverse leakage current. This output will be pulsating which is taken across the load resistor.

Waveforms of a HWR

Hence the output of a half wave rectifier is a pulsating dc.

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Center-tapped Full-Wave Rectifier

 A rectifier circuit whose transformer secondary is tapped to get the desired output
voltage, using two diodes alternatively, to rectify the complete cycle is called as
a Center-tapped Full wave rectifier circuit.
 The center-tapped transformer with two rectifier diodes is used in the construction of
a Center-tapped full wave rectifier.
 The circuit diagram of a center tapped full wave rectifier is as shown below.

Working of a CT- FWR

The working of a center-tapped full wave rectifier can be understood by the above figure.

 When the positive half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point M at the
transformer secondary becomes positive with respect to the point N.
 This makes the diode D1 forward biased.
 Hence current i1 flows through the load resistor from A to B. We now have the
positive half cycles in the output

 When the negative half cycle of the input voltage is applied, the point M at the
transformer secondary becomes negative with respect to the point N.

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  This makes the diode D2 forward biased.
 Hence current i2 flows through the load resistor from A to B. We now have the
positive half cycles in the output, even during the negative half cycles of the input.

Waveforms of CT FWR

The input and output waveforms of the center-tapped full wave rectifier are as follows.

From the above figure it is evident that the output is obtained for both the positive and
negative half cycles. It is also observed that the output across the load resistor is in the same
direction for both the half cycles.

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Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

This is such a full wave rectifier circuit which utilizes four diodes connected in bridge form
so as not only to produce the output during the full cycle of input, but also to eliminate the
disadvantages of the center-tapped full wave rectifier circuit.

Four diodes called D1, D2, D3 and D4 are used in constructing a bridge type network so that
two of the diodes conduct for one half cycle and two conduct for the other half cycle of the
input supply. The circuit of a bridge full wave rectifier is as shown in the following figure.

Working of a Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier

The full wave rectifier with four diodes connected in bridge circuit is employed to get a better
full wave output response.
 When the positive half cycle of the input supply is given, point P becomes positive
with respect to the point Q.
 This makes the diode D1 and D3 forward biased while D2 and D4 reverse biased.
 These two diodes will now be in series with the load resistor.
 The following figure indicates this along with the conventional current flow in the
circuit.

 Hence the diodes D1 and D3 conduct during the positive half cycle of the input
supply to produce the output along the load resistor.

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  As two diodes work in order to produce the output, the voltage will be twice the
output voltage of the center tapped full wave rectifier.

 When the negative half cycle of the input supply is given, point P becomes negative
with respect to the point Q.
 This makes the diode D1 and D3 reverse biased while D2 and D4 forward biased.
 These two diodes will now be in series with the load resistor.
 The following figure indicates this along with the conventional current flow in the
circuit.

 Hence the diodes D2 and D4 conduct during the negative half cycle of the input
supply to produce the output along the load resistor.
 Here also two diodes work to produce the output voltage. The current flows in the
same direction as during the positive half cycle of the input.

Waveforms of Bridge FWR

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 From the above figure, it is evident that the output is obtained for both the positive and
negative half cycles. It is also observed that the output across the load resistor is in
the same direction for both the half cycles.

Comparison of Single-Phase Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers

Parameter Half-Wave Rectifier Full-Wave Rectifier

Number of Diodes 1 2 (center-tapped) or 4 (bridge)
Output Voltage Lower, only half the AC Higher, both halves of the AC
wave is used wave are utilized
Efficiency Lower (~40.6%) Higher (~81.2%)
Ripple Frequency Same as input AC frequency Twice the input AC frequency
Filtering Requirement More filtering needed Less filtering needed

1.4 Filters: capacitor filter

An electrical circuit that selectively permits some frequencies of an electrical signal to

flow through while blocking others is called a filter circuit. A filter circuit is used in a
rectifier circuit to eliminate or filter out the AC components. A filter circuit is a device
that permits the D.C. For successful implementation in a variety of electronic systems, a
thorough comprehension of their guiding principles and meticulous evaluation of design
parameters are essential.

Why Do We Need Filters?

 In high-performance stereo systems, filter circuits are frequently required because, in
order to achieve the highest possible sound quality and power efficiency, specific audio
frequency ranges must be increased or suppressed.
 Noise Reduction: To remove undesired noise or interference from a signal, filters are
frequently utilized. This is essential for applications requiring a clean signal, such as
audio processing and communication systems.
 Signal smoothing: Filters are employed in many electrical systems, particularly power
supply, to reduce fluctuations in the signal and produce an output that is more steady
and continuous.

The electronic filter can be made with the help of analog components like resistors,
capacitors, transistors, op-amps, and inductors.

