CHAPTER 1

VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

TRIVIA:
Francis Galton (1822-1911) first systematic, scientific attempt to both understand and measure human
intelligence. He believed that individual differences in intelligence reflect differences in the efficiency of
operation of simple neural processes. Intelligence is one the first psychological attributes to be defined and
measured.
Individual Differences in Human Functioning
Individual variation is:
• Common within and across all species
• Add colour and beauty to life
• It simply means people possess different combinations of traits

Variability is a fact of nature, and individuals are no exception to this. They vary in terms of psychological
dimensions. For e.g., they may be Intelligent or dull, Dominant or submissive, Creative or not so creative,
Outgoing or withdrawn, etc. Different traits can exist in varying degrees in individuals. In this sense, each one
of us is unique as s/he exemplifies a typical combination of various traits

Individual Differences refer to distinctiveness and variations among people’s

characteristics and behaviour patterns

While many psychologists believe that our behaviours are influenced by our personal traits, some others hold
the view that our behaviours are influenced more by situational factors.

Situationism: It states that situations and circumstances in which one is placed influence one’s behaviour. E.g.,
A person who is generally aggressive may behave in a submissive manner in front of his/her boss.
Sometimes, the situational influences are so powerful that individuals with differing personality traits respond
to them in almost the same ways. The situationist perspective views human behaviour relatively more as a
result of influence of external factors.

1. POSSIBLE QUESTIONS –
2. Explain the psychology of individual differences.
3. How and why people differ?
4. “Each one of us is unique.” Explain.
5. What are the perspectives on individual difference
6. Describe variation in human functioning.
7. Explain the nature of Variability in humans.

Assessment of Psychological Attributes

Assessment refers to the measurement of psychological attributes of individuals and their evaluation, often
using multiple methods in terms of certain standards of comparison. It is the first step in understanding a
psychological attribute.

Any attribute will be said to exist in a person only if it can be measured by using scientific procedures.

Assessment may be formal or informal.

1. Formal assessment: is objective, standardised, and organised.
2. Informal assessment: varies from case to case and from one assessor to another and, therefore, is open to
subjective interpretations.

Psychologist are trained in making formal assessments of psychological attributes. Predict human behaviour.

E.g., Knowing that xyz possess dominant traits, scientifically can help know that he is most likely to become an
authoritarian leader. If predicted consequence is not wanted, then interventions can be made to change xyz’s
behaviour.

Psychological assessments use systematic testing procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, and
personal qualities of individuals.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES:

Some domains of psychological attributes

• Psychological attributes are not linear or unidimensional.

• They are complex and expressed in terms of dimensions.
• They are multidimensional
• If you want to assess the complete individual, you need to assess how s/he functions in various domains
or areas, such as cognitive, emotional, social, etc.

Some of the major psychological attributes are:

1. Intelligence
o It is the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and
to deal effectively with her/his environment (Weschler).
o Intelligence tests provide a global measure of a person’s general cognitive competence including
the ability to profit from schooling.
o But success in life is not associated only with their intelligence test scores.

2. Aptitude
o It refers to an individual’s underlying potential for acquiring skills. Aptitude tests are used to
predict what an individual will be able to do if given proper environment and training.
o E.g. A person with high mechanical aptitude can profit from appropriate training and can do well
as an engineer.

3. Interest:
o It is an individual’s preference for engaging in one or more specific activities relative to others.
Assessment of interests of students may help to decide what subjects or courses they can pursue
comfortably and with pleasure.
o Knowledge of interests helps us in making choices that promote life satisfaction and
performance on jobs.
 4. Personality:
o Personality refers to relatively enduring characteristics of a person that make her or him distinct
from others.
o Personality tests try to assess an individual’s unique characteristics, e.g. whether one is dominant
or submissive, outgoing or withdrawn, moody or emotionally stable, etc.
o Personality assessment helps us to explain an individual’s behaviour and predict how she/he will
behave in future.

5. Values:
o Values are enduring beliefs about an ideal mode of behaviour
o A person having a value sets a standard for guiding her/his actions in life and for judging others.
o In value assessment, we try to determine the dominant values of a person (e.g., political,
religious, social or economic)

Assessment Methods

1. Psychological Test
o It is an objective and standardised measure of an individual’s mental and/or behavioural
characteristics.
o Objective tests have been developed to measure all the dimensions of psychological attributes
o These tests are widely used for the purposes of clinical diagnosis, guidance, personnel selection,
placement, and training.

