The BCA World

Computer Networks
BCA 201: Notes

UNIT 1
A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers that allows them to
communicate and share resources, data, and applications.

Basic Concepts
Components of data communication:
Data Communication is defined as exchange of data between two
devices via some form of transmission media such as a cable, wire or it
can be air or vacuum also.

Components-
1) Message
2) Sender
3) Receiver
4) Transmission Medium
5) Set of Rules (Protocols)

Distributed processing:
Distributed processing in computer networks involves multiple interconnected
computers collaborating to solve a task or process data. This method enhances
performance, fault tolerance, and scalability. Tasks are divided among the networked
computers, with each node processing its portion independently and exchanging
data when necessary.

Used in-
1) Distributed databases
2) Cloud computing
3) Content Delivery Networks (CDNs)

Line configuration:
A network is two or more devices connected by a link, which is a communication
pathway that transfers data between devices. Devices can be computers, printers, or
any other device that can send and receive data. For visualization, imagine any link
as a line drawn between two points.
Features-
1) Point-to-Point
2) Multipoint
3) Star
4) Mesh

Connections-
1) Point-to-Point
2) Multipoint

Topology:
A network topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other. It defines both the physical and logical aspects
of the network, which may be the same or different for a particular network.

Types-
1) Point-to-Point
2) Bus
3) Star
4) Tree
5) Ring
6) Mesh
7) Daisy Chain
8) Hybrid

Transmission mode:
Transmission mode is the method by which data is transferred between devices. It is
also known as communication mode and is defined by the physical layer of the
network.

It determines the direction of data flow, which can be-

1) Simplex mode
2) Half-duplex mode
3) Full-duplex mode

Categories of networks:
A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers that allows them to
communicate and share resources, data, and applications.

Categories-
1) LAN (Local Area Network)
2) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3) WAN (Wide Area Network)
4) PAN (Personal Area Network)
5) CAN (Campus Area Network)

OSI Model and TCP/IP Models

Layers and their functions:

OSI Models-
1) Physical Layer

Functions:
a. Bit Synchronization
b. Bit rate control
c. Physical topologies
d. Transmission Mode

2) Data Link Layer

Functions:
a. Framing
b. Physical Addressing
c. Error Control
d. Flow control
e. Access Control

3) Network Layer
Functions:
a. Routing
b. Logical Addressing

4) Transport Layer
Functions:
a. Segmentation and Reassembly
b. Service Point Addressing

5) Session Layer
Functions:
a. Session Establishment, Maintenance and Termination
b. Synchronization
c. Dialog Controller
 6) Presentation Layer
Functions:
a. Translation
b. Encryption and Decryption
c. Compression

7) Application Layer
Functions:
a. Network Virtual Terminal
b. FTAM or File transfer access and management
c. Mail services
d. Directory services

TCP/IP Models-
1) Application Layer
2) Transport Layer
3) Internet Layer
4) Network Access Layer

Comparison of models:

Similarities between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model-

 OSI and TCP/IP are logical network models.
 Both models describe the process of information transmission between
devices on a network.
 They define a layered approach, with each layer having specific functions.
 Encapsulation is a key concept in both models, where data is packaged into
headers and trailers to convey information about the data and its network
handling.

Differences between OSI Model and TCP/IP Model-

Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model

Full Form OSI stands for Open Systems TCP/IP stands for Transmission
Interconnection. Control Protocol/Internet
 Protocol.

Layers It has 7 layers. It has 4 layers.

Usage It is low in usage. It is mostly used.

Approach It is vertically approached. It is horizontally approached.

Delivery Delivery of the package is Delivery of the package is not

guaranteed in OSI Model. guaranteed in the TCP/IP
Model.

Replacemen Replacement of tools and Replacing the tools is not easy

t changes can easily be done in as it is in OSI Model.
this model.

Reliability It is less reliable than the It is more reliable than the OSI
TCP/IP Model. Model.

Transmission Media
 Transmission media are the physical channels through which data is
transmitted from one device to another.
 They include wired media like twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber
optic cables, as well as wireless media like radio waves, microwaves, and
infrared radiation.
 The choice of transmission media depends on factors such as data rate,
distance, and security requirements.

unguided:
Unguided media-
It is also known as wireless or unbounded transmission media, utilizes
electromagnetic waves without the need for a physical medium. It broadcasts
signals through the air, offering less security but covering larger distances.
Types-
 1) Radio waves
2) Microwaves
3) Infrared

Unit 2
Telephony
Telephony is the technology that enables the transmission of voice communication over a
distance. It encompasses the various methods and devices used to make and receive phone
calls, including traditional landline phones, mobile phones, and internet-based telephony
services.

