Animation Structure and Origins:

Key Distinctions of Western and Eastern Stylizations

Lucas Warren

Art 847

Professor Erica Bittel

November 20, 2016

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Outline

THESIS: As artistic mediums have developed through history, each have held an integral

function in mimicking a specified part of reality, and through its origin in both

Eastern and Western culture, animation has simulated motion in a host of

engaging methods, reliant on the artisans and societies in which produced these

works.

I. The origins of animation, although seemingly culminating in modern times, have

been around for centuries.

A. Defining animation allows us to make inferences into the history

dealing with it.

B. Early attempts at animation were found in paleolithic cave

paintings, replicating nature.

C. A modern perception of animation can be dated to the mid to late

19th century, placed in western culture.

1. Images created in succession painted in revolving panels

created for entertainment in the 1800s.

2. The first traditionally animated film was ​Fantasmagorie,

created in 1908.

3. Many other methods of animation have developed in the

previous century.

D. In modern times, animation has been revolutionized by the digital

advances in art.
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II. Animation is primarily a fairly recent artistic phenomenon, evolving in the

previous one hundred years.

A. Traditional animation was a process used by most 20th century

animators by drawing individual frames.

1. The process of traditional animation usually requires a host

of artisans.

2. These artisans include those working within the story, the

storyboard, keyframe animators, in between animators, and

special effect artists.

B. Stop motion also became popular during this time period, using

separate materials moving in succession to show movement.

1. Claymation, or “plasticine” uses moldable clay figures

much like puppets.

2. Object animation uses typography or graphic pieces such as

print media to distort objects over time.

3. Cutout animation uses two dimensional paper or cloth and

was a precursor to vector computer animation.

C. With the advent of graphic engines, computer animation has

become popular in the 21st century.

1. Vector graphics using a two dimensional software engine

produce motion close to the style of traditional or cutout

animation.
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2. Using polygonal models and textures overlayed has

become a popular method for approaching animation since

the production of ​Toy Story​ in 1995.

III. By using 3D technology, the story of ​Toy Story​ told a unique story.

A. Walt Disney and Pixar worked together to create the first full

length 3D animated film.

B. By focusing consistently on the story developing the art style, a

wholesome movie lasting the test of time was established.

IV. Eastern animation developed throughout the 20th century, and by 1960,

had created an independent style.

A. Most popularly, Japanese animation has become the regional

figurehead of Asian cultural interpretation of the media.

B. Using many of the styles developed in the west, especially the

usage of traditional and computer animation, production in eastern

culture has seen international acclaim.

V. Differences between eastern and western animations has created two

separate distinctions in the medium.

A. In the west, animation is treated as a medium catering to younger

audiences, and as such, the subject matter and aesthetic appears

childish in many cases.

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B. Due to the subject matter being surrounded around manga, light

novels, and visual novels, eastern animation gravitates to a larger

age demographic.

C. We also see a slight difference in the production of animation,

creating an aesthetic difference.

VI. Animation has been slowly transitioning into more mainstream media

since the advent of modern communication.

A. Through the last twenty years, commercial applications of

animation has become evident in commercials and shorts.

B. Due to advances in 3D animation, the line is being blurred between

live action and animated motion.

VII. Just as other forms of art have become the staple of their time period, from

the mosaics of the medieval era, to the paintings of the Renaissance, we

currently live in the age of animation.

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A field of grass stretched across the ancient Iranian plain as a hunter slowly approaches a

wild goat consuming the leaves from a low lying tree. As the hunter wipes the sweat from his

brow he throws his spear, the goat startles, darting across the landscape. In but moments the

beast becomes a faint dot on the horizon, ending the hours long stalk. The hunter returns to his

tribe not with nourishment, but with the image of the goat imprinted onto his memory. He

attempts to record these movements on a goblet, trusting that the next hunt will be more

successful.

Animation was created in order to mimic time and motion.

Animation has not always been a source of media that we see it today. Although many

readers may believe that animation is a fairly recent invention, the process of recording motion in

a way to show movement culminated throughout the history of human society, in some cases

becoming a vital part of daily life. The scene pictured above describes a possible scenario in

which the world’s oldest animation, the “Burnt City Goblet” (fig. 1), originated, showing the

movement of a goat as it ate. This goblet, when spun in a fast manner, showed the intricate

motion of the goat, and has now been dated to being over 5,200 years old.​1​ This does not appear

to be an exclusive case either, as stated by Marc Azéma in an article posted in Palethnology. We

find that these sequential drawings and paintings were quite common in hunter-gatherer

societies, including subject matter of many flora and fauna that were necessary for survival.​2

Man has always been quite infatuated with the flow of time, and by recording motion, seemed

much more in control of it. If we view animation as this recording of time in a methodical,

observable way, it becomes much easier to define. As artistic mediums have developed through
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history, each have held an integral function in mimicking a specified part of reality, and through

its origin in both Eastern and Western culture, animation has simulated motion in a host of

engaging methods, reliant on the artisans and societies in which produced these works.

As society developed technology, so did animation.