2. Interview
o It involves seeking information from a person on a one-to-one basis.
o It can be used when a counsellor interacts with a client, an employer selects employees for
her/his organisation, or a journalist interviews important people

3. Case Study
o It is an in-depth study of the individual in terms of her/his psychological attributes,
psychological history in the context of her/his psychosocial and physical environment.
o Case studies are widely used by clinical psychologists.
o Case analyses of the lives of great people can also be highly illuminating for those willing to
learn from their life experiences.
o Case studies are based on data generated by different methods, e.g. interview, observation,
questionnaire, psychological tests, etc.

4. Observations
o Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and objective procedures to record
behavioural phenomena occurring naturally in real time.
o Certain phenomena such as mother-child interactions can be easily studied through observation.
o The major problems with observational methods are that the observer has little control over the
situation and the reports may suffer from subjective interpretations of the observer.

5. Self-report
o It is a method in which a person provides information about herself/himself and/or opinions,
beliefs, etc. that s/he holds.
o Such information may be obtained by using an interview schedule or a questionnaire, a
psychological test, or a personal diary.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS –

Q. What are psychological attributes and what is the first step in understanding them? (4M)
Q. What is assessment and why is it important? (3/4M)
Q. Explain assessment of psychological attributes and its types? (3M)
Q. Nature of psychological attributes. (2M)
Q. What are the various domains of psychological attributes? (6M)

INTELLIGENCE:

➢ Oxford Dictionary – perceiving, learning, understanding, knowing

➢ Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists who worked on intelligence. He defined intelligence as
the ability to judge well, understand well, and reason well.
➢ Weschler defined intelligence as the global and aggregate capacity of an individual to think rationally,
act purposefully, and to deal effectively with her/his environment.
➢ Other psychologists, such as Gardener and Sternberg suggested that an intelligent individual not only
adapts to the environment, but also actively modifies it.

THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE:

Two broad approaches

1. Psychometric Approach
2. Information-processing Approach

Psychometric Approach considers intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It expresses the individual's

performance in terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. (single index means single value) (aggregate
means average). It focuses on structure of intelligence and its underlying dimensions.

Information-Processing Approach describe processes people use in intellectual reasoning and problem solving.
The major focus is on how an intelligent person acts. Information-processing Approach emphasizes on
studying cognitive functions underlying intelligent behaviour. (Mechanism of intelligence)

1. Uni or One factor theory

Alfred Binet was the first psychologist to introduce the concept of intelligence in terms of mental operations. His
theory arose from his interest in differentiating more intelligent from less intelligent individuals. He, therefore,
conceptualised intelligence as consisting of one similar set of abilities which can be used for solving any or every
problem in an individual's environment. His theory came to be known as Uni or One Factor Theory. He used
psychometric testing method.

2. Two factor theory ,Charles Spearman (1927)

o Method used: statistical method called factor analysis

o General factor (g-factor): G-factor includes mental operation which are primary and common to
all performances.
o Specific factor (s-factor): S-factor includes specific abilities.
o Excellent singers, architects, scientists may be high on g-factor, but in addition to that, they have
specific abilities also, which allow them to excel in their respective domains.

3. Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

Louis Thurstone proposed intelligence consists of 7 primary abilities, each relatively independent of the
other.

These primary abilities are: -

1. Verbal Comprehension
2. Numerical Abilities
3. Spatial Relations
4. Perceptual Speed
5. Word Fluency
6. Memory –
7. Inductive Reasoning (Explain in 7 short points from NCERT only)

4. Hierarchical Model of Intelligence, by Arthur Jensen

The model consists of abilities operating at two levels - Level I and Level II.

Level I – Associative learning

• In which output is more or less similar to input. E.g. Rote learning and memory.
• INPUT = OUTPUT (nearly same)
• Eg: Chatur from 3 idiots memorised whole speech without understanding.

Level II – Cognitive competence

• It involves higher-order skills as they transform the input to produce and effective output.
• INPUT ≠ OUTPUT (Input --- HOTS --- Output)
• Eg: Rancho in 3 idiots make effective changes in drone to make if fly by using his higher order
thinking skills.

5. Structure of Intellect Model, J. P. Guilford, 1988

This model classifies intellectual traits at three dimensions

1. Operations: Operations are what the respondent does. These include cognition, memory recording,
memory retention, divergent production, convergent production, and evaluation
2. Contents: Contents refer to the nature of materials or information on which intellectual operations
are performed. These include visual, auditory, symbolic (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g.,
words) and behavioural.
3. Products: Products refer to the form in which information is processed by the respondent. Products
are classified into units, classes, relations, systems, transformations, and implications.