The capacitor is a reactive component, used in analog electronic filters because the capacitor
impedance is a function of frequency. The capacitor that affects a signal can be frequency-
dependent. So this property is widely used in designing the filter.

Working of Filter Capacitor

The working of this capacitor mainly depends on the capacitive reactance principle. It is
nothing but how the impedance of a capacitor alters with a signal frequency that is flowing
through it. A nonreactive component like a resistor offers similar resistance to a signal apart

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from the frequency of the signal. This means 1Hz & 100KHZ signals flow throughout a
resistor with equal resistance.
But, a capacitor is different because its impedance or resistance will change based on the
signal frequency which is flowing through. These are reactive devices that offer high
resistance to low-frequency signals and low-resistance to high-frequency signals using the
formula like XC= 1/2πfC. A capacitor gives dissimilar impedance values for dissimilar
frequency signal. In a circuit, it can operate as a resistor.

Filter Capacitor Circuit

The circuit diagram of the filter capacitor is shown below. In this circuit, the capacitor works
like a high pass filter that allows high frequencies and blocks direct current. Similarly, they
can also work as a low pass filter to allow DC and block AC.
Here the capacitor is connected in parallel with the component instead of connecting in
series. This circuit is a high-frequency capacitive filter. Here, the flow of current will be in
the least resistance direction.

Filter Capacitor Circuit

Because a capacitor gives extremely low resistance for high-frequency signals, so these
signals will supply through the capacitor. Like this, the circuit in this arrangement, it is a
high-frequency filter. The signals like low-frequency current will not supply throughout the
capacitor, as it gives high resistance for low-frequency signals.

Filter Capacitor Circuit to Block DC and Pass AC

For low-frequency signals, the capacitor offers extremely high resistance and for high-
frequency signals, it proves less resistance. So it acts as a high pass filter to allow high-
frequency signals and block low-frequency signals.

Circuit to Block DC and Pass AC

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In a circuit, both AC and DC signals can be used several times. But, in some cases, we need
only AC signals & the DC signals will be taken out. The best example of this is a microphone
circuit. In this, as an input, DC is given to the microphone. We need DC as input to the
microphone to power on & we require AC as input to represent the music, voice signals, etc

Filter Out the DC Component from the Signal

A capacitor is used to filter out the DC signal. This can be done by connecting the capacitor
in series in the circuit. The following circuit is the capacitive high-pass filter. In this, signals
like DC or low frequency will be blocked.

Generally, a ceramic capacitor with 0.1µF value can be placed following the signal that
includes both the AC and DC signals. This capacitor allows AC and filters out the Dc
component.

Filter Capacitor Applications

The applications of this include the following.

 The line filter capacitor is applicable in several industrial loads as well as appliances in
order to defend the appliance from the noise of line voltage noise and to defend other
devices on a similar line from the generated noise within the circuit.
 These capacitors can be used in all types of filters which are used in signal processing.
The best example of this application is like an audio equalizer. It uses different frequency
bands to permit amplification for low, high, and midrange frequency tones.
 It is used for glitch removal on DC power rails
 It is used for RFI removal (radio frequency interference) for power or signal lines to come
in or exit equipment.
 This capacitor can be connected after the voltage regulator to get a smooth DC power
supply.
 This capacitor is used in audio, IF or RF filters

1.5 Zener diode

What is Zener Diode?
A Zener diode can be considered as a highly doped p-n junction diode which is made such
that it works in reverse bias condition.
A Zener diode which is also called a Breakdown diode works in reverse bias conditions. An
electrical breakdown occurring in the reverse-biased condition of the PN junction diode is
called the Zener effect. In this condition when the electric field increases to a high value it
enables the tunnelling of electrons from the valence band to the conduction band of a
semiconductor, which suddenly increases the reverse current.
Zener Diode Circuit Diagram
The figure given below is the circuit diagram of the Zener diode. The Zener diode has
applications in various electronic devices and it works in reverse biasing conditions. In
reverse biasing, the P-type material of the diode is connected with the negative terminal of
the power supply, and the n-type material is connected with the positive terminal of the
power supply. The diode consists of a very thin depletion region as it is made up of heavily
doped semiconductor material.

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A Zener diode can be packed in many ways. Some Zener diodes are used where high levels
of power dissipation are required. The Zener diode which is the most commonly used is
contained within a small glass encapsulation having a band around one end marking the
cathode side of the diode.
There are two tags at the end of the bar in the circuit symbol of the Zener diode, one in the
upward direction and the other in the lower direction, as shown in the figure given below.
In this way, we can easily distinguish between the Zener diode and other diodes.

Zener Diode Working

High-level impurities are added to a Zener diode to make it more conductive and thus the
Zener diodes can easily conduct electricity compared to other p-n junction diodes. These
impurities reduce the depletion layer of the Zener diode and make it very thin. Thus, this
diode also works even if the voltage applied is very small.

In no biasing condition of the Zener diode, all the electrons accumulate in the valence band
of the p-type semiconductor material and thus no current flow occurs through the diode.

In reverse bias conditions, if the Zener voltage is equal to the supplied voltage, the diode
conducts electricity in the direction of reverse bias. When the Zener voltage equals the
supplied voltage the depletion layer vanishes completely.

Zener Diode Working in Reverse Biased

In forward-biased conditions, the Zener Diode works like any normal diode but in the
reverse-bias condition, a small leak current flows through the diode. As we keep increasing
the reverse voltage it reaches a point where the reverse voltage equals the breakdown
voltage. The breakdown voltage is represented as Vz and in this condition the current start
flowing in the diode. After the breakdown voltage the current increase drastically until it
reaches a stable value.
In reverse bias condition, two kinds of breakdowns occur for Zener Diode which are,
 Avalanche Breakdown
 Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown vs Zener Breakdown

There is a clear difference between Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown which can
easily be understood by the table discussed below,
Avalanche Breakdown Zener Breakdown
Avalanche breakdown occurs when the high Zener breakdown happens when electrons
voltage increase the free electron in the from the valance band gain energy and
semiconductor and a sudden increase in reaches the conduction band which then
current is seen. conducts electricity.
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Avalanche breakdown is seen in the diodes Zener breakdown is seen in the diodes
having breakdown voltage greater than 8 having breakdown voltage in the range of 5
volts. to 8 volts.
Avalanche breakdown is observed in diodes Zener breakdown is observed in diodes that
that are lightly doped. are highly doped.
In the Avalanche breakdown, the VI Zener Breakdown has a sharp VI
characteristics curve is not as sharp as the characteristics curve.
VI characteristics curve in the Zener
breakdown.

For Avalanche breakdown increase in For Zener breakdown increase in

temperature increases the breakdown temperature decreases the breakdown
voltage. voltage.

VI Characteristics of Zener Diode

The graph given underneath shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.

V-I characteristics of a Zener Diode can be studied under the following two headings,

Forward Characteristics of Zener Diode

Forward characteristics of the Zener Diode are similar to the forward characteristics of any
normal diode. It is clearly evident from the above diagram in the first quadrant that the VI
forward characteristics are similar to other P-N junction diodes.

Reverse Characteristics of Zener Diode

In reverse voltage conditions a small amount of current flows through the Zener diode. This
current is because of the electrons which are thermally generated in the Zener diode. As we
keep increasing the reverse voltage at any particular value of reverse voltage the reverse
current increases suddenly at the breakdown point this voltage is called Zener Voltage and
is represented as Vz.

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Applications of Zener Diode
Zener diode is a very useful diode. Due to its ability to allow current to flow in reverse bias
conditions, it is used widely for various purposes. Some of the common uses of Zener
Diode are discussed below,
 Zener diode as Voltage Regulator
Zener diode is utilized as a Shunt voltage controller for managing voltage across
little loads. The breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be steady for a wide scope
of current. The Zener diode is associated with corresponding to the heap to make it
switch predisposition and when the Zener diode surpasses knee voltage, the voltage
across the heap will become consistent.
 Zener Diode in Over-Voltage Protection
At the point when the info voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the
voltage across the resistor drops bringing about a short-out. This can be kept away
from by utilizing the Zener diode.
 Zener Diode in Clipping Circuits
Zener diode is utilized for adjusting AC waveform cutting circuits by restricting the
pieces of it is possible that one or both the half patterns of an AC waveform.
 Zener Diode Specifications
Zener Diode is one other most commonly used diode and some of the specifications
of Zener diode are,
 Zener Voltage: The voltage at which Zener breakdown occurs in the Zener
diode is called as Zener Voltage. It is denoted by Vz generally it ranges from
2.4 volts to 200 volts.
 Current Iz (max): The maximum current that the diode can achieve at the
Zener Voltage is called max current. It ranges from 200μA to 200 A
 Current Iz (min): The minimum current required for the diode to break down
is called min current.
 Power Rating: The maximum power the Zener diode can dissipate is the
power rating of that diode. Power is calculated by taking the product of the
breakdown voltage and the value of current at that time.
 Temperature Stability: Temperature stability of the Zener diode is greatest at
5V.
 Voltage Tolerance: Voltage Tolerance for any Zener diode is normally ±5%
 Zener Resistance (Rz): The resistance exhibited by the Zener diode is called
Zener Resistance.

