International University of Technology

Twintech

Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology

Operating Systems

Edited by: Dr. Amin Mohamed Shayea

 Chapter 2: Operating-System
Structures

Operating System Concepts – 10th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

 Operating System Services

 User Operating System Interface
 System Calls
 Types of System Calls
 System Programs
 Operating System Design and Implementation
 Operating System Structure
 Operating System Debugging
 Operating System Generation
 System Boot

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Objectives

 To describe the services an operating system provides

to users, processes, and other systems
 To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating
system
 To explain how operating systems are installed
and customized and how they boot

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Services

User interface

Program execution

I/O Operations

Files-system manipulation
System
Operating

Communication

Error detection

Resource allocation

Accounting

Protection and Security

Lecturer: Dr. Amin M. Shayea

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Services

 Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs

and services to programs and users
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are
helpful to the user:
 User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI).
 Varies between Command-Line Interpreter (CLI), Graphics
User Interface (GUI), Batch
 Program execution - The system must be able to load a
program into memory and to run that program, end execution,
either normally or abnormally (indicating error)
 I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Services (Cont.)
 One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the user
(Cont.):
 File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
 Programs need to
– read or write files and directories,
– create or delete them,
– search them, list file Information, permission management.
 Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network
 Communications may be via
– shared memory or
– message passing (packets moved by the OS)
 Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
 May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program
 For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure correct
and consistent computing
 Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s abilities to
efficiently use the system

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Services (Cont.)

 Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the system
itself via resource sharing
 Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
 Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage, I/O
devices.
 Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of
computer resources
 User , resource type, the amount of resource.
 Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or
networked computer system may want to control use of that information,
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
 Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
 Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends
to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 A View of Operating System Services

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 User Operating System Interface

Batch

Shayea

CLI
User OS

interface GUI

Voice command

Lecturer: Dr. Amin M.

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Deskto

p Touch

screen

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 User Operating System Interface - CLI

CLI or command Line interpreter allows direct command entry

 Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems

program

 Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells

 Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it

 Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of

programs.

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Command Line Interpreter
Bourne Shell

Power Shell

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 User Operating System Interface - GUI

 User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

 Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor

 Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc

 Invented at Xerox PARC

 Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces

 Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell

 Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX

kernel underneath and shells available

 Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces

(CDE, KDE, GNOME)

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 The Mac OS X GUI
1983: Apple Lisa 1984: Apple color Macintosh

1984: Apple Macintosh

2000: Apple Aqua

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 The Unix/ Linux
1997: CDE 1999: GNOME 1.0

1998: KDE 1.0 2011. Gnome 3

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 The Microsoft Windows
1990: Windows 3.0
1995: Windows 95

1993 Windows NT, 32-bit OS 2015: Windows 10

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Touchscreen Interfaces

 Touchscreen devices require new

interfaces
 Mouse not possible or not desired
 Actions and selection based
on gestures
 Virtual keyboard for text entry
 Voice commands.

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Calls

 Programming interface to the services provided by the OS

 Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)

 Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application

Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use

 Three most common APIs are:

 Win32 API for Windows,

 POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually

all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X), and

 Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Example of System Calls

 System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Example of Standard API

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Call Implementation

 Typically, a number associated with each system call

 System-call interface maintains a table indexed according
to these numbers
 The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
 Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as
a result call
 Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
 Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built
into libraries included with compiler)

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 API – System Call – OS Relationship

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Call Parameter Passing

 Often, more information is required than simply identity of

desired system call
 Exact type and amount of information vary according to
OS and call
 Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
Simplest: pass the parameters in registers

 In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
 Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and
address of block passed as a parameter in a register
This approach taken by Linux and Solaris

 Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the
program and popped off the stack by the operating system
 Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length
of parameters being passed

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Parameter Passing via Table

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Types of System Calls

 Process control
 create process, terminate process
 end, abort
 load, execute
 get process attributes, set process attributes
 wait for time
 wait event, signal event
 allocate and free memory
 Dump memory if error
 Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
 Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Types of System Calls