Since this classification includes 6*5*6 categories, therefore, the model has 180 cells (180 intellectual
traits according to J.P Guilford). Each cell is expected to have at least one factor or ability; some cells
may have more than one factor. Each factor is described in terms of all three dimensions.
6. Theory of Multiple Intelligences, Howard Gardner

According to him, intelligence is not a single entity; rather distinct types of intelligences exist. Each of
these intelligences are independent of each other. Although they can interact and work together to find a
solution to a problem. This means that, if a person exhibits one type of intelligence, it does not
necessarily indicate being high or low on other types of intelligences. Gardner studied persons with
exceptional abilities in their respective areas, and described eight types of intelligence. These are as
follows:

1. Linguistic
• Includes skills involved in the production and use of language.
• It is the capacity to use language fluently and flexibly to express one’s thinking and
understand others.
• Persons high on this intelligence are ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are sensitive to different shades
of word meanings and can create linguistic images in their mind.
• E.g. Poets, writers

2. Logical-Mathematical
• Includes skills in scientific thinking and problem solving.
• Persons high on this type of intelligence can think logically and critically.
• They engage in abstract reasoning.
• E.g. Scientists and Nobel Prize winner

3. Spatial:
• Includes skills in forming visual images and patterns
• It refers to the abilities involved in forming, using, and transforming mental images.
• The person high on this intelligence can easily represent the spatial world in the mind.
• E.g. Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, architects, interior decorators, and surgeons

4. Musical
• Refers to sensitivity to musical rhythms and patterns
• It is the capacity to produce, create and manipulate musical patterns.
• Persons high on this intelligence are very sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and in creating
new patterns of sounds.

5. Bodily-Kinaesthetic
• Refers to using whole or portions of the body flexibly and creatively
• This consists of the use of the whole body or portions of it for display or construction of
products and problem solving.
• E.g. Athletes, dancers, actors, sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons

6. Interpersonal (with others )

• Refers to sensitivity to subtle aspects of others’ behaviours
• This is the skill of understanding the motives, feelings and behaviours of other people so as
to bond into a comfortable relationship with others.
• E.g. Psychologists, counsellors, politicians, social workers, and religious leaders.

7. Intrapersonal (within)
• Includes the awareness of one’s own feelings, motives, and desires
• This refers to the knowledge of one’s internal strengths and limitations and using that
knowledge to effectively relate to others.
• Persons high on this ability have finer sensibilities regarding their identity, human existence,
and meaning of life.
 • E.g. Philosophers and spiritual leaders

8. Naturalistic
• Refers to sensitivity to the features of the natural world
• This involves complete awareness of our relationship with the natural world.
• It is useful in recognising the beauty of different species of flora and fauna, and making
subtle discriminations in the natural world.
• Hunters, farmers, tourists, botanists, and zoologists.

(You can use first letter techniques and make a work, for instance: 2I 2L BNP(instead of P learn M)S, 2I 2L
BNMS)

7. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence, Robert Sternberg (1985)

Sternberg views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, to shape and select environment to accomplish
one’s goals and those of one’s society and culture.” According to this theory, there are three basic types
of intelligence: Componential, Experiential, and Contextual. It represents information-processing
approach to understand intelligence.

(1) Componential Intelligence

Componential or analytical intelligence is the analysis of information to solve problems.
Persons high on this ability think analytically and critically and succeed in schools.

This intelligence has three components, each serving a different function.

a) First is the knowledge acquisition component, which is responsible for learning and acquisition
of the ways of doing things. (ex: get to know a test)
b) The second is the meta or a higher order component, which involves planning concerning
what to do and how to do. (Ex: get to know syllabus and plan how to study)
c) The third is the performance component, which involves actually doing things. ( Finally
performing- giving test)

(2) Experiential Intelligence

• Experiential or creative intelligence is involved in using past experiences creatively to
solve novel problems. (remember the word ‘experience’)
• It is reflected in creative performance.
• Persons high on this aspect integrate different experiences in an original way to make
new discoveries and inventions.
• They quickly find out which information is crucial in a given situation.

(3) Contextual Intelligence

• Contextual or practical intelligence involves the ability to deal with environmental demands
encountered daily.
• It may be called ‘street smartness.’
• Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to their present environment or select a more
favourable environment than the existing one, or modify the environment to fit their needs.
Therefore, they turn out to be successful in life.

8. Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model of Intelligence, J.P. Das,

Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994)

According to this model, intellectual activity involves the interdependent functioning of three neurological
systems, called the functional units of brain. These units are responsible for arousal/attention, coding or
processing, and planning respectively.
(1) Arousal/Attention
State of arousal is basic to any behaviour as it helps us in attending to stimuli.
Arousal and attention enable a person to process information.
An optimal level of arousal focuses our attention to the relevant aspects of a problem. Too much or too
little arousal would interfere with attention.

(2) Simultaneous and Successive Processing

Knowledge is integrated either simultaneously or successively.