Multiplexing:

Multiplexing
It is a technique that combines multiple data streams into a single
transmission channel. The device that performs multiplexing is called a
multiplexer (MUX). Multiplexing typically follows a many-to-one approach,
meaning that multiple input lines are combined into a single output line.

Demultiplexing
It is the reverse process of multiplexing. It separates a single transmission
channel into its original data streams. The device that performs demultiplexing
is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX). Demultiplexing typically follows a one-to-
many approach, meaning that a single input line is divided into multiple output
lines.

WDM:
Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) is a technique that combines multiple
optical signals onto a single fiber optic cable by using different wavelengths of laser
light. WDM allows for bidirectional communication over a single fiber strand,
significantly increasing the transmission capacity of fiber optic networks.

Categories of WDM-
 Course WDM (CWDM)
 Dense WDM (DWDM)
TDM:
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a transmission technique that divides a
communication channel into multiple time slots, each assigned to a different signal.
Unlike Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), TDM signals operate at the same
frequency but at different times, allowing for parallel transmission.
Types of TDM-
1. Synchronous TDM
2. Asynchronous (or statistical) TDM

FDM:
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) is a technique that transmits multiple signals
simultaneously using different frequency bands. Each signal is assigned a specific
frequency range to prevent interference. Guard bands are used to further isolate
adjacent channels. FDM is commonly used in radio and TV broadcasting.

Application of FDM-
 In the first generation of mobile phones, FDM was used.
 The use of FDM in television broadcasting
 FDM is used to broadcast FM and AM radio frequencies.

Comparison between WDM, TDM and FDM

Feature WDM TDM FDM

Frequency band
Technique Optical signal multiplexing Time slot multiplexing
multiplexing
Electrical or optical
Medium Fiber optic cable Radio or optical fiber
cable
Signal Type Optical Electrical or optical Analog or digital

Telephony, data Radio and TV

Fiber optic networks, long-
Applications networks, computer broadcasting, mobile
distance communication
networks phone networks
Circuit switching and message switching:

Circuit Switching
In circuit switching, a dedicated communication channel is established
between the sender and receiver before data transmission begins. This
dedicated path ensures a constant bit delay and a guaranteed data rate. Time
division multiplexing (TDM) and frequency division multiplexing (FDM) are two
techniques used to multiplex multiple signals onto a single carrier. TDM
divides a communication channel into time slots, while FDM divides the
frequency spectrum into channels.

Message Switching
Message switching is a data transmission technique that sends entire
messages, not packets, through intermediate nodes. Each node stores the
 entire message before forwarding it, ensuring reliable delivery. This method is
ideal for applications where data integrity is crucial, like email and file transfer.

Characteristics-
 Store and forward
 Message delivery

Unit 3
Network Layer
The Network Layer plays a crucial role in data delivery, acting as a bridge between the
transport layer and data link layer to ensure packets reach their destination effectively. It
translates logical addresses into physical ones, determines optimal routes, manages traffic
flow, and ultimately moves packets from sender to receiver.

Internetworking & Devices:

 Repeaters
Repeaters serve as signal boosters within the physical layer of the OSI model,
ensuring clear and strong communication across network segments. These 2-
port devices connect cable segments, regenerate weakened signals to their
original strength, and sometimes even amplify signals to optimal amplitudes
for seamless transmission.

 Hubs
Operating at the physical layer of the OSI model, hubs act as central
connection points for Ethernet devices, forming a single network segment.
They function as simple signal distributors, broadcasting incoming data
packets to all connected ports simultaneously. This broadcast nature makes
them efficient for small networks, but unsuitable for larger or complex setups
due to limitations like inability to filter or address packets, and increased risk
of collisions.
Despite offering different types like
 active,
 passive, and
 intelligent hubs,
their lack of advanced capabilities has led to their widespread replacement by
switches in modern networks.

 Bridges
Bridges operate at the data link layer of the OSI model, serving as intelligent
traffic regulators within networks. They analyze the hardware addresses of
data packets to determine their destinations and selectively forward them to
 the appropriate network segments, reducing overall traffic and enhancing
efficiency. This selective forwarding capability also enables bridges to be
programmed to block packets from specific networks, providing a degree of
security and control.