 File management
 create file, delete file
 open, close file
 read, write, reposition
 get and set file attributes
 Device management
 request device, release device
 read, write, reposition
 get device attributes, set device attributes
 logically attach or detach devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

 Information maintenance
 get time or date, set time or date
 get system data, set system data
 get and set process, file, or device attributes
 Communications
 create, delete communication connection
 send, receive messages if message passing model to host
name or process name
 From client to server
 Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory
regions
 transfer status information
 attach and detach remote devices

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

 Protection
 Control access to resources
 Get and set permissions
 Allow and deny user access

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Standard C Library Example

 C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Example: MS-DOS

 Single-tasking
 Shell invoked when
system booted
 Simple method to run
program
 No process created
 Single memory space
 Loads program into memory,
overwriting all but the kernel
 Program exit -> shell
reloaded

At system startup running a program

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Example: FreeBSD

 Unix variant
 Multitasking
 User login -> invoke user’s choice of
shell
 Shell executes fork() system call to create
process
 Executes exec() to load program
into process
 Shell waits for process to terminate or
continues with user commands
 Process exits with:
 code = 0 – no error
 code > 0 – error code

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Programs

 System programs provide a convenient environment for

program development and execution. They can be divided into:
 File manipulation

 Status information sometimes stored in a File modification

 Programming language support

 Program loading and execution

 Communications

 Background services

 Application programs
 Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system
programs, not the actual system calls

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Programs

 Some of System Programs are simply user interfaces to system calls;

others are considerably more complex

 File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and
generally manipulate files and directories

 Status information
 Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available
memory, disk space, number of users
 Others provide detailed performance, logging, and
debugging information
 Typically, these programs format and print the output to the
terminal or other output devices
 Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve
configuration information

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Programs (Cont.)

 File modification
 Text editors to create and modify files
 Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text
 Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers, debuggers
and interpreters sometimes provided
 Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable loaders,
linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems for higher-level
and machine language
 Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual
connections among processes, users, and computer systems
 Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens, browse web
pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer files
from one machine to another

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Programs (Cont.)

 Background Services
 Launch at boot time
 Some for system startup, then terminate

 Some from system boot to shutdown

 Provide facilities like disk checking, process scheduling, error logging,

printing
 Run in user context not kernel context
 Known as services, subsystems, daemons

 Application programs
 Don’t pertain to system
 Run by users
 Not typically considered part of OS
 Launched by command line, mouse click, finger poke

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Design and Implementation

 Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some

approaches have proven successful

 Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely

 Start the design by defining goals and specifications

 Affected by choice of hardware, type of system

 User goals and System goals

 User goals – operating system should be convenient to use, easy
to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
 System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Implementation

 Much variation
 Early OSes in assembly language
 Then system programming languages like Algol, PL/1
 Now C, C++
 Actually usually a mix of languages
 Lowest levels in assembly
 Main body in C
 Systems programs in C, C++, scripting languages like
PERL, Python, shell scripts
 More high-level language easier to port to other hardware
 But slower
 Emulation can allow an OS to run on non-native hardware

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Design and Implementation

User goal

Goals

Design System goals

Specifications

Assembly
OS Design & Implementation
Early

Algol, Pl/1, c/c++

Implementation
Mixed: Assembly, c/c++, perl, python
Modern

Emulation

Lecturer: Dr. Amin M. Shayea

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Structure

 General-purpose OS is very large program

 Various ways to structure ones

 Simple structure – MS-DOS

 More complex -- UNIX

 Layered – an abstraction

 Microkernel -Mach

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Simple Structure -- MS-DOS

 MS-DOS – written to provide the

most functionality in the least
space
 Not divided into modules
 Although MS-DOS has some
structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not
well separated

MS-DOS: It stands for "Microsoft Disk Operating System",

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Non Simple Structure -- UNIX

UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating

system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two separable
parts
 Systems programs
 The kernel
 Consists of everything below the system-call interface and
above the physical hardware
 Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a large
number of functions for one level

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Traditional UNIX System Structure

Beyond simple but not fully layered

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Layered Approach

 The operating system is divided

into a number of layers (levels),

each built on top of lower
layers. The bottom layer (layer
0), is the hardware; the highest
(layer N) is the user interface.