Simultaneous processing
• It takes place when you perceive the relations among various concepts and integrate them into a
meaningful pattern for comprehension.
• For example, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test, you are required to choose one of the
six options that best completes the design.
• Simultaneous processing helps you in grasping the meaning and relationship between the given
abstract figures.
• Ex: understanding the whole chapter by perceiving relations among various concepts and topics.

Successive processing
• It takes place when you remember all the information serially so that the recall of one leads to
the recall of another.
• For e.g., learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication tables, etc.

(3) Planning
• After the information is attended to and processed, planning is activated.
• It allows us to think of the possible courses of action, implement them to reach a target, and
evaluate their effectiveness.
• If a plan does not work, it is modified to suit the requirements of the task or situation.
• For example, to take the test scheduled by your teacher, you would have to set goals, plan a time
schedule of study, and if you are not able to tackle the chapters assigned for the test, you may have
to think of other ways (e.g., study with a friend, etc.) to meet your goals. 

These PASS processes operate on a knowledge base developed either formally (by reading, writing, and
experimenting) or informally from the environment. These processes are interactive and dynamic in
nature; yet each has its own distinctive functions.

Das and Naglieri have also developed a battery of tests, known as the Cognitive Assessment System
(CAS). It consists of verbal as well as non-verbal tasks that measure basic cognitive functions, and is
meant for individuals between 5 and 18 years of age. The results of assessment can be used to remedy
cognitive deficits of children with learning problems. (ONE MARK Ques)

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS –
Q. How did various psychologists/theorists/researchers go about the concept of Intelligence? [if such
language comes then they are asking for theories of intelligence]
Q. Psychometric theories?
Q. Information-Processing theories?
Q. Difference between two broad approaches of understanding intelligence? (2-4M) (if for 2+ marks write
mention all theories as the last point – “Various theories representing psychometric approach are….”)
Q. Mention three early theories devised for intelligence.
Q. Specific theories can also be asked. [Specific researcher’s theory can be asked – Describe Louis
Thurstone’s theory of Intelligence.]
Intelligence: Interplay of Nature and Nurture
[Nature – Heredity, Nurture – environment]

The evidence for hereditary influences on intelligence comes mainly from studies on twins and adopted
children.
• The intelligence of identical twins reared together correlate almost 0.90.
• Twins separated early in childhood also show considerable similarity in their intellectual,
personality and behavioural characteristics.
• The intelligence of identical twins reared in different environments correlate 0.72, those of
fraternal twins reared together correlate almost 0.60, and those of brothers and sisters reared
together correlate about 0.50, while siblings reared apart correlate about 0.25.
• Another line of evidence comes from the studies of adopted children, which show that children’s
intelligence is more similar to their biological rather than adoptive parents.

With respect to the role of environment, studies have reported that as children grow in age, their
intelligence level tends to move closer to that of their adoptive parents.
• Children from disadvantaged homes adopted into families with higher socioeconomic status
exhibit a large increase in their intelligence scores.
• There is evidence that environmental deprivation lowers intelligence while rich nutrition, good
family background, and quality schooling increases intelligence.

There is a consensus among psychologists that intelligence is a product of complex interaction of heredity
(nature) and environment (nurture). Heredity can best be viewed as something that sets a range within
which an individual’s development is shaped by the support and opportunities of the environment.

Possible Questions (all 6 marks) (WRITE ALL THE ABOVE)

Q. Comment on the debate of nature vs nurture in affecting an individual’s intelligence.
Q. Role played by/of nature vs nurture in intelligence
Q. What are the two factors affecting intelligence?
Q. Intelligence depends upon biological as well as social environmental factors. Explain.
Q. Intelligence is influenced by two elements/factors/forces. What are they and briefly describe their
importance?

Assessment of Intelligence (A LOT OF 1 MARKERS CAN COME FROM THIS SECTION)

• In 1905, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon, made the first successful attempt to formally measure
intelligence.
• In 1908, when the scale was revised, they gave the concept of Mental Age (MA), which is a
measure of a person’s intellectual development relative to people of her/his age group.
• A mental age of 5 means that a child’s performance on an intelligence test equals the average
performance level of a group of 5-year old.
• Chronological Age (CA) is the biological age from birth.
• A bright child’s MA is more than her/his CA; for a dull child, MA is below the CA. Retardation
was defined by Binet and Simon as being two mental age years below the chronological age.

• In 1912, William Stern devised the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

• IQ refers to mental age divided by chronological age, and multiplied by 100.

• The average IQ in the population is 100, irrespective of age.

 • IQ scores are distributed in the population in such a way that the scores of most people tend to fall
in the middle range of the distribution. Only a few people have either very high or very low scores.
• The frequency distribution for the IQ scores tends to approximate a bell-shaped curve, called the
normal curve.
• This type of distribution is symmetrical around the central value, called the mean.

• The distribution of IQ scores in the form of a normal distribution is shown in Figure

• The mean IQ score in a population is 100. People with IQ scores in the range of 90– 110 have
normal intelligence.
• The IQ score of a person can be interpreted by referring to following table:

• All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity; some are exceptionally bright and some
are below average.
• One practical use of intelligence test is to identify persons at the extremes of intellectual
functioning.
• About 2 per cent of the population have IQ above 130, called as intellectually gifted persons,
and a similar percentage have IQ below 70 termed as intellectually disabled persons.
• These two groups deviate considerably from the normal population in respect of their cognitive,
emotional, and motivational characteristics.

VARIATIONS OF INTELLIGENCE
INTELLECTUAL DEFICIENCY

The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) views Mental Deficiency as “significantly sub-
average general intellectual functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behaviour and
manifested during the developmental period.”

This definition points to three basic features.

1. First, the intellectually deficient person must show significantly sub-average intellectual functioning.
 2. The second relates to deficits in adaptive behaviour. Adaptive behaviour refers to a person’s capacity to
be independent and deal effectively with one’s environment.
3. The third feature is that the deficits must be observed during the developmental period, that is between 0
and 18 years of age.

The different levels of retardation are:

CATEGORIES IQ RANGE (approx.)

Profound Below 25

Severe 25-30 to 35-40

Moderate 35-40 to 50-55

Mild 50-55 to 70

Characteristics same as dictated in class.

INTELLECTUAL GIFTEDNESS:

• Intellectually gifted individuals show higher performance because of their outstanding potentialities.
• The study of gifted individuals began in 1925, when Lewis Terman followed the lives of about 1500
children with IQs of 130 and above to examine how intelligence was related to occupational success and
life adjustment.

• Although the terms ‘talent’ and ‘giftedness’ are often used interchangeably, they mean different things.
• Giftedness is exceptional general ability shown in superior performance in a wide variety of areas.
• Talent is a narrower term and refers to remarkable ability in a specific field. The highly talented are
sometimes called ‘prodigies.

• It has been suggested by psychologists that giftedness from the teachers’ point of view depends on a
combination of high ability, high creativity, and high commitment.

• Gifted children show early signs of intellectual superiority. Even during infancy and early childhood, they
show larger attention span, good recognition memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental
changes, and early appearance of language skills. To equate giftedness with brilliant academic
performance is not correct. Each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities, and
characteristics.

Characteristics:
• Advanced logical thinking, questioning and problem-solving behaviour.
• High speed in processing information.
• Superior generalisation and discrimination ability.
• Advanced level of original and creative thinking.
• High level of intrinsic motivation and self-esteem.
• Independent and non-conformist thinking.
• Preference for solitary academic activities for long periods.

To reach their full potential, gifted children require special attention and different educational programmes
beyond normal. These may include life enrichment programmes that can sharpen their skills in productive
thinking, planning, decision-making and communication.
POSSIBLE QUESTIONS –
1. “To equate giftedness with brilliant academic performance is not correct.” Explain. [write diff between
giftedness and talent]
2. “Each gifted student possesses different strengths, personalities and characteristics.” How is giftedness
different from talent.
3. Ayush has IQ level below 70. To what category does he belong? Describe in detail.
4. Riya is 1.5 years old. Her mother observed that she show larger attention span, good recognition memory,
preference for novelty, sensitivity to environmental changes, and early appearance of language skills. To
what category of intelligence must she belong to? Describe in detail.
5. What are the characteristics of Intellectual Deficiency? Q. What are the characteristics of Intellectual
Giftedness?
6. What are the various categories of Intellectual deficiency. [If it comes for long answer type then write
characteristics also]
7. All persons do not have the same intellectual capacity. How do individuals vary in their intellectual
ability? Explain. (ncert Q9)
8. [mention about all categories by forming table 1.1 then describe two major variations in detaial]

TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS

Test is chosen depending on the purpose of its use. Several types are as follows:

1. Based on administration procedure: Individual or Group Tests

• An individual intelligence test is one which can be administered to one person at a time. Whereas a group
intelligence test can be administered to several persons simultaneously.
• Individual tests require the test administrator to establish a rapport with the subject and be sensitive to
her/his feelings, moods and expressions during the testing session. And group tests, however, do not allow
an opportunity to be familiar with the subjects’ feelings.
• Individual tests allow people to answer orally or in a written form or manipulate objects as per the tester’s
instructions. Group tests generally seek written answers usually in a multiple-choice format.

2. Based on the nature of items used: Verbal, Non-Verbal, or Performance Tests

An intelligence test may be fully verbal, fully non-verbal or fully performance based, or it may consist of
a mixture of items from each category.

