COMPUTER NETWORKING

& COMMUNICATIONS

LARRY L.PETERSON
BRUCE S. DAVIE
 INTRODUCTION

• What do mean by NETWORKS?

 Sharing information

 Interconnected collection of autonomous

computers.

 Copper wire, fiber optics, microwave links

communication satellites.
 GOALS OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

 Resource Sharing

 High Reliability

 Saving Money

 Scalability

 Communication Medium
 The client-server model

• Client machine Server machine

Client Server
process process

Request

Response
 BUILDING OF CN CRITERIA

COMPUTER NETWORK CRITERIA

PERFORMANCE RELIABILITY SECURITY

No.of users
Frequency of a failure Unauthorized access
Type of Transmission
Recovery time of a n/w Virus
medium
after failure
Hardware
Catastrophe
software
 APPLICATIONS OF CN
 Marketing and sales
 Financial Services
 Manufacturing
 Electronics Messaging
 Directory Services
 Information Services
 Electronic Data Interchange(EDI)
 Teleconferencing
 Cellular Telephone
 Cable Television
 REQUIREMENTS TO BUILD CN

 Connectivity (or) Transmission technology

 Network Topology (Cost Effective Network

Connection Structures)

 Transmission Modes

 Scale
Connectivity (or) Transmission technology

TRANSMISSION TECHNOLOGIES

POINT-TO-POINT MULTIPOINT BROADCAST

 point-to-point
(a)

(b)

multiple-access
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

MESH STAR TREE RING BUS HYBRID

Topology
Physically Appearance
Logically Data Flow

1)Mesh
point-to point
communication

Adv Disadv
becoz of PTP less traffic More no.of cables
More security more cost
fault identification and Installation and
fault isolation is easy reconfiguration is
difficult
 2)STAR
PTP link to a central pt
HUB
Hub

Adv Disadv
less expensive more cables,must be
connected to hub
easy to install & reconfigure if hub fails,total n/w
collapses
Robustness
3)Tree
Central hub,Secondary hub

Central hub

Hub Hub

Adv
more device attached to a
central hub
Allows n/w isolation &
prioritising
4)Ring
Disadv
unidirectional traffic

5) Bus linear transmission

Adv
less cabling

Disadv
fault or break in the bus
stops all transmissions
6) Hybrid
Multiple topologies
 Transmission Modes

TM

Simplex Half-Duplex Full-Duplex

 Scale

Networks

LAN MAN WAN

 Circuit Switching
• In Circuit switching a dedicated communication path, or circuit, is
established between two devices and no other devices can use it
while the session is in progress.
• Commonly used in voice communication and some types of data
communication.
Advantages:
• Guaranteed bandwidth : as dedicated path for communication exist
• Low latency : the path is predetermined & dedicated
• Predictable performance : there is no competition for resources
• Suitable for real-time communication
Disadvantages:
• Inefficient use of bandwidth
• Limited scalability
• High cost
 Switched Networks

■■■

Circuit Switched Packet Switched

 Packet Switching
• In Packet switching data is divided into smaller units called packets and
transmitted over the network.
• Each packet contains the source and destination addresses, & other
information needed for routing.
• The packets may take different paths to reach their destination, and they
may be transmitted out of order or delayed due to network congestion.
Advantages:
• Efficient use of bandwidth
• Flexible: can handle a wide range of data rates and packet sizes.
• Scalable: can handle large amounts of traffic on a network.
• Lower cost: resources are shared among multiple users.
Disadvantages:
• Higher latency, Packet loss, Unsuitable for real-time communication
 Connection Oriented Connectionless oriented

It establishes the connection no Connection

All packets will transmit on Routing algm is used
that path so,each packet may route in
only starting packets contains diff path

source and destination address All packets must contain

both address
packets received at the
destination are in the same order order may not be same
Relaible,acknowledgements Unreliable
If connection fails,entire msg loss of only those
is lost packet,rest reach correctly
Slow speed,becoz of single Speed is high,becoz of
connection several paths
 Internetworking
• To interconnect two or
more networks, one needs a
gateway or router.
• Host-to-host connectivity is
only possible if there’s a
uniform addressing scheme
and a routing mechanism.
• Messages can be sent to a
single destination (unicast),
to multiple destinations
(multicast), or to all
possible destinations
(broadcast).
 Sharing a Link

L1 R1

L2 R2
Switch 1 Switch 2

L3 multiplex demultiplex R3

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

•Multiplexing is a process in which various data signals are
integrated to give a single output.
Demultiplexing is a process in which one input data signal is
divided into various output signals.
 Bit rate and Baud rate
• Bit rate or data rate: number of bits transmitted
over a period of time (bit per second)

• Baud rate: number of signals transmitted over a

period of time (baud)
 Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing (STDM)

L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3 L1 L2 L3
time

one time unit one time unit one time unit one time unit

Divide time into equal-sized quanta and assign each them to

flows on the physical link in round-robin fashion.