 Switches
Switches, the evolved version of hubs, operate at one or more OSI model
layers – primarily the data link and network layers. Unlike hubs that blindly
broadcast all data, switches intelligently read incoming packets, analyze their
destination addresses, and forward them only to the intended recipient port.
This selective delivery reduces network traffic, minimizes collisions, and
boosts performance. Additionally, some switches can even check for errors
before forwarding, further enhancing data integrity and efficiency. This
advanced functionality positions switches as superior alternatives to simple
hubs in modern networks.

 Router
Routers, the intelligent navigators of the network world, operate at the network
layer to seamlessly connect multiple networks, including LANs and WANs.
They act as sophisticated traffic directors, analyzing incoming data packets' IP
addresses, consulting dynamically updated routing tables, and intelligently
forwarding those packets towards their intended destinations across the
internetwork. Routers also efficiently divide broadcast domains, enhancing
network performance, and can even connect distinct logical subnets with
different subnetwork addresses.
They come in two primary types:
 static routers, which rely on manual configuration and fixed routing
tables, and
 dynamic routers, which employ adaptive routing techniques to flexibly
choose optimal paths based on current network conditions.

 Gateway
Gateways act as versatile translators and bridges between diverse networks,
enabling communication even when they operate with different protocols.
These versatile devices can be implemented as software, hardware, or a
blend of both, and they have the unique ability to function at any layer of the
OSI model. Broadband routers commonly serve as network gateways, but
even ordinary computers can be configured to perform gateway duties. By
expertly routing data between networks, gateways serve as essential
facilitators of communication across diverse digital landscapes.
  Modems
Modems, serving as bridges between the digital and analog worlds, play a
crucial role in data communication. Their name aptly reflects their function as
"Modulation Demodulators," converting digital signals from computers into
analog signals for transmission over phone lines or cable networks.
They come in two primary forms:
 standard modems, which use generic device drivers and can be
installed internally within a computer's expansion slot or connected
externally through a COM port and null-modem cable, and
 Windows modems, which are designed specifically for Windows
operating systems and require specialized device drivers for optimal
performance.

Addressing:
Network addressing, a crucial responsibility of the network layer, involves assigning logical,
software-based addresses to devices for communication. Hosts, as end systems with single
network connections, have one interface and one corresponding address. Routers, however,
act as crossroads with multiple links, requiring an address for each interface to enable
efficient packet forwarding. These 32-bit IP addresses are typically represented in dot-
decimal notation (e.g., 193.32.216.9), with each section signifying a byte of the address.

 IPv4 and IPv6 addressing

 IPv4, the current standard for IP addresses, uses a 32-bit format comprising four
numbers (octets) separated by dots, offering a capacity of 4 billion unique addresses.
However, with expanding internet usage, IPv6 has emerged as the next-generation
protocol to address this limitation. It utilizes a 128-bit hexadecimal address structure,
enabling a vastly larger address space of over 340 undecillion possibilities. This
enhanced capacity is represented using 8 sets of 16 bits each, separated by colons.
To ensure a smooth transition, IPv6 offers strategies like dual stacking, tunneling,
and network address translation, allowing IPv4-enabled devices to communicate with
IPv6 networks and vice versa.

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address size 32 bits 128 bits
Decimal (e.g., Hexadecimal (e.g.,
Notation 66.94.29.13) 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334)
Number of
possible
addresses 4.3 billion 340 undecillion (3.4 x 10 )
38

4 octets
separated by
Octet structure periods 8 sets of 16 bits separated by colons
Header
complexity More complex Simpler
Transition Dual stacking,
strategies tunneling, NAT -
Current usage Most common Gradually growing
Main advantage Widely deployed Vast address space
Limited address
Main disadvantage space Not yet fully deployed

 IPv4 subnetting;
 Subnetting, a technique within IPv4 addressing, offers flexibility in network
design by allowing the creation of smaller sub-networks within a single IP
address class. It overcomes the limitations of classful IP addressing, which
restricts the number of networks and hosts per class. CIDR (Classless Inter
Domain Routing) enables subnetting by borrowing bits from the host part of
an IP address and using them to create network segments. This technique
can be applied to Class A, B, and C addresses, with Class C typically used for
smaller networks due to its limited capacity of 254 hosts.

 Routing:

 Unicast Routing Protocols:

 RIP

 OSPF

 BGP;