1.6 Voltage regulators using ICs 78xx, 79xx, and LM 317

The function of a voltage regulator is to maintain a constant DC voltage at the output

irrespective of voltage fluctuations at the input and (or) variations in the load current. In other
words, voltage regulator produces a regulated DC output voltage.

Voltage regulators are also available in Integrated Circuits (IC) forms. These are called
as voltage regulator ICs.

Types of Voltage Regulators

There are two types of voltage regulators −

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  Fixed voltage regulator
 Adjustable voltage regulator

Fixed voltage regulator

A fixed voltage regulator produces a fixed DC output voltage, which is either positive or
negative. In other words, some fixed voltage regulators produce positive fixed DC voltage
values, while others produce negative fixed DC voltage values.

78xx voltage regulator ICs produce positive fixed DC voltage values, whereas, 79xx voltage
regulator ICs produce negative fixed DC voltage values.

The following points are to be noted while working with 78xx and 79xx voltage regulator ICs

 “xx” corresponds to a two-digit number and represents the amount (magnitude) of

voltage that voltage regulator IC produces.
 Both 78xx and 79xx voltage regulator ICs have 3 pins each and the third pin is used
for collecting the output from them.
 The purpose of the first and second pins of these two types of ICs is different −
o The first and second pins of 78xx voltage regulator ICs are used for
connecting the input and ground respectively.
o The first and second pins of 79xx voltage regulator ICs are used for
connecting the ground and input respectively.

Examples
 7805 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of +5 volts.
 7905 voltage regulator IC produces a DC voltage of -5 volts.

The following figure shows how to produce a fixed positive voltage at the output by using a
fixed positive voltage regulator with necessary connections.

In the above figure that shows a fixed positive voltage regulator, the input capacitor Ci is
used to prevent unwanted oscillations and the output capacitor, C0 acts as a line filter to
improve transient response.

Note − an get a fixed negative voltage at the output by using a fixed negative voltage
regulator with suitable connections.

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Adjustable voltage regulator

An adjustable voltage regulator produces a DC output voltage, which can be adjusted to any
other value of certain voltage range. Hence, adjustable voltage regulator is also called as
a variable voltage regulator.

The DC output voltage value of an adjustable voltage regulator can be either positive or
negative.

LM317 voltage regulator IC

LM317 voltage regulator IC can be used for producing a desired positive fixed DC voltage
value of the available voltage range.

LM317 voltage regulator IC has 3 pins. The first pin is used for adjusting the output voltage,
second pin is used for collecting the output and third pin is used for connecting the input.

The adjustable pin (terminal) is provided with a variable resistor which lets the output to vary
between a wide range.

The above figure shows an unregulated power supply driving a LM 317 voltage regulator IC,
which is commonly used. This IC can supply a load current of 1.5A over an adjustable output
range of 1.25 V to 37 V.

The 78xx, 79xx, and LM317 are popular voltage regulators used to provide stable DC output
voltages. Here's a comparison of their key features, applications, and differences:

Feature 78xx Series 79xx Series LM317

Type Positive fixed Negative fixed Adjustable voltage
voltage regulator voltage regulator regulator
Output Voltage 5V, 6V, 8V, 9V, -5V, -6V, -8V, -9V, - Adjustable from 1.25V to
Range 12V, 15V, 18V, 12V, -15V, -18V, - 37V
24V (fixed) 24V (fixed)
Input Voltage Typically up to Typically up to -35V 3V above the output
Range 35V (for most (for most models) voltage up to 40V
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 models)
Current Typically up to 1A Typically up to 1A Adjustable, typically up to
Capability (higher with (higher with 1.5A (higher with
heatsinking) heatsinking) heatsinking)
Application Provides a stable Provides a stable Provides an adjustable
positive voltage for negative voltage for positive or negative
devices devices voltage, suitable for flexible
applications
Pin 3 pins (Input, 3 pins (Input, 3 pins (Input, Adjust,
Configuration Ground, Output) Ground, Output) Output)
Circuit Simple (minimal Simple (minimal Requires two resistors to set
Complexity external external the output voltage, and
components) components) additional capacitors for
stability
Thermal Yes, includes Yes, includes Yes, includes internal
Protection internal protection internal protection protection
Short-Circuit Yes Yes Yes
Protection

Applications and Use Cases

1. 78xx Series:
o Used for providing stable positive voltages in low-power applications.
o Commonly found in consumer electronics, microcontroller circuits, and
embedded systems.
2. 79xx Series:
o Used to provide stable negative voltages, often required in dual supply circuits
for op-amps or audio equipment.
3. LM317:
o Ideal for applications where adjustable or custom voltage levels are needed.
o Widely used in lab power supplies, battery chargers, and any circuit requiring
flexibility in output voltage.

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