TDM works well with both analog as well as digital signals,

but mostly used in digital communications only
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
L1 L2 L3

frequency spectrum

All flows are transmitted simultaneously on the link, but

each one uses a different frequency.

FDM is meant for analog signals

 Statistical Multiplexing

queue

switch

Each flow is broken into packets and sent to a switch, which can
deal with the arriving packets according to a policy (FIFO,
round-robin, etc).
 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE (or MODELS)

OSI Architecture TCP/IP

(Internet Architecture)
OSI
It is just a Framework where vendors keep in mind and develop
PROTOCOL and applications.
PROTOCOL
It is set of RULES and CONVENTIONS that follows while
exchanging the information over n/w medium.
i.e what,how and when informn is communicated
The key elements of protocol are SYNTAX, SEMANTICS &
TIMING
 SYNTAX : It refers to structure or format of data
 SEMATICS : refers to meaning of each section of bits
 TIMING : It refers to 2 characteristics:
When data should be sent and how fast it can be sent
 The ISO/OSI Reference Model

ISO: International Standards Organization

OSI: Open Systems Interconnection
Application
The protocol stack:
Presentation
Session
The idea behind the model:
•Break up the design to make Transport
implementation simpler.
•Each layer has a well-defined function. Network
•Layers pass to one another only the
information that is relevant at each level. Data link
•Communication happens only between
adjacent layers. Physical
Communication Between Layers in Different Hosts
sender receiver
data data

AH data
Application Application
PH data
Presentation Presentation
Session SH data Session
TH data
Transport Transport
NH data
Network Network
DH data DT
Data link Data link
BITS
Physical Physical
 There are 7 layers
 Divided in 2 categories
– Upper layer
– Lower layer

 Upper layers deals with Application issues and is only implemented

in s/w
 Lower layers handle Data Transport Issue.
1) Physical layer
 Lowest layer
 It is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
medium i.e Data is converted to 0’s & 1’s
 It deals with the mechanical & electrical specification of n/w medium
2) Data Link Layer
Physical layer’s 0’s & 1’s organized into Frames
It adds meaningful bits at the beginning(Header) and end (Trailer)
that contains address  source +destination address
control information  frame length+indication of upper-layer protocol
Provides Node-to Node delivery
Addressing  Header+trailer contains address of the most recent
and next intended node
3) Network Layer
 Responsible for source-to-destination delivery of a packet
 Provides 2 services:
a) Switching  temporary connection b/w physical links
b) Routing  selecting best path from many paths

 Congestion Control  NL controls the traffic by various techniques

4) Transport Layer
 Transport layer accomplishes delivery through:
– Acknowledgement msgs
– Sequence msgs
– Flow Control
The basic function of the TRANSPORT LAYER is to accept
data from SESSION LAYER
split it up into smaller units pass these to n/w layer and ensure
that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
The TL will add header information
And segment is called TPDU(Transport Protocol Data Unit)
All the segments have sequence numbers
It provides COS & CLS (Connection-oriented service and
Connection-less) services to session layer as well as Transport
service users
Crash Recovery
5) Session Layer
SPDU(Session Protocol Data Unit)
Dialog Controller Manage traffic
Synchronization

6) Presentation Layer
PPDU(Presentation Protocol Data unit)
Encryption + Decryption of data for security purpose
Compression is done at sending end to reduce memory
size+increase speed of transmission
Decompression is done at receiving end
7) Application Layer
Enables the user  human or s/w to access n/w
Provides UI & support for services like e-mail ,remote file
access & transfer, shared DBMS
APDU(Application Protocol Data Unit)
TCP/IP (INTERNET ARCHITECTURE)
TCP/IP (INTERNET ARCHITECTURE)
 Protocols and networks in TCP/IP

1)Internet Layer
Unreliable,Connectionless Service
2) Transport Layer

2 protocol

TCP
UDP
Transport Control Protocol
User Datagram Protocol
Connection-oriented
Connectionless Protocol
Protocol
Unreliable
Establishes
connection,path,termination Only delivery is imp
Data unit in TCP is called User datagram
segment
3) The Application Layer
Range of appln protocols such as
FTP(File Transfer Transport Protocol)
TFTP(Trivial File Transport Protocol)
Telnetvirtual connection
SMTP(Simple Mail Tranfer Protocol)

4)Host-to Network Layer

The protocol varies from host to host, n/w to n/w
 IMPLEMENTING NETWORK SOFTWARE

• Network architecture and protocol specifications are

essential things
• Implementing a network appln is done with
API(Application Programming Interface)
• Socket Interface provided by Berkeley distribution of
Unix (flavor of Unix), popular in all OS
• Protocol: set of services
• Socket
• Interface
 Physical Layer

Data Communication and

Computer Networks

45
 Transmission Media

Adapted from lecture slides by Behrouz A. Forouzan

© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved
Physical Layer

or air (in case of wireless)

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Classes of Transmission Media

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 Guided Media
• Provide a conduit from one device to
another
• Include
– twisted-pair cables
– coaxial cables
– fiber-optic cables

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 Twisted-Pair Cable

Allows analog and digital communication 50

 UTP and STP Cables

UTP – Unshielded Twisted Pair STP –Shielded Twisted Pair

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 UTP
Advantages Disadvantages
•It is economical and easy •Suffer from external
to use electromagnetic
•It cheap, flexible and easy interference
to install
•Used in LAN technologies
like Ethernet and token ring

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 STP
• Advantages • Disadvantages
• Less susceptible to • It costs more than
noise UTP
• It avoids crosstalk • STP is heavier and is
harder to install
• It is less flexible

Note: Crosstalk is a type of noise signal that corrupts the actual signal while
transmission through the communication medium.
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Categories of UTP/STP Cables

Category Bandwidth Digital/Analog Use

1 very low Analog Telephone

2 < 2 MHz Analog/digital 4Mbps token ring
3 16 MHz Digital 10-100 Mbps Ethernet
4 20 MHz Digital 16 Mbps token ring
5 100 MHz Digital 100 – 1000 Mbps Ethernet
5E 100 MHz Digital 100 – 1000 Mbps Ethernet
6 250 MHz Digital 1 – 10 Gbps Ethernet
6A 500 MHz Digital 1 – 10 Gbps Ethernet
7 600 MHz Digital 10 Gbps Ethernet
7A 1000 MHz Digital 40-100 Gbps Ethernet

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UTP Connectors

RJ – Registered Jack

Keyed connector can be

connected only in one way
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 Applications

• Telephone lines – voice + data channels

• Subscribers to central office - UTP

56
 Adv Disadv
• Thin • High attenuation –
repeaters every 5km
• Flexible
• Installation costly
• Less prone to
damage • Wires have scope of
leakage
• Familiar technology

57
Coaxial Cable
Outer conductor act as
shield against noise
and crosstalk

58
 Categories of Coaxial Cables

RG – Radio Government

It provides higher data rate compared to twisted pair and less signal
interference

59
 BNC Connectors
• Bayonet Network Connector
– Bayone-Neil-Concelman
• Used with coaxial cables

60
 Adv Disadv
• Greater BW compare • Damage from
to twisted pair lightning

• Lower error rates- • Problem with

reduce noise, deployment
crosstalk architecture –
Ethernet (bus
• Better performance topology)-congestion

61
 Optical Fiber
 Based on physics of light

62
Propagation Modes

63
Fiber Types

64
Fiber Construction

65
Fiber-Optic Cable Connectors

Subscriber Straight tip

connector

Mechanical Transfer 66
registered jack
 MT-RJ

Connect two optic fibres

67
 Advantages
• Large capacity due to BW
• No corrosion - glass
• Longer distances
• Lighter
• Faster transmission rate
• Repeaters needed after 50 km

68
 Disadv
• Damage easily – break easily
• Unfamiliar technology – skilled engineer
• Unidirectional light propagation
• Installation and maintenance is difficult
• Cables more expensive

69
 Unguided Media: Wireless
• Transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor
– Radio Waves
– Microwaves
– Infrared
• Often referred to as wireless
communication

70
Electromagnetic Spectrum

71
Propagation Methods

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 Wireless Transmission Waves

used for multicast/broadcast used for unicast communication used for short-range
communications, such as radio such as cellular telephones, communication in a closed
and television satellite networks, area using line-of-sight
and wireless LANs propagation

3kHz-1GHz 1-300GHz 300GHz- 73

400THz
 Antennas

Omni-directional Antenna Unidirectional Antennas

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 Satellite Networks

Orbits
Three Categories of Satellites
GEO Satellites
MEO Satellites
LEO Satellites
Satellite orbits
Figure 17.14 Satellite categories
Figure 17.15 Satellite orbit altitudes
 GPS - MEO

6 orbit,24
satellites
Figure 17.17 Triangulation
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