The advent of the camera was the starting point in which many look to as the

transitioning era in motion artforms, transforming into the medium we see today. In the mid

1500s, we see advancements in the ​camera obscura ​otherwise known as a pinhole projection

camera.​3​ Through this scientist began to view the eye in much the same way, understanding that

it acted much like the lenses in their visual instruments. David Hockney, a pop artist born during

the contemporary era, famously stated “from the early fifteenth century many Western artists

used optics—by which I mean mirrors and lenses (or a combination of the two)—to create living

projections.” Through the next several centuries these scientific advancements, usually created in

order to better understand the biologic eye, would be then used secondarily as a method in which

art could take hold. From this we saw many devices form in the 19th century, for instance the

kaleidoscope​ to the ​phenakistoscope​. A host of these devices, including these two mentioned,

used rotating mechanisms to produce a single, ever-changing vantage point in which motion

could be seen.​4​ By illustrating or placing photographs on these revolving panels, the viewer

could then perceive time unfolding, much like paleolithic goblet found in Iran. It was from here

that artisans realized the commercial applications in which animation would emerge. Lisa

Cartwright stated that although not instantaneous, these advancements were key to the formation

of the industry as a whole. “The prehistory of the cinema is conventionally told as a tale of early
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scientific experimentation marked by a break with science around 1895 with the emergence of a

popular film culture and industry.”​5

Although film predates animation by over a decade, a French artist by the name of Emile

Cohl created the first complete animated cartoon following some guidelines brought by stop

motion artist, James Stuart Blackton. While Blackton had drawn images in succession by use of

a blackboard and photography, Emile Cohl took this further by providing a storyline to his

drawings. By simplifying his work as a draftsman and drawing on paper using black ink, he was

then able to use the negatives of photographs to produce a flowing stroke. The method that he

developed would later be known simply as ​traditional animation​, and when his animated short

“Fantasmagorie”​ ​was produced in 1908 the door for many other artist was opened.​6

“Fantasmagorie” was but a first true step into the medium, and while Cohl placed a heavy

focus on perfecting the stylization he had found, a comic artist by the name of Winsor McCay

forced animation to follow the same art style as his previous work. Instead of simplifying the

frames due to the tedious and intensive animation process, McCay placed a semi-realistic

aesthetic to his work, allowing for large diversity in his shorts. From 1911 through 1921 McCay

would create nearly a dozen cartoons ranging from World War I propaganda pieces such as “The

Sinking of the Lusitania” to the hilarious Box Office Attraction, “Gertie the Trained Dinosaur”

(fig. 2). The latter film would later be hailed as masterpiece of the time period, displaying many

of the key techniques that will be later described as part of the traditional animation process.​7

As we move throughout the 20th century, the industry exploded with innovation. The

process of traditional animation becomes streamlined, stop motion brings into effect ​plasticine

also known as claymation, and other methods such as cutout, object, and puppet animation
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become marketable. Now completely independent as its own artform, following a similar path

founded by live action cinematography, artisans soon become known simply as “animators.” The

west, especially in the United States, found that with a growing audience, more resources could

be placed into higher budgeted productions. Figureheads of the industry, such as Walt Disney,

William Hanna, and Joseph Barbera created large think tanks that become independent studios,

and as television became a household commodity, viewership was found on a global scale.

Western society has influenced the way in which animation is made.

The traditional animation process evolved from the primal methodology of the early 20th

century rather quickly, with the production of a more systematic approach. By using clear acetate

sheets, also known as ​cels​, animators could move onto a more complex workflow. Instead of

drawing directly onto paper, the cels would be painted in a layer-like manner, beginning with a

background, then adding moving elements in pre arranged order. Acetate is not perfect, however,

and there was a limit to between 5 and 7 layered sheets possible depending on the quality of

plastic. Although in modern society, software allows for an almost infinite amount of layering,

this bottleneck forced artists to approach the medium carefully during the beginning stages.​8

Due to the time period, diffusion of labor became common practice, and as such

animation would be placed at the hands of multiple artist in the mid 20th century. As is true with

all other moving media, a script or story is usually developed first by a scriptwriter, in which

dictates the key developments throughout screentime. Different however, is that many of these

scriptwriters would also be placed in a position of creating the flow of the animation itself.​9​ A

storyboard​ artist, the scriptwriter in animation, had much more than an overarching narrative to
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tell. Through the process, popularized by Disney studios in the 1930s, this key group of artist

would dictate camera angles, character movements, dialogue, and scene information, all

following guidelines presented by the director. As spoken of before, one of the key problems

addressed would be matching a complex scene with the established intricacies that followed the

initial storyboard creation.​10​ The storyboard artist must take into account not only the complexity

of each frame, but how moving objects interact, assuring that the amount of cels, the frame

involvement, and the workload all fit into the allotted budget of both time and labor.​11

One of the largest challenges for animators once the story was completed was leaving the

comic book stylizations behind. Seeing that most animators were previously cartoonist, much of

their work was approached in the same manner, drawing on ​threes​, or creating a new image

every 3 frames in a 24 frame per second animation. By increasing the number of frames, the

movement became much more fluid.​12​ Disney studios, drawing a new image every frame, found

ways in which to tell stories in a more efficient manner. During the production of ​Snow White

and Seven Dwarves​, the first theatrical animated film, John Hubley stated the method in which to

allow this fluent animation was “the tendency to reduce plot and the telling of a whole story to a

single action situation.” Instead of categorizing each artist a section of the film, a select few were

placed as “master animators” isolating themselves to only select scenes. The remaining

animators would then create consistency between these scenes, creating transitions that allowed

for contrasting styles from different artist to flow as a single narrative.​13​ With the success of

Snow White​, more animators were hired to Disney Studios and by the 1950s the workflow

changed yet again. With more “master animators,” instead of working on full scenes, these

animators would create ​keyframes​ which were the most important poses in a series of images.
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Now known simply as “key animators,” these artists would then give these specified images to

an “in-between animator,” who would, as the name suggests, draw the flowing animation in-

between the key poses.​14

The final artists to touch an animation before it is produced to film are the special effect

artists. These individuals would decide on the overlying effects, as well as, the camera

techniques in which to capture each frame. This part of process is approached fastidiously, a

scene shot in a different manner from than the next would be quite evident. Special camera

apparatuses were created giving a sense of realism to the two dimensional paintings on acetate.

For instance, in the mid 1950s Walt Disney studios created the ​Multiplane Camera​ which

allowed for a parallax between frames. By moving multiple planes of images closer or further

from the camera, depth is perceived, a great example of this is the opening scene to ​Bambii​.15
​

Animation was built using similar techniques with a host of materials.

Seeing the broadness of animation, I have chosen to limit alternative forms of the

medium to the ones that have seen a definitive use in modern media. For instance, plasticine, has

been used by a host of studios to create everything from short music videos to full length feature

films. Tony White wrote that no matter what the medium, it is the artist that defines how it is

used, “I suspect that all this goes to suggest that as infinite and as imaginative as animation

character design can be—2D or 3D, or even Claymation or cut-out—it still has the inherent

limitations, or principles of design, that can drive designers to discover bigger and better

things.”​16
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Use of stop motion photography to create an animation, as stated previously, developed

in the early 20th century with shorts such as ​Bewitched Matches​ (1913) and ​The Automatic

Moving Company​ (1912). These experiments were initially created to only captivate an audience

for a short time. It was not until much later when fantastical creations were placed into live

action pieces such as ​Star Wars ​(1977) that industry leaders (and the donors that funded such

projects) realized the capability of stop motion. The early 21st century saw somewhat of a

renaissance within the medium, for instance in 2009 we saw the creation of two commendable

plasticine movies, Henry Selick’s ​Coraline​ and Wes Anderson’s ​Fantastic Mr. Fox​.17​
​ If we

consider other titles such as ​Kubo and the Two Strings ​(2016), ​James and the Giant Peach

(1996), ​The Nightmare Before Christmas​ (1993), and ​Wallace and Gromit​ (1989-2005) we see

just how wide this animation style has become in contemporary culture. Due to the unfeigned

aesthetic of stop motion, clay animation is often created with a family oriented demographic in

mind.

Object animation and cut out animations are often used in unison with other forms of stop

motion photography. For instance, ​Kubo​ uses paper object animation within its title sequence. By

moving the paper slowly, just as clay would be moved slowly in plasticine animation, still

objects appear to move into a typographic frame.​18​ This can be taken even further, as was done

with the adult animation ​South Park​. In the pilot of this series we see the use of construction

paper in the entirety of the composition. According to Trey Parker and Matt Stone, the program

creators, in the beginning this simplicity actually added to the candor and humor of the shows

overall themes, the primitive look actually benefited the show. After the pilot episode, the show

became completely animated via computer in what is called “computer motion graphics”​19​.
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Computer graphics allowed for a refined workflow.

The advent of computer graphics created a drastic change in the workflow of many

artists. Since in a digital landscape creators no longer were required to manually develop

artwork, they could duplicate scenes and characters with ease, and could composite the whole

animation without shooting individualistic frames. This was but an evident step for artists to

move away from analog art systems. Although some films, such as those spoken of before in the

stop motion methods, still are made primarily outside of a digital landscape, it is very seldom in

the modern world that a computer does not at least aid in some way to animation production. Just

for a moment think about the sheer expanse of frames used to in turn render something into a

video. At only 10 minutes, using the basic 24 frames per second structure, we find over fourteen

thousand frames are created. Without even discussing the prevalence of movement inside a 2D

or 3D graphics engine we can see how cataloging such frames creates efficiency and yields

higher productivity.

Marcia Kuperberg explains in ​Guide to Computer Animation for TV, Games, Multimedia

and Web​ how programs such as Adobe Flash, even in the beginning stages of computer

animation did much more than compact still frames into coherent video. By creating vector

based lines, or mathematical graphics created on a 2D canvas, the software could then morph the

form between different defined shapes. No longer was there a need for in-between artists on the

more insignificant movements. Kuperberg goes on to say that by the turn of the century 3D

engines could accurately depict many structures and lighting schematics with usage of polygonal

modeling and raytraced shadow mapping. Again, using defined mathematical locations and
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formulas, the computer could take manmade graphics and create fairly realistic simulations from

them, then rendering these images into singular frames that could be played as an animation.​20

Much of time in digital animation, even today, the artwork is first drawn by hand prior to

being recreated digitally. Due to this meshing, many of the programs used to create motion

graphics and 3D animations are built in a similar system to that of traditional animation.

Correspondingly, since these animations could be effected by digital algorithms, interaction was

made possible, creating a new media form entirely: videogames.​21​ Through all these transitions

and the improvements to technology almost all films today are produced digitally. Even Disney,

the company recognized as placing traditional animation into the media spotlight, turned

completely to computer influenced work in 2009. While speaking to Ben Child from the

Guardian, Toy Story director John Lasseter stated:

Unfortunately 2D became the excuse for poor storytelling. The general consensus

was that audiences did not want to watch hand-drawn animated films, which is of

course completely ridiculous. The day I stepped in we got in touch with these

guys and set about bringing back the artists that Disney had laid off.

The article goes on to state that although the animators were again employed, the ​Princess and

the Frog​ became the last traditional animated feature created by the studio. Instead of forcing the

style upon the story, they allowed the story to drive the aesthetic henceforth.​22

During the late 20th century, Eastern and Western animation diverged.

In this next section I will be discussing in detail two pieces, the Disney film ​Toy Story​ as

well as the Gainax series ​Neon Genesis Evangelion​. Both were created in 1995 and are
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considered “standards” within the scope of their specified genres. Both met worldwide acclaim,

and although they differ drastically, have a similar target audience. This is rather surprising, due

to the highly opposing messages portrayed in both stories. While ​Toy Story​ has an overwhelming

message of hope in adversity, ​Evangelion​ is a coming of age tale in the entanglement of hopeless

existentialism.

Toy Story​ created a new path in which Disney followed.

Toy Story​ was revolutionary in the fact it meshed original storytelling with the modern

technology of digital 3D design. Using the age old hope created by youth that toys could have a

life of their own, Disney created a tale that has withstood the test of time. Charles Baudelaire

famously reaffirmed this imaginative need in ​Morale Du Joujou​:

What most children want, above all, is to see the soul of their toys, some at the
end of a certain period of use, others right away. It is on the more or less swift
invasion of this desire that depends the length of life of a toy. I do not find it in
me to blame this infantile mania; it is a first metaphysical tendency. When this
desire has implanted itself in the child's cerebral marrow, it fills his fingers and
nails with an extraordinary agility and strength. This child twists and turns his toy,
scratches it, shakes it, bumps it against the walls, throws it on the ground ... at last
he opens it up, he is the stronger. But where is the soul? This is the beginning of
melancholy and gloom.​23

From an artistic sense, Disney noted that this method of storytelling required a

semi-realistic presence so that individuals could relate to the material; this realism was brought

to them under the guidance of Pixar. What most people do not realise is that Pixar was a separate

entity until 2006, and the merger of talents combined by these two juggernauts in the media

industry almost lead to the ruin of multiple films. If we look back at the productions that Disney
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was producing prior to ​Toy Story​ we see a more satirical take on humor. Films such as ​The Lion

King​ and ​Aladdin​, although extremely successful, contained witty humor that did not translate to

all audiences in the wholesome methodology that Pixar wished for the story to take place. This is

an important point to reference, seeing that without the influence of Pixar writers such as Joss

Whedon could not have told a story with such candor as we currently see Disney Pixar today.​24

When the film begins, we are brought into complete nostalgia with the scene of Andy, the

films human figure, playing with a host of toys placed inside his room. Andy, creating a story

mimicking an old western theme, uses the toys as puppets, and as the title sequence begins, drops

Woody, voiced by Tom Hanks, on the floor (fig. 3). As we can see, the usage of lighting on

different materials mimics everything from plastic to fabric. The removal of an outer contour line

was rather forgiving upon the films art director, Ralph Eggleston, allowing for intricate

compositing of elements in the scene. Another curious aspect to the film is the usage of humor

that appeals to different age groups. For instance, in the scene where all of the toys come to life,

many of the toys provide lines appealing to a much older audience. For instance “Mr. Potato

Head” reorients his face in a peculiar way and states in the voice of Don Rickles, “Hey Ham, I’m

Picasso,” a joke a young viewer would never understand. Also when “Little Bow Peep,” a

porcelain doll in the film, talks with Woody in private, she states “What if I get someone else to

watch the sheep tonight,” a definitive use of an innuendo. When paired with the overall art style

that appears childlike in nature, this rather sinful one liner created a very contrasting narrative.

Instead of disputing the plot, moments like this actually create even more realism to the

characters, adding personality and motives to each developing actor.​25

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When discussing the art of animation, we must always remember that this form is not

simply a visual story, but contains auditory elements as well. Midway through the film, Randy

Newmen presents us with the song “I Will Go Sailing No More” in the scene where “Buzz

Lightyear,” a space ranger action figure, learns he is a toy. This musical number is produced as a

heartfelt counterpart to what is happening visually on the screen. Buzz attempts to fly through a

window, and the music bellows into a chorus stating “Like a bird in the sky, if I believe I can fly,

I will fly.” Buzz Lightyear states his tagline “To Infinite and Beyond,” and Buzz falls, just as a

minor key change presents itself. The camera pans to an overhead shot as the action figure closes

his eyes, broken, then reopens them as lifeless as the toy he realises he has always been (fig. 4).​26

The attention to the utmost details throughout this scene were also taken, for instance the

“MADE IN TAIWAN” and “© Disney” embossments in plastic on the Buzz figure shows the

respect given to realism in this animated feature. Alan Ackerman of the University of Toronto

Quarterly reminds us that in a time before computer generated images, this type of detail was

simply not plausible for a studio to undertake prior.​27 ​This in itself lends well to the narrative in

even more cases, as he continues on how the introduction of computer graphics have created a

very inclusive portrayal of the characters:

I have purposely avoided using the term film to discuss Toy Story because the
movies were not shot with film. Entirely computer-generated, they cannot have
even the faintest trace of an original unless audience members project one
fantastically. There is no space between the original and the beholder since there
is no original. And, if there is no original, what can authenticity mean? What is
demanded of us is a new mode of perception. The toys are aware, or become
aware, of the fact that their lives cannot be measured in individual terms but only
in those of mass production. 'You Are a Toy!' is the line shouted at any object that
thinks itself special (a 'real' space ranger or cowboy, for example). To be a toy in
a Disney movie is to be always already reproduced.​28
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This iconic scene is one that I believe captures the quintessence of Disney’s approach to

computer motion graphics. The use of contrasting red tile to his green and white figure forces the

viewer to stare directly upon him, and with the slow rotation of the camera upward, in a quite

literal sense, we see how small Buzz becomes, not only in reference world but to himself. The

viewer becomes rather sympathetic of Buzz, because like him, they have had to overcome the

hopelessness of their dreams ending in ruin.

I think the moment in which Buzz learns his true nature prior to this scene also captures a

rather alluring aspect to the story as a whole (fig. 5). As you can see the figure is placed in a

center composition yet again, this dimly lit scene beckons the melancholy change in atmosphere.

As his doppelganger appears on the screen, we view the television set through the distorted lens

of the spherical space helmet, and being the brightest element, draws our complete attention.

This portrayal of Buzz Lightyear as both alive and inanimate allows the viewer to understand

this scene completely without any need for clarification from an auditory statement.

Toy Story​ as a whole follows a circular narrative, ending practically where it began. It is

the portrayal of the characters that builds this story, and through their development, we can live

vicariously through them, feeling we have grown as well. I recall the moment in which Buzz and

Woody are trapped in the antagonist’s house, with a rocket strapped on the back of the space

ranger and the sheriff trapped underneath the crate. Woody proclaims his faults and confesses his

envy to Buzz, a vindication to all of us that although not perfect, we are of value. This, the

turning point of the movie, proves that the story drove the animation’s aesthetic. The burnt

matches on the desk, the light peering through the rain-soaked glass, the still camera and slight

movements of characters. This type of cordial portrayal of two dominant, sometimes overbearing
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characters proves that Disney did the impossible, giving life to the lifeless. This ability would

translate to their films henceforth, creating a ensignia for all to follow.​29

Evangelion​ is a singular example of the differences present in eastern animation.

Neon Genesis Evangelion​, and the defining effects it has placed on modern society has

come into question for years, remaining a controversial television series today. Disguised as a

teenage oriented ​mecha​, a science fiction genre centering heavily around robotics, this series

drastically questions cultural norms. As a viewer peers much deeper into the concepts shared by

this series, we see Hideaki Anno, the franchise’s director and writer, examine many parts of the

human element. Themes such as sexual desires, gender norms, religion, abandonment,

bereavement, ego, death, and the self identity are discussed quite heavily throughout its runtime.

Consisting of 26 episodes and a movie, ​Neon Genesis Evangelion​, and its subsequent reboot

movie tetralogy ​Evangelion​, became a worldwide phenomenon.

As we start to dissect this series, we must first look at the sanguine, jazzy intro placed at

the beginning of each of the 26 episodes. From the beginning we are given runic type, placed in

contact with a portrayal of each of the main characters profiles. We see an images of the Eva

units, the mechanical robots controlled by Shinji, Asuka, and Rei, all adolescents tasked with

saving the world from utter annihilation. Surprising to western audiences, nude figures even

appear during this opening sequence. As we reach the climax of the musical number, vague

messages from both the plot as well as religious references to both the apocalypse and the Dead

Sea Scrolls flash between fight scenes. Although impactful, this opening contrasts the

melancholy approach found in nearly half of the series, using a broad spectrum of color and
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typography to make it appear as if this show is simply another conflict driven narrative. I feel

that the duality between the show and the opening benefits the story as a whole, making the

viewer question the very motives of Anno in his screenplay.​30

This story begins in a desolated Tokyo with Misato Katsuragi, the main adult figure in

the show, retrieving Shinji. With cicadas chirping in the background the first “angel,” any enemy

of humanity, begins to attack an inferior UN lead military force. Using an iconic cel shaded

methodology and the classic appearance of eastern character designs, the animation may seem

convulsive to a person unaccustomed to what the west has termed “anime.” From the beginning

of this series we see the usage of surrealism to press the story forward, with Rei appearing and

disappearing in the frame moments before the attack. This scene ends with the usage of a nuclear

mine dropped onto the angel, in which has little to no effect on the heavenly being.​31

Without going into the intricate and often metaphysical plot of the show, even in the first

episodes we can see how religious iconography presents itself. The angel when attacking uses

what appears to be a christian cross of pure energy to pierce the human strongholds (fig. 6); the

logo of Nerv, the entity which creates the Eva robots, contains the phrase, “God’s in his heaven,

all’s right in the world.” Even the color scheme lends well to these rather transcendental

moments by producing monochromatic compositions in key succession when internal struggles

are being placed on the characters. Mike Crandol in an article posted by Anime News Network

spoke on how these interdimensional characteristics played upon the storyline:

Like many works of fiction​ Evangelion​ is an allegory, but most allegories

function on only two levels: the story itself and it's symbolic meaning. One of the
remarkable things about Evangelion is that it functions on no less than four
distinct levels. ... But very quickly is becomes apparent that there is much more
here than meets the eye, as a global conspiracy of literally Biblical proportions is
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slowly revealed in tandem with the degeneration of the main character's psyche,
illustrated...in a marvelous breakthrough use of animation...inside Shinji's mind.​32

As we continue through the story the complexity deepens, heightened by ever changing

use of different visual queues. Anno used a rather avant garde approach to the frames, at times

halting movements for a fraction of a minute, other times inverting the frame completely. Scale

also seems to be a common motif to present not only power, but also isolation and danger. For

instance, in ​The End of Evangelion​ as humanity begins to merge into a singular consciousness,

Rei infests Lilith, referred to as “the creator of life itself”, turning into a figure encompassing

most of the earth. Grasping at the now crucified Shinji trapped within the Evangelion unit, and

surrounded by nine angelic beings, Rei begins the Third impact, which ends all life (fig. 6).

Scenes such as this ignore all bounds of logic, pushing the philosophical into a perceptible

image. In any other medium, this perception of depth, scale, and time could simply not have been

achieved. The simplistic contour lines allow us room to imagine a much more fantastical

environment, far from our own reality.​33

The most complex scene in the series happens shortly after the occurrence just spoken of.

A young Shinji, being brought into the metaphysical plane between life and death is caught

playing with two ragdolls, drawn crudely as Rei and Asuka. These dolls soon abandon him, and

with a tilt of the camera we find that the sun is actually a studio light, representing that human

ties to each other are all but a facade. As the grainy filter is removed from view dialogue of

Misato, who Shinji sees as both a mother figure and a love interest, is heard having sex. Shinji

also is reminded of his other love interests, Asuka, Rei, and Kaworu (a boy discovered earlier in

the series), and after he feels the rejection from all of them, begins to choke Asuka to death (fig.

7). Notice the framed composition caused by the upended furniture, as well as posing between
 Warren 22

both figures. Even as Shinji is seen taking control, he is still shown passively while Asuka stands

formidably over him. The music begins a classical duet of percussion and piano in a harmonious

tone as the screen turns red and child’s drawings of destruction are flashed to the audience.​34

As is apparent with the descriptions of this series, we can see a divergence from western

views of the animation artform. In an article for Slant Magazine, Michael Peterson describes the

intricate process used in eastern animations to portray such complex messages:

It is incredibly difficult to create a solid visual that then serves as a metaphor

within the work itself, as the visual has to be potent in its initial incarnation
without disrupting the flow of the story, and then must recur in a natural way. The
latter criteria is easy in a work like ​Evangelion​, which features numerous
sequences that exist solely as representations of the internal struggle within a
major character—psychic battling, dissolution of ego, nightmares, and the Human
Instrumentality Project that closes the series all serve Anno's attempts to travel
within by using the visuals acquired without.​35

Much of the symbolism discovered through this series are but just that, completely visual in

nature, and require the viewer to interpret what is happening. Instead of telling this fiction in a

standard model, Anno creates a reality he requires the viewer to live within. By describing events

in such a way, each person interprets the story differently, creating a rare inclusive record of not

only what happens within that reality, but our own as well.

By developing removed from western influence, eastern animation is unique.

One of the key differences between western and eastern stylizations in this medium is in

the very cultures they are designed for. Due to Disney creating family oriented films throughout

the previous generation, it has become fairly standard for animation in the United States and

Europe to follow a similar trajectory and produce films aimed at children. This is simply not the
 Warren 23

case in Japan, Korean, and China, the main producers of eastern animation. Anime, strictly

speaking of animation created in Japan, has many sub genres, including science fiction, horror,

comedy, and even pornography.​36​ By creating a wide range of themes, aiming at a much larger

audience than adolescents, cartoons translate from a sub culture to popular culture within the

areas of eastern Asia.​37​ Why is there such a definitive schism when both mediums developed

under such similar circumstances?

One suggestions to this division of ideologies is based upon the resource materials used

to create these productions. As Thomas Lamarre describes in his book ​The Anime Machine​ we

find that anime frequently builds upon previous created works in order to produce the story.

Manga​ (comics), light novels, videogames, toys, music, and even merchandise are often used as

a base, and from this, captures the existing products followers reducing the risk of producing a

non profitable film or show. Seeing that these mediums are not specifically catered to

adolescents, the culture as a whole does not view it as a child-based medium. Also, with less

stringent copyright regulations, fans are allowed to create amateur productions without fear of a

lawsuit. Fan created spin offs are appreciated as simply part of the culture, producing a vast

network of both consumers and creators alike.​38

Probably the most easily defined element of anime against our accustomed western take

on animation is the aesthetic followed by the majority of anime studios. While Disney and the

west transitioned away from traditional animation, eastern animation and its iconic style have

lasted and grown in the past decade. If we remember the historical Edo period of Japan, we

remember the ukiyo-e woodblock prints that were mass produced to the entirety of the populace.

As we look at the art in modern anime, it is not surprising that many historians view this as a
 Warren 24

predecessor to this animation style.​39​ Even with the transition to computer generated 3D engines,

we see a quite intentional reproduction of the cel shaded look to renders of digitally created

objects. By integrating both simultaneously, sometimes redrawing the 3D modeled sections

again by hand, the look becomes fluid. A prime example of this is the movie ​Appleseed ​(2004),

which was created almost completely in a graphics engine. The result is a blend of manga,

anime, and realism, allowing for even the most complex mechanical movements to blend into

drawings seamlessly.​40

The last large difference between eastern and western culture is an ideological difference

of media in general. Herlander Elias describes that cultural beliefs, such as the Shinto belief

system, aid well to the portrayal of the fantastical events created in animation. For instance in the

advent of mecha, although a peculiar, wondrous genre in the west, seems quite natural to a

culture that views spirits inhabiting everything, including machines. We also see a host of other

psychological driven appearances in animation that simply could not be considered in film.

Hyūmanizumu​, or the vague term of humanism in western culture, is extravagantly interpreted

visually by visual queues.​41​ By visualizing human emotions in a singular image, animation can

describe scenes much easier than the live action Hollywood films produced in America can

generate.

How becoming a mainstreaming mediaform has affected animation.

As we look at the slow transition from the experimental techniques of the early 20th

century to the modern computerization of animation today, we see that one thing is for certain: it

has become a solitary medium. On one hand we see that animation uses many aspects of
 Warren 25

drawing, painting, and modeling in which take from traditional art forms, but within the scope of

today’s industry it has also become a corporate figure as well. Lamarre stated that “the corporate

entities struggle to unfold and refold the divergent series of animation, for profit,” which is both

reassuring and troubling.​42​ On one hand we have a self sustaining manifestation, a plausible

outlet in which thousands of artist can use their creative talents to create masterpieces, but in

another scope we see how reliant artist are upon the industry for support. By doing this we have

seen a stagnating of original ideas, both in eastern and western culture alike. Shows and movies

that are based upon already existing materials, while a secure investment for studios, kills the

diversity of the artform.

From an optimistic sense the animation industry has seen a major increase of outlets in

which to provide their expertise. With many companies using simplistic animations to sell their

products, full agencies are dedicated simply to these smaller projects. Due to computers and later

cell phones creating countless devices in which users could view these videos, bold, adept

animations that tell a story in a limited time have become a market for many animators in

modern society.

Another hopeful aspect is that with modern technology the defining lines between live

action and animation are becoming much more blurry. Beginning with the CGI found in movies

such as ​Star Wars​ (1977) and ​Blade Runner​ (1982) we find effects that, when bisected, are

animations themselves placed inside a real environment. Since this time, nearly all live action

movies have contained similar CGI composited materials. Even films spanning nearly two

decades old such as ​Lord of the Rings​ (2001), ​Jurassic Park ​(1993), and ​The Matrix​ (1999) had

animations so astounding, they are still held in wide acclaim today.​43​ The ability to create
 Warren 26

environments, characters, and objects that simply do not exist is one of the benefits of the

animation industry, and will most certainly prevail henceforth.

Animation is all around us.

Through my study of animation I have seen that much of our world now revolves around

its creation. Just as other forms of art have become the staple of their time period, from the

mosaics of the medieval era, to the paintings of the Renaissance, we currently live in the age of

animation. In many cases the only artwork an average person may see is in fact an animation in

the form of a streamed movie, an online video, or a small advertisement placed upon a webpage.

The digital landscape has brought about a revolution of artist with the ability to mimic time much

the same way our ancestors attempted thousands of years ago. Out of all the parts of reality, time

is but the most evasive yet direct forces acting upon us, and as stories are created to imitate this

force, I feel we gain so much more. Unlike the explorers of old leaving a legacy behind by

finding the new world, animators tell their stories, assuredly leaving behind their own reality,

created by their hopes and dreams. Anyone who takes the time to see this world is but equal,

seeing the animation unfold the same way: one frame at a time.
 Warren 27

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1.

The Burnt City Goblet​, 3200 BCE, earthenware, height approximately 6’, HiPersia: The Burnt

Civilization, http://hipersia.com/en/news.cfm?id=41 (accessed Dec 6, 2016).

Fig. 2.

McCay, ​Gertie the Trained Dinosaur​ (still frame), 1914, ink on paper, size varies, in Howard

Beckman, Animation the Whole Story (Allworth Press, 2003). 20.

 Warren 28

Fig. 3.

Dir. John Lasseter, ​Toy Story ​(still frame), 1995, digital video, HD Video, Walt Disney

Productions, 1995. DVD. 2:04.

Fig. 4.

Dir. John Lasseter, ​Toy Story ​(still frame), 1995, digital video, HD Video, Walt Disney

Productions, 1995. DVD. 48:54.

 Warren 29

Fig. 5.

Dir. John Lasseter, ​Toy Story ​(still frame), 1995, digital video, HD Video, Walt Disney

Productions, 1995. DVD. 47:06.

Fig. 5.

Dir. Hideaki Anno, ​Neon Genesis Evangelion: The Beast ​(still frame), 1995, digital video, HD

Video, Studio Gainax, 1995. DVD. 20:20.

 Warren 30

Dir. Hideaki Anno, ​End of Evangelion ​(still frame), 1997, digital video, HD Video, Studio

Gainax, 1997. BD. 54:41.

Dir. Hideaki Anno, ​End of Evangelion ​(still frame), 1997, digital video, HD Video, Studio

Gainax, 1997. BD. 1:05:13.

 Warren 31

Notes

1.Ryan Ball, “Oldest Animation Discovered in Iran,” ​Animation Magazine​ (March 12th,

2008).

2. Marc Azema and Florent Rivere, “Animation in Paleolithic Art,” ​Palethnology

(September 2010), 57-73.

3. Stephan Prince, ​Digital Visual Effects in Cinema: The Seduction of Reality​ (Rutgers

University Press, 2012), 25-26.

4. Ibid., 29.

5. Lisa Cartwright, ​Screen the Body: Tracing Medicine’s Visual Culture ​(University of

Minnesota Press. 1995), 3.

6. Howard Beckman, ​Animation: The Whole Story ​(Allworth Press, 2003), 17-20.

7. Ibid., 31-32.

8. Mark Simon, ​Producing Independent 2D Character Animation ​(Focal Press, 2003),

xiii

9. Tony White, ​Animation: From Pencils to Pixels​ (Focal Press, 2006), 2, 17-19.

10. ​Floyd Norman: An Animated Life​. Directed by Erik Sharkey and Michael Flore.

Michael Flore Films, 2016.

11. Tony White, ​Animation: From Pencils to Pixels​ (Focal Press, 2006), 15-19.

12. Michael Barrier, ​Hollywood Cartoons​ (Oxford University Press, 1999), 17-19.

13. Ibid., 149-151

 Warren 32

14. ​Floyd Norman: An Animated Life​. Directed by Erik Sharkey and Michael Flore.

Michael Flore Films, 2016.

15. Disney Family. “Walt Disney Introduces the Multiplane Camera”. [Filmed Febuary

1957]. YouTube video, 02:07. Posted [Febuary 2011], ​https://youtu.be/kN-eCBAOw60​.

16. Tony White, ​Animation: From Pencils to Pixels​ (Focal Press, 2006), 34.

17. Ken Priebe, ​The Advanced Art of Stop-Motion Animation​ (Cengage Learning PTR,

2010), 1-3

18. ​Kubo and the Two Strings​. Directed by Travis Knight. Focus Features, 2016.

19. ​6 Days to Air​. Directed by Arthur Bradford. Comedy Central Productions, 2011.

20. Marcia Kuperberg, ​Guide to Computer Animation: For Tv, Games, Multimedia and

Web​ (Focal Press 2002), 11-17

21. Tony White, ​Animation: From Pencils to Pixels​ (Focal Press, 2006), 409.

22. Ben Child, "Disney Turns Away from Hand-drawn Animation". ​The Guardian

(March 07, 2013)

23. Charles Baudelaire, “Morale du joujou.” ​Curiosites esthetiques, L'Art romantique, et

autres Oeuvres critiques​. (Editions Gamier Freres 1962), 201-207

24. Moir Andrew, Alex Newsome, and James Cluskey, Film Commentary: Toy Story,

The Spoilist​, podcast audio, June 27, 2016, h​ ttp://thespoilist.com/film-commentary-toy-story/

25. ​Toy Story​. Directed by John Lasseter. Walt Disney Productions, 1995.

26. Ibid.

27. Alan Ackerman, ​The Spirit of Toys: Resurrection and Redemption in Toy Story and

Toy Story 2​. (University of Toronto Quarterly 74.4 2005), 907.

 Warren 33

28. Ibid., 909-910.

29. ​Toy Story​. Directed by John Lasseter. Walt Disney Productions, 1995.

30. ​Neon Genesis Evangelion​. Directed by Hideaki Anno. Studio Gainax, 1995. 1-26

31. Ibid., 1

32. Mike Crandol, ​Understanding Evangelion​. Anime News Network, June 11th, 2002

33. ​The End of Evangelion​. Directed by Hideaki Anno. Studio Gainax, 1997.

34. Ibid.

35. Michael Peterson, “The Economy of Visual Language: Neon Genesis Evangelion”.

Slant Magazine​ (August 29, 2008).

36. Herlander Elias, ​The Anime Galaxy: Japanese Animation As New Media​. (LabCom

Books 2012), 3

37. Susan Napier, ​Anime from Akira to Princess Monoke​. (Palgrave Macmillan 2000), 4

38. Thomas Lamarre, ​The Anime Machine: A Media Theory​. (University of Minnesota

Press 2009), 185

39. Ibid., 17-18

39. Herlander Elias, ​The Anime Galaxy: Japanese Animation As New Media​. (LabCom

Books 2012), 22

40. Susan Napier, ​Anime from Akira to Princess Monoke​. (Palgrave Macmillan 2000), 4

41. Herlander Elias, ​The Anime Galaxy: Japanese Animation As New Media​. (LabCom

Books 2012), 8

42. Thomas Lamarre, ​The Anime Machine: A Media Theory​. (University of Minnesota

Press 2009), 311

 Warren 34

43. Andrew Chong, ​Digital Animation​. (AVA Publishing 2005), 47-48, 69, 99, 101
 Warren 35

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 Warren 36

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February