Verbal tests require subjects to give verbal responses either orally or in a written form. Therefore, verbal
tests can be administered only to literate people.

Non-verbal tests use pictures or illustrations as test items. Thus, there’s no language barrier. Raven’s
Progressive Matrices (RPM) Test is an example of a non-verbal test.

Performance tests require subjects to manipulate objects and other materials to perform a task. Written
language is not necessary for answering the items. For example, Kohs’ Block Design Test. A major
advantage of performance tests is that they can be easily administered to persons from different cultures.

(LEARN 2 OF VERBAL TESTS AND 2 OF PERFORMANCE TESTS FROM THE TABLE GIVEN IN BOOK)

3. Depending upon the extent to which an intelligence test favours one culture over another, Culture-Fair
or Culture-Biased Tests

Many intelligence tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed. Tests developed in America
and Europe represent an urban and middle-class cultural ethos. Hence, educated middle class white
 subjects generally perform well on those tests. The items do not respect the cultural perspectives of Asia
and Africa. The norms for these tests are also drawn from western cultural groups. It is nearly impossible
to design a test that can be applied equally meaningfully in all cultures.

Psychologists have tried to develop tests that are culture-fair or culturally appropriate, i.e. one that does
not discriminate against individuals belonging to different cultures. In such tests, items are constructed
in a manner that they assess experiences common to all cultures or have questions in which language
usage is not required. Non-verbal and performance tests help reduce the cultural bias usually associated
with verbal tests.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
1. Elaborate upon various types of intelligence tests. [6M]
2. One marker – On the basis of administration, tests are classified as? [Ans. Individual or Group tests]
3. Which is the most culturally appropriate type of test? [Ans. Performance tests
4. Raven’s Progressive Matrices is type of ______ test? [Ans. Non-verbal test]
5. What is a culture-fair test?
6. 2/3 markers – Difference between individual or group tests?
7. Based on administration, tests are classified into which two categories? Elaborate.

Intelligence Testing in India

• S.M. Mohsin made a pioneering attempt – 1930s – Hindi
• C.H. – Binet’s test – Urdu and Punjabi
• Mahalanobis – Binet’s test – Bengali
• Long and Mehta prepared Mental Measurement Handbook – 103 tests on Intelligence
• The National Library of Educational and Psychological Tests (NLEPT) at the National Council of
Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has documented Indian tests and their handbooks on various
psychological attributes such as intelligence, personality etc.

CULTURE AND INTELLIGENCE:

• Intelligence helps individuals to adapt to their environment. The cultural environment provides a context
for intelligence to develop. Culture: is a collective system of customs, beliefs, attitudes, and achievements
in art and literature.

• Sternberg’s notion of contextual or practical intelligence implies that intelligence is a product of culture.

• Vygotsky has argued that culture provides a social context in which people live, grow, and understand the
world around them. For example, in less technologically developed societies, social and emotional skills
in relating to people are valued, while in technologically advanced societies, personal achievement
founded on abilities of reasoning and judgment is considered to represent intelligence.

• Vygotsky also believed that cultures, like individuals, have a life of their own; they grow and change, and
in the process specify what will be the end-product of successful intellectual development. According to
him, while elementary mental functions (e.g., crying, walking, and running) are universal, the manner in
which higher mental functions such as problem solving and thinking operate are largely culture-produced.

• Technologically advanced societies adopt child rearing practices that foster skills of generalisation and
abstraction, speed, minimal moves, and mental manipulation among children. These societies promote a
type of behaviour, which can be called technological intelligence.

• In these societies, persons are well-versed in skills of attention, observation, analysis, performance, speed,
and achievement orientation.
 • Intelligence tests developed in western cultures look precisely for these skills in an individual.
Technological intelligence is not so valued in many Asian and African societies. The qualities and skills
regarded as intelligent actions in non-western cultures are sharply different, though the boundaries are
gradually vanishing under the influence of western cultures.

• In addition to cognitive competence that is very specific to the individual, the non-western cultures look
for skills to relate to others in the society.
• Some non-western societies value self-reflection and collectivistic orientation as opposed to personal
achievement and individualistic orientation.

Intelligence in the Indian Tradition:

• Contrary to technological intelligence, intelligence in the Indian tradition can be termed as integral
intelligence, which gives emphasis on connectivity with the social and world environment.
• Indian thinkers view intelligence from a holistic perspective where equal attention is paid to cognitive and
non-cognitive processes as well as their integration.
• The Sanskrit word ‘buddhi’ is often used to represent intelligence in non-western culture such as of India.
Buddhi, according to J.P. Das, includes such skills as mental effort, determined action, feelings, and
opinions along with cognitive competence such as knowledge, discrimination, and understanding.
• Among other things, buddhi is the knowledge of one’s own self based on conscience, will and desire.
Thus, the notion of buddhi has affective and motivational components besides a strong cognitive
component.

• Unlike the western views, which primarily focus on cognitive parameters, the following competencies are
identified as facets of intelligence in the Indian tradition:

Cognitive capacity - sensitivity to context, understanding, discrimination, problem solving, and effective
communication.
Social competence - respect for social order, commitment to elders, the young and the needy, concern about
others, recognizing others’ perspectives.
Emotional competence – self regulation and self-monitoring of emotions, honesty, politeness, good conduct,
and self-evaluation.
Entrepreneurial competence - commitment, persistence, patience, hard work, vigilance, and goal-directed
behaviours.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS –
1. Difference between western and non-western cultures in their notion/understanding/conceptualisation
of Intelligence.
2. Note on cultural impact on Intelligence.
3. Emphasise on Indian culture’s impact on intelligence.
4. Explain/ describe the concept of ‘Buddhi’.
5. What are different facets/aspects/competencies of Intelligence according to Indian tradition?
6. How did Vygotsky viewed Intelligence?

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE:

Emotional intelligence is a set of skills that underlie accurate appraisal, expression, and regulation of
emotions.
 This concept was first introduced by Salovey and Mayer who considered emotional intelligence as “the
ability to monitor one’s own and other’s emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information
to guide one’s thinking and actions”.

Emotional Quotient (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence.

CHARACTERISTICS / ATTRIBUTES (Box 1.2)

➢ Perceive and be sensitive to your feelings and emotions.
➢ Perceive and be sensitive to various types of emotions in others by noting their body language, voice
and tone, and facial expressions.
➢ Relate your emotions to your thoughts so that you take them into account while solving problems and
taking decisions.
➢ Understand the powerful influence of the nature and intensity of your emotions.
➢ Control and regulate your emotions and their expressions while dealing with self and others to achieve
harmony and peace.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS
1. What is Emotional Intelligence?
2. Describe EQ and its characteristics.
3. How does EQ manifests in individuals? [talking about characteristics/attributes]
4. To determine a successful life, IQ is not enough. Elaborate.
5. IQ alone doesn’t determine a successful life. Elaborate.
6. Ayush is an owner of his jewelry business. He has always been a bright student. He looks like a successful
person from the outside, but faces problems in managing teams at work/his familial relationships/ has
arguments with his family members/ is facing marriage problems/ is not able to cope up with stress. What
aspect of intelligence does this difficulty reflect?
7. Which of the two, IQ or EQ, do you think would be more related to success in life and why? (ncert Q10)
[Elaborate EQ)

SPECIAL ABILITIES
Aptitude: Nature and Measurement

➢ Aptitude refers to special abilities in a particular field of activity. It is a combination of characteristics that
indicates an individual’s capacity to acquire some specific knowledge or skill after training.
➢ The knowledge of aptitude can help us to predict an individual’s future performance.
➢ E.g. An intelligent student might not be good in mathematics and may face difficulties.
➢ In order to be successful in a particular field, a person must have both aptitude and interest.

➢ Interest is a preference for a particular activity; aptitude is the potentiality to perform that activity.
➢ A person may be interested in a particular job or activity, but may not have the aptitude for it. Similarly,
a person may have the potentiality for performing a job, but may not be interested in doing that. In both
cases, the outcome will not be satisfactory.
APTITUDE TESTS
• Aptitude tests are available in two forms: independent (specialised) aptitude tests and multiple
(generalised) aptitude tests.

• Clerical Aptitude, Mechanical Aptitude, Numerical Aptitude, and Typing Aptitude are independent
aptitude tests.

• Multiple Aptitude Tests exist in the form of test batteries, which measure aptitude in several separate but
homogeneous areas. Differential Aptitude Tests (DAT), the General Aptitude Tests Battery (GATB), and
the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) are well-known aptitude test batteries.
 • Among these, DAT is most commonly used in educational settings. It consists of 8 independent subtests.
J.M. Ojha has developed an Indian adaptation of DAT. Several other aptitude tests have been developed
in India for measuring scientific, scholastic, literary, clerical, and teaching aptitudes.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. Is intelligence enough for determining success in a particular field? [no, elaborate aptitude and interest
with egs.]
2. How is ‘aptitude’ different from ‘interest’ and ‘intelligence’? How is aptitude measured?

CREATIVITY:

1. Creativity is the ability to produce ideas, objects, or problem solutions that are novel, appropriate
and useful.
2. Creativity is not just limited to a selected few — the artist, the scientist, the poet or the inventor.
An ordinary individual who is engaged in simple occupations like pottery, carpentry, cooking, etc.
can also be creative. However, it has been said that they are not working at the same level of
creativity as an eminent scientist or a writer. Hence, we can say that individuals vary in terms of
the level and the areas in which they exhibit creativity and that all may not be operating at the
same level.
3. Einstein’s theory of relativity is an example of the highest level of creativity which implies
bringing out altogether new ideas, facts, theory, or a product.
4. Another level of creativity is working on what has already been established earlier by way of
modifications, by putting things in new perspectives or to new use.
5. Research literature suggests that children begin to develop their imagination during the early years
of childhood but they express creativity mostly through physical activities and in non-verbal ways.
When language and intellectual functions are fully developed and store of knowledge is adequately
available, creativity is expressed through verbal modes too.
6. Those who are outstanding in their creativity may give an indication about the direction in which
their creativity lies through their self-chosen activities. In some cases, however, opportunities need
to be provided before they can manifest their hidden potential for creativity

How do we explain variations in the potential for creativity?

• As in the case of other mental and physical characteristics, such variations can be attributed to the complex
interaction of heredity and environment.
• There is no disagreement that creativity is determined by both heredity and environment.
• Limits of the creative potential are set by heredity, environmental factors stimulate the development of
creativity.
• How much of the creative potential can be realized, when and in what specific form and direction is
largely determined by environmental factors such as motivation, commitment, family support, peer
influences, training opportunities, etc.
• Although no amount of training can transform an average person to the level of Tagore, Shakespeare, etc.
but it is also true that every individual can raise her/his level of creative potential beyond its present level.

Relationship between Creativity and Intelligence (important)

• Researchers have found that the relationship between creativity and intelligence is positive.

• All creative acts require some minimum ability to acquire knowledge and capacity to comprehend, retain,
and retrieve. Creative writers, for example, need facility in dealing with language. The artist must
understand the effect that will be produced by a particular technique of painting, a scientist must be able
to reason and so on. Hence, a certain level of intelligence is required for creativity but beyond that
intelligence does not correlate well with creativity.
 • Terman, in the 1920s, found that persons with high IQ were not necessarily creative. At the same time,
creative ideas could come from persons who did not have a very high IQ. Other researches have shown
that not even one of those identified as gifted, followed up throughout their adult life, had become well-
known for creativity in some field.

• Researchers have also found that both high and low level of creativity can be found in highly intelligent
children and also children of average intelligence. The same person, thus, can be creative as well as
intelligent but it is not necessary that intelligent ones, in the conventional sense, must be creative.
Intelligence, therefore, by itself does not ensure creativity.

How creative tests differ from intelligence tests? OR Determine the features of Creative tests.

• Creativity tests involve divergent thinking and assess such abilities as ability to produce a variety of ideas,
i.e. ideas which are off-the-beaten track, ability to see new relationships between seemingly unrelated
things, ability to guess causes and consequences, ability to put things in a new context, etc.
This is contrary to the tests of intelligence which mostly involve convergent thinking. In tests of
intelligence, the person has to think of the right solution to the problem and the focus is on assessing
abilities such as memory, logical reasoning, accuracy, perceptual ability, and clear thinking.
• A general feature of most of the creativity tests is that they are open-ended. (Close-ended in Intelligence
tests)
• They permit the person to think of different answers to the questions or problems in terms of her/his
experiences, whatever these may have been. There are no specified answers to questions or problems in
creativity tests. (Specific, right solution to the problem)
• There is freedom to use one’s imagination and express it in original ways in creative test. (There is little
scope for the expression of spontaneity, originality, and imagination in intelligence test.)

ABOUT CREATIVITY TESTS:

Since expressions of creativity are varied, tests have been developed using different stimuli like words, figures,
action, and sounds.

These tests measure general creative thinking abilities like ability to think of a variety of ideas on a given topic/
situation, alternative ways of looking at things, problems or situations, to guess causes and consequences, to think
of unusual ideas to improve and to use common objects, ask unusual questions and so on.

A few investigators have also developed tests of creativity in different areas such as literary creativity, scientific
creativity, mathematical creativity, etc.

Some of the famous psychologists who have developed creativity tests are Guilford, Torrance, Khatena, Wallach
and Kogan, Paramesh, Baqer Mehdi, and Passi. Each test has a standardised procedure, a complete set of manual,
and interpretation guide. These can be used only after extensive training in administration and interpretation of
test scores.

POSSIBLE QUESTIONS:
1. Explain variations in creativity.
2. Elaborate on the relationship between creativity and intelligence. [6M – remember to give intro]
3. How is creativity related to intelligence. [6M – remember to give a little intro of creativity]
4. ‘Intelligence by itself does not ensure creativity.’ Elaborate.
5. ‘Researchers have found that the relationship between creativity and intelligence is positive.’ Elaborate.
6. How creative tests differ from intelligence tests?