 With modularity, layers are

selected such that each

uses functions (operations)
and services of only lower-
level
layers
Ex: Microsoft Windows NT

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Microkernel System Structure

 Moves as much from the kernel into user space

 Mach example of microkernel
 Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
 Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
 Benefits:
 Easier to extend a microkernel
 Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
 More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
 More secure
 Detriments:
 Performance overhead of user space to kernel space communication

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Microkernel System Structure

Application Program File System Device Driver user

mode

messages messages

Interprocess Communication memory managment CPU kernel

scheduling mode

microkernel

hardware

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Modules

 Many modern operating systems implement loadable kernel modules

 Uses object-oriented approach

 Each core component is separate

 Each talks to the others over known interfaces

 Each is loadable as needed within the kernel

 Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible

 Linux, Solaris, etc

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Solaris Modular Approach

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Hybrid Systems

 Most modern operating systems are actually not one pure model
 Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address
performance, security, usability needs
 Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so monolithic,
plus modular for dynamic loading of functionality
 Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different subsystem
personalities
 Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa programming
environment
 Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix
parts, plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called kernel
extensions)

Berkeley Software Distribution

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Mac OS X Structure

graphical user interface

Aqua

application environments and services

Java Cocoa Quicktime BSD

kernel environment
BSD

Mach

I/O kit kernel extensions

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 iOS

 Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad

 Structured on Mac OS X, added functionality
 Does not run OS X applications natively
 Also runs on different CPU architecture (ARM
vs. Intel)
 Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for developing apps
 Media services layer for graphics, audio, video
 Core services provides cloud computing,
databases
 Core operating system, based on Mac OS X
kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Android
 Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
 Open Source
 Similar stack to IOS
 Based on Linux kernel but modified
 Provides process, memory, device-driver management
 Adds power management
 Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik
virtual machine
 Apps developed in Java plus Android API
 Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated
to executable than runs in Dalvik VM
 Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit), database
(SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc

Dalvik is System software; C , C++

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Android Architecture

Libraries Application Android runtime

Framework
SQLite openGL Core Libraries

surface managermedia framework Dalvik virtual machine

webkit libc

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating-System Debugging

 Debugging is finding and fixing errors, or bugs

 OS generate log files containing error information
 Failure of an application can generate core dump file capturing memory of
the process
 Operating system failure can generate crash dump file containing kernel
memory
 Beyond crashes, performance tuning can optimize system performance
 Sometimes using trace listings of activities, recorded for analysis
 Profiling is periodic sampling of instruction pointer to look for
statistical trends

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Performance Tuning

 Improve performance by

removing bottlenecks

 OS must provide means of

computing and displaying

measures of system
behavior

 For example, “top” program

or Windows Task Manager

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 DTrace

 DTrace tool in Solaris,

FreeBSD, Mac OS X allows
live instrumentation on
production systems
 Probes fire when code is
executed within a provider,
capturing state data and
sending it to consumers of
those probes

 Example of following
XEventsQueued system call
move from libc library to
kernel and back

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Dtrace (Cont.)

DTrace code to record amount of time each process with UserID 101 is in running m

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Operating System Generation

 Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines;

the system must be configured for each specific computer site

 SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific

configuration of the hardware system

 Used to build system-specific compiled kernel or system-tuned

 Can general more efficient code than one general kernel

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Boot

 When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory

location
 Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
 Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware
can start it
 Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, stored in ROM or EEPROM
locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
 Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location
loaded by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader from disk
 Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel from multiple
disks, versions, kernel options
 Kernel loads and system is then running

GRUB (GRand Unified Bootloader)

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 System Boot

Linux Boot Process

Operating System Concepts – 9th 2. Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 10th Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne