REVIEW ARTICLE

Exploring risk factors and determinants: A scoping review of factors

associated with nomophobia
Akanksha J. Rajguru, Ashwani K. Mishra, Rachna Bhargava, Siddharth Sarkar, Yatan Pal Singh Balhara
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National Drug Dependence Treatment Centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
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ABSTRACT

Background: Nomophobia or no‑mobile‑phone phobia, defined as the fear of being unable to use or being unreachable
via one’s mobile phone. The pervasive concern has varied bio‑psychosocial and clinical implications in an individual’s
life. Nomophobia is currently in an exploratory phase.
Methods: A scoping review was conducted to systematically map the relevant evidence and literature on nomophobia.
The review of scholarly literature spanning from January 2010 to May 2023 employed a narrative synthesis methodology
to succinctly encapsulate the research findings. Additionally, it encompassed a meticulous examination and visual
representation of studies, detailing both the frequency of investigation into specific variables and the instances in which
said variables exhibited a statistically significant association with nomophobia.
Results: A thorough examination of 92 studies revealed a total of 133 variables spanning demographic, lifestyle‑related,
academic, smartphone‑related, psychosocial, and clinical domains. Notably, 42.86% of these variables have only been
investigated in a single research study, underscoring the imperative for replication to enhance the generalizability,
validity, and applicability of research findings. Moreover, the review identifies Nomophobia Questionnaire (NMP‑Q)
by Yildirim and Correia as the most widely used tool for measuring the severity of nomophobia.
Conclusion: There is a crucial need for homogeneity and consistency in reporting nomophobia scores and establishing
corresponding gradations indicative of functional ramifications or clinical severity of nomophobia. The findings
elucidate significant research gaps in existing literature on nomophobia, hold implications for further synthesis of data,
and contribute to a comprehensive understanding of nomophobia; ensuring superior diagnostic accuracy and precision,
and facilitating successful delivery of targeted interventions.

Key words: Narrative synthesis, nomophobia, scoping review, systematic mapping

INTRODUCTION or “no‑mobile‑phone phobia” is defined as the fear of

being unable to use or being unreachable via one’s mobile
Nomophobia is often associated with problematic use of phone.[1,2] The clinical characteristics and its psychosocial
mobile technologies and addiction problems. Nomophobia implications include impulsive use of technological devices,
regular and excessive smartphone use, nervousness
Address for correspondence: Dr. Yatan Pal Singh Balhara,
Room 4080, Teaching Block, All India Institute of Medical and/or anxiety at the thought of losing, misplacing,
Sciences, New Delhi ‑ 110 029, India. battery draining/failure, lack of access to internet and/or
E‑mail: ypsbalhara@gmail.com
Submitted: 19‑Mar‑2024, Revised: 20‑Jun‑2024, This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of
Accepted: 23‑Jun‑2024, Published: 17-Jul-2024 the Creative Commons Attribution‑NonCommercial‑ShareAlike 4.0 License,
which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non‑commercially,
Access this article online as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under
the identical terms.
Quick Response Code
Website: For reprints contact: WKHLRPMedknow_reprints@wolterskluwer.com
https://journals.lww.com/indianjpsychiatry

How to cite this article: Rajguru AJ, Mishra AK, Bhargava R,

DOI:
Sarkar S, Balhara YP. Exploring risk factors and determinants:
A scoping review of factors associated with nomophobia.
10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_244_24
Indian J Psychiatry 2024;66:591-602.

© 2024 Indian Journal of Psychiatry | Published by Wolters Kluwer - Medknow 591

 Rajguru, et al.: Systematic mapping of nomophobia

network services, avoidance of situations or places where The present review is an attempt to synthesize and
smartphones are not permitted, frequently checking the consolidate the different factors associated with
phone, spending a considerable amount of time on the nomophobia by mapping the literature. This can serve as
phone to exclusion of face‑to‑face communication, and a starting point for more detailed empirical studies and
associated financial issues.[3] The inability to use mobile meta‑analysis. No such systematic mapping of literature has
phones may cause anxiousness, nervousness, frustration, been found.
distress, persistence, obsessive thoughts and compulsions,
and suicidal ideation.[4,5] METHODS
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Excessive smartphone use and nomophobia significantly Aim

impact an individual’s physical, psychological, and The scoping review was aimed at systematically mapping
social health. Physiological symptoms associated and synthesizing the literature on factors associated with
with nomophobia may include dizziness, difficulty in nomophobia.
breathing, elevated blood pressure levels, stomach
cramps, trembling, sweating, headache, lethargy, Design
respiratory distress, heartthrob, tachycardia, and even The study is guided by a multistage framework for
cancer (as a long‑term consequence).[1,6‑8] There is conducting scoping reviews by the Arksey and O’Malley
literature to suggest that the degree of smartphone use framework.[31]
or dependence is significantly related to musculoskeletal
discomfort,[9] fatigue,[10] eye strain,[11] and headaches.[10] Identifying the research questions
Negative impact on sleep[11] and circadian rhythm[10,12] The scoping review was aimed at addressing the following
have also been reported. research questions
• What are the various demographic, behavioral,
Psychological manifestations of nomophobia may include psychosocial, and clinical factors associated with
persistent anxiety, depression, low self‑esteem, panic, nomophobia?
self‑inflicted isolation, nervousness, irritation, agitation,
anger, paranoia, insecurity, confusion, loneliness, Identifying relevant studies
dependency, identity‑related issues, etc.[13,14] It may also We conducted an online search using PubMed, Cochrane,
lead to deficits in empathy and attention.[15] Furthermore, and Web of Science to identify relevant articles published
it provides a potential escape from conflicts in social lives, between January 2010 and May 2023. No studies prior
loneliness, and emotive problems of the real world.[16,17] to 2010 could be found. The search was conducted
Excessive use of smartphones and extreme attachment using keywords related to the research questions and
can become problematic and may lead to dependence Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms. The search
and behavioral addiction.[18‑21] These may include internet string for key terms on PubMed was ((((Nomophobia)
addiction, gaming disorder, sex addiction, pornography AND (associated variable)) OR (factors)) OR (correlates))
addiction, pathological gambling, and hyper‑personal OR (predictors). Hand searches were conducted at
communication in online chats and games which has the the National Medical Library, New Delhi, and BB Dixit
potential to become a personal threat for the individual in Library, AIIMS, New Delhi, to identify any additional
question.[22] researches.

Systematic reviews have shown that nomophobia is currently Snowballing of references in relevant articles was done
in an exploratory phase.[23,24] Growing number of studies in an attempt to identify relevant literature and be
have explored the relationship between nomophobia and exhaustive. We also made a concerted effort to include
associated psychological and clinical variables. However, grey literature. This was achieved by undertaking
researchers have pointed out the need to holistically searches on Google Scholar and/or Google search
and comprehensively examine factors associated with engine. They included unpublished thesis, preprints,
and predictors of nomophobia.[25‑30] The current review and non‑peer‑reviewed journal articles. Corresponding
aims to encompass a meticulous examination and visual authors of studies with paid access were contacted via
representation of studies, detailing both the frequency email for full‑text articles.
of investigation into specific variables and the instances
in which said variables exhibited a statistically significant Selection of studies that were included
association with nomophobia. It will serve to elucidate the The following inclusion criteria were applied for the
salience of variables consistently linked with nomophobia selection of the studies: (a) Journal articles, thesis, and
while also highlighting areas where potential research preprints published in the English language. Other forms
gaps exist or where findings need replication, indicating of publication like websites, magazines, newsletters, etc.,
opportunities for further investigation or validation. were not included, (b) Population of interest/investigation

592 Indian Journal of Psychiatry Volume 66, Issue 7, July 2024

 Rajguru, et al.: Systematic mapping of nomophobia

were adults (18 years or more), (c) Studies that used followed PRISMA reporting guidelines (PRISMA‑ScR) for the
appropriate, standardized measures of nomophobia. final report.[34]
Studies that used nomophobia interchangeably with
smartphone addiction and/dependence, internet Ethical approval
addiction/dependence were excluded, (d) Studies that Ethical approval was not applicable for this review article
focused on identification of factors associated with, and as it does not involve original research with human
predictors of nomophobia (e) included observational participants, animals, or sensitive data.
studies, systematic reviews, descriptive, comparison
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RESULTS
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and association‑based studies, regression or modeling

studies, experimental, and mixed methods study
designs. In the case of mixed method studies, only the Search and selection of studies
quantitative parts of the study were considered for the An initial database search identified 195 studies related
review. (f) Published between January 2010 and May 2023 to nomophobia and associated factors, correlates,
[Figure 1]. and predictors. One hundred and eleven studies were
assessed for eligibility upon exclusion of articles that
In the context of the current study, nomophobia is defined were duplicate (n = 84), not full texts (n = 4), and not in
as the fear of not being able to use a smartphone or a English (n = 3). Forty‑four of these studies were excluded
cellular phone and/or its services. It encompasses not being based on the prespecified inclusion and exclusion criteria.
able to communicate, not being able to access information Additionally, studies found from alternate sources, namely,
via smartphone, losing connectedness, and giving up hand searches, snowballing of references from relevant
convenience.[2] studies, and studies from systematic reviews were also
assessed for eligibility based on inclusion and exclusion
Data extraction criteria. A total of 92 studies were included in the review.
We extracted data from selected studies using an extraction
table in Microsoft Excel. The following information was Study characteristics
extracted: author, publication year, country, sample, study The studies were categorized based on the WHO country
design, tools used to measure nomophobia, and findings in groupings. Highest number of studies were from the
terms of demographic, smartphone‑related, psychosocial, European region (n = 45),[14,27,29,35‑76] followed by Eastern
and clinical variables that are associated with nomophobia. Mediterranean regions (n = 18),[30,46,77‑92] South East Asia
While extracting data from systematic reviews, each article (n = 14),[93‑106] Western Pacific (n = 7),[107‑113] Region of
included in the study was reviewed using the inclusion and Americas (n = 4),[28,114‑116] and African region (n = 3).[117‑119]
exclusion criteria, and relevant studies were included in the One study was conducted in Pakistan and Turkey.[120]
present study
Thirty‑four were multivariable studies, i.e. used various
Data synthesis types of regression models and/or structural equational
A meta‑analysis of the included studies was deemed modeling techniques, mediational or moderation
unfeasible owing to the heterogeneity of populations, analysis.[27,29,30,35,38‑40,42,46,47,53‑55,58,60,67,68,71,73,76,80‑82,86,90,93,97,98,106,108
multitude of variables, study designs, scales used, outcomes ,109,112,119,120]
Rest of the studies involved univariate or bivariate
of the study, and insufficiency of data for statistical pooling. analysis techniques such as correlation, comparison, and
A narrative synthesis[32] was performed to consolidate associations [Supplementary Table 1].
the findings of different studies. Pictorial representations
have been integrated to depict the frequency of studies Scales used
examining each variable (categorized as demographic, The majority of the studies either used English or contextually
psychosocial, smartphone use related, academic, lifestyle, relevant translations or versions of the Nomophobia
and clinical), alongside the count of studies wherein a questionnaire (NMP‑Q) by Yildirim and Correia (2015).[2] Other
significant association with nomophobia was discerned. scales for nomophobia include the Nomophobia Scale,[66]
In any study, a variable was considered significant if any Questionnaire to assess nomophobia (QANIP),[29] Anxiety/
measure of relationship (such as correlation, regression, Dependence on Technology subscale of the Media and
association, or comparison) yielded statistically significant Technology Usage and Attitudes Scale (MTUAS),[115] and
results. The pictorial representations were created using Azadmanesh’s nomophobia questionnaire.[80]
Microsoft Excel.
Factors associated with nomophobia
GitMind was utilized for the creation of a comprehensive Various factors associated with nomophobia were
mind map, systematically delineating and cataloging all classified under six headings, namely, demographic,
pertinent factors investigated within the scope of the smartphone‑related, lifestyle, academic, psychosocial, and
reviewed studies.[33] The review was not preregistered. We clinical variables.

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Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram of articles through the scoping review process

Demographic variables studies where a significant association with nomophobia

The demographic variable that has received the most was observed.
scholarly attention is gender,[14,30,35,37,39-44,49-51,54,56,59,60,63,65-69,71,74,
76,77,79,81-84,86,88,89,93,95,96,98,102-107,113,115-118]
closely pursued by age. Lifestyle variables
[30,35,37,39,41-44,49,51,52,60,63,66,67,71,74,79-81,84,86,87,89,93,95,98,103,105-107,116,118]
Academic investigations have examined the interrelationships
Some other variables include working status,[38,49,66] number between nomophobic behaviors and lifestyle factors such
of siblings,[49] socioeconomic status,[49,93,100,106] subjective as physical activity,[42,60,78,92] body mass index,[42,84,86] eating
economic status,[117] place and region of residence,[37,39,49] habits/patterns,[117] and sleep.[60,88,92,117,118] Studies have
living status,[38,54,55,77,102,117] religious affiliations,[117,118] also examined the relationship between nomophobia
relationship status,[59,77,93,117] and years of professional and behaviors such as smoking status,[51,55,60,77,82,88,93] use
experience.[41,42] Parental educational,[36,37,55] living status,[82,84] of psychoactive substances,[60,82,93] and consumption of
and level of “advanced” or “expert” use of information and alcohol.[55,60,88,93]
communication technologies[39] were also studied.
Figure 4 illustrates the frequency of studies examining
Figure 2 illustrates the frequency of studies examining each each lifestyle variable and the number of studies where a
demographic variable and the number of studies where a significant association with nomophobia was observed.
significant association with nomophobia was observed.
Smartphone use‑related behaviors
Academic variables In an attempt to gauge smartphone usage patterns,
A few studies examined the link between studies explored the role of smartphones in shaping
nomophobia and academic variables such as daily routines and potentially influencing sleep patterns
department,[14,51,55,63,67,79,81,88,93,100,117,118] year of scho by enquiring about smartphone use immediately upon
ol,[14,36,39,55,56,59,66,67,77,81,87,88,93,95,99,102‑105,117] number of credits,[30] waking,[14,41,50,59,62,98] just before going to sleep[14,41,43,59,62,69]
number of hours spent on studying per week,[77] academic and, whether they kept their smartphones near
achievements,[49,69,77,79,88,93] number of warnings,[77] and their bedside while going to sleep[62,69] and carry
participation in extra‑/cocurricular activities.[117] chargers/power banks.[14,41,49,69] Some studies also
examined the purposes for which individuals use their
Figure 3 pictorially represents the frequency of studies smartphones[35,38,39,43,72,98,99] and the contexts in which
examining each academic variable and the number of they were used.[14,37,93]

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Figure 2: Comparison of frequency of investigation into demographic variables with frequency of statistically significant
associations with nomophobia

Figure 3: Comparison of frequency of investigation into academic variables with frequency of statistically significant associations
with nomophobia

of daily smartphone use,[14,30,38‑41,43,44,49,50,54,57,59,60,62,69,79,

access to internet on device,[38,39,79,95,99,103,118]
85,93,95,98‑100,104‑107,112]

duration of daily internet use,[14,41,50,54,62,87,118] frequency of

checking smartphones,[14,30,37,40,41,43,44,49,50,54,62,69,81,95,98,99,105] screen
time,[92] social media usage duration,[14,73] calls per day,[37,95,105]
messages per day,[37,43,95,105] emails per day,[37] number of
applications[95,99,103,105]; and device metrics such as number of
devices or activations,[38,118] cost of phone,[38] type of phone,[116]
and screen size[86] were also studied. The quantity of online social
interactions was measured by enquiring about the number of
friends made online[37,87] and a number of followers.[37]

Figure 5 illustrates the frequency of studies examining each

Figure 4: Comparison of frequency of investigation into smartphone use‑related variable and the number of studies
lifestyle variables with frequency of statistically significant where a significant association with nomophobia was observed.
associations with nomophobia
Psychosocial variables
Usage metrics such as duration of smartphone Multiple studies have explored the associations between
use[39,43,49,95,99,103,105] and ownership,[40,43,54,60,67,87,100,118] duration nomophobia and self‑esteem,[38,59,75,80,84,97,99,109,120]
Indian Journal of Psychiatry Volume 66, Issue 7, July 2024 595
 Rajguru, et al.: Systematic mapping of nomophobia

attachment styles,[76,85] fear of missing out,[44,48,49,52] and solitude,[109] perception of the relationship with the
mindfulness,[68,76,85] impulsivity,[84,115] life satisfaction,[40,44] family[55,60] have also been explored.
self‑happiness,[99,120] emotion management skills[27,43]
and emotion dysregulation,[54] boredom proneness,[54,115] Figure 6 pictorially represents the frequency of studies
and state boredom.[101] Some studies also examined the examining each psychosocial variable and the number of
relationships between various coping strategies and studies where a significant association with nomophobia
nomophobia[70,94] was observed.
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Less than two studies investigated the relationship Clinical variables

between nomophobia and intolerance to uncertainty,[27] Numerous investigations have scrutinized the associations
differentiation of self,[27] locus of control,[46] affect,[54] between clinical psychopathologies and nomophobia. Among
sensation seeking,[72] chronotype,[92] perceived work the clinical variables, depression[39,42‑44,47,50,54,60,65,72,84,91,93,110,111]
overload,[52] future expectation,[55] mobile phone and anxiety[39,42‑44,47,50,54,60,65,78,84,85,91,104,111] have garnered
attachment,[46] and work satisfaction.[60] the most attention, as evidenced by the exploration in 15
studies, followed closely by stress.[43,44,50,65,84,91,108,110,111]
Studies have explored the relationship between
nomophobia and Big Five personality traits.[14,35,36,41,44,45,62 Social anxiety was also the foci of interest in multiple studies,
,67,80,82,119]
Other personality traits include negative affect, variables included Social Interaction Anxiety,[100] Social
detachment, disinhibition, and antagonism.[82] Researchers Appearance Anxiety,[73] and Social Phobia.[71] Other clinical
have also examined the connections between nomophobia psychopathologies examined include obsessive thoughts[35,114];
and temperaments.[29,90] obsession–compulsions, paranoid ideation, phobic anxiety,
psychoticism, phobic anxiety, and interpersonal sensitivity[47,60];
In the social realm, associations between nomophobia somatization and hostility.[47,54,60] Insomnia was yet another
and perceived social support,[40,45,108] loneliness[43,58,99,101,120] pertinent clinical variable studied frequently.[78,84,86,92,93]

Figure 5: Comparison of frequency of investigation into smartphone use‑related variables with frequency of statistically significant
associations with nomophobia

Figure 6: Comparison of frequency of investigation into psychosocial variables with frequency of statistically significant
associations with nomophobia

596 Indian Journal of Psychiatry Volume 66, Issue 7, July 2024

 Rajguru, et al.: Systematic mapping of nomophobia

Studies also examined the relationship between nomophobia These variables include years of professional experience,
and addictive behaviors: Substance use addictions such use as soon as waking up, use just before going to bed, leave
as smoking addiction,[51] alcohol risk addiction[63]; and smartphone near bedside, number of friends made online,
behavioral addictions, namely, internet addiction[78,112] or social media usage duration, fear of missing out, impulsivity,
problematic internet use,[73,87] smartphone/mobile phone mindfulness, boredom, negative affect, family support and
addiction[28,44,53,63,65,72,46,83,93,112] or problematic smartphone/ connectedness, stress, interpersonal sensitivity, phobic
mobile phone use,[110] netlessphobia,[48] social media anxiety, hostility, obsession–compulsions, psychoticism,
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addiction,[40] Facebook addiction,[93] digital addiction,[53] paranoid ideation, problematic internet use, and insomnia.
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gaming addiction,[40] food addiction.[79] Perceiving oneself

as addicted was yet another variable examined for its Among demographic variables, gender was the most extensively
associations with nomophobia.[41] investigated. Within lifestyle and academic parameters,
smoking status and year of study, respectively, garnered the
Figure 7 illustrates the frequency of studies examining highest frequency of examination. Among psychosocial factors,
each clinical variable and the number of studies where a the correlation between nomophobia and personality traits
significant association with nomophobia was observed. received the greatest attention. In terms of clinical variables
associated with nomophobia, depression and anxiety emerged
Figure 8 summarizes and maps the findings of the study. as the most extensively researched variables.
The size of variables is proportional to the number of
studies that examine their relationship with nomophobia. Addiction and nomophobia
During the process of data extraction, we observed
DISCUSSION that terms such as smartphone/internet/mobile phone
addictions, problematic use of smartphones/mobile
The aim of the study was to systematically map literature with phones/internet, and nomophobia have been frequently
respect to nomophobia and the factors associated with it. We used interchangeably with nomophobia. Nomophobia
identified variables under six domains, namely, demographic, and smartphone addiction are interrelated and share
lifestyle‑related, academic, smartphone‑related, psychosocial, commonalities, namely, a sense of comfort and relief
and clinical variables. Approximately 47.8% of the studies stemming from smartphone use.[121] Moreover, nomophobic
were conducted in the European region with a large chunk behaviors are analogous to substance dependence/
of research conducted in Turkey (n = 31). Most of the studies addiction in their production of short‑term rewards, a
were descriptive, nonexperimental designs, similar to the sense of relief and/or comfort,[121] persistence despite
findings of other systematic reviews.[24] negative consequences and deteriorated functioning,[29] and
coinciding symptoms with the withdrawal of nonsubstance
Ninety‑nine variables out of the total 133 examined abuse disorders (gambling, internet, smartphone) to include
demonstrated significance in at least half of the studies anxiety, irritability, and sadness.[3,122,123]
where they were assessed. A limited number of variables
that were examined in more than one study demonstrated The fear of losing, being away, not being able to use
consistent significance throughout the academic literature. smartphones and associated anxiety, and nervousness

Figure 7: Comparison of frequency of investigation into clinical variables with frequency of statistically significant associations
with nomophobia

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Figure 8: Systematic mapping of factors associated with nomophobia

may be seen as a withdrawal symptom of smartphone associated levels reflecting functional impact or clinical
addiction[124] but is not the same as smartphone addiction severity of nomophobia. Hence, the high prevalence of
or dependence. Researchers and clinicians need to be nomophobia studies is merely indicative of the presence
cognizant of the differences between the terms and need of symptoms of the disorder and should not be mistaken
to operationalize them to ensure correct use and improved as clinically diagnosable entities. Dib and colleagues (2022)
conceptual understanding of the phenomenon. point out that a score in the “severe” category on NMP‑Q
can be classified as a full diagnosis of nomophobia, whereas
Challenges with synthesis of data mild and moderate scores are open to interpretation by
A vast majority of the studies included in the current researchers and clinicians.[82] However, research studies
review used NMP‑Q and its translations or culturally must specify clear cutoff points and should aim to ensure
adapted versions. However, we found heterogeneity and that the cutoff points they select align with those used in
inconsistency in the assessment and interpretation of NMP‑Q a larger number of studies, thereby ensuring consistency
scores. Studies have used NMP‑Q scores as a continuous and coherence across the academic landscape which can
variable wherein higher scores represent greater severity facilitate future synthesis efforts.
of nomophobia. Other studies have classified NMP‑Q
scores in different categories: two (present and absent),[103] Nomophobia is still in an exploratory phase.[23,24] The present
three (mild, moderate, and severe), and four (absent, review has highlighted areas where a significant research gap
mild, moderate, and severe). Some studies explicitly state persists, as evidenced by the graphical analyses comparing
the categories and associated cutoffs, whereas others do the investigation of frequencies and statistically significant
not. There is no evidence of the scale’s cutoff points and associations of variables. Furthermore, the consolidation

598 Indian Journal of Psychiatry Volume 66, Issue 7, July 2024

 Rajguru, et al.: Systematic mapping of nomophobia

of data into a mind map has underscored these lacunae, Conflicts of interest
delineating the extent of investigation of each variable. This There are no conflicts of interest.
provides a comprehensive landscape of the existing research
and indicates area that warrants further scrutiny. Out of REFERENCES
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2018;14:1519‑32. social media usage, locus of control, and loneliness as a predictor of
121. Harkin J. Mobilisation: The Growing Public Interest in Mobile Technology. nomophobia. Addicta Turkish J Addict 2018;5:243‑557.
London, UK: Demos; 2003. 125. Nosek BA, Errington TM. What is replication? PLoS Biol 2020;18:e3000691.
122. Park CL. Religion as a meaning-making framework in coping with life doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000691.
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602 Indian Journal of Psychiatry Volume 66, Issue 7, July 2024

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Supplementary Table 1: Summary of the studies included in the review

Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
· Not being able to access information weakly correlated with
extraversion (r= 0.130).
· Emotional stability has a negative correlation with NMP
ranging between r= -0.108 to r= -0.214. LC (r=-0.183) & GC ( r=- Obsessive thoughts had a positive correlation
Age negatively correlated with sub-
0.146) negatively correlated with NMP. with NAC (r= 0.264), LC (r=0.134) and GC (r=
dimensions of NMP (r= -0.107 to -0.226)
· All subdimensions of NMP correlated with agreeableness 0.140).
except NAI (r= -0.132 to -0.201).
· All subdimensions of NMP negatively correlated with openness
to experience (r=-0.159 to -0.283).
European 366 working people Predictive, regression-
García-Masip et al., 2023 NMP-Q
region/ Spain form Tarragona based study

· Sex, extraversion, emotional stability, openness to experience, obsessive beliefs and interaction between openness to experience and OB predicts 20.1% variance
in NAC.
· Age, extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience and obsessive beliefs predicts 12% variance in LC.
· Age, extraversion, emotional stability, openness to experience and obsessive beliefs and interaction between Extraversion and OB predicts 12.4% variance in
NAI.
· Sex, age, extraversion, openness to experience and obsessive beliefs and interaction between emotional stability and OB predicts 19.6% variance in GC.

NMP is significantly correlated with emotional stability (r= -

European 818 nursing Descriptive correlational 0.147, p= .002) and conscientiouness (r= -.173, p<.001). There
Molu et al., 2023 NMP-Q
region/ Turkey department students study was a significant difference among the three level of severity of
NMP in terms of Emotional stability and conscientiousness.

Females, younger age, non-working students,

Cross-sectional,
European 1408 university whose fathers had no university educations
Vagka, 2023 regression-based study, NMP-Q
region / Greece students were more likely to exhibit severe
Association
nomophobic levels
Cross sectional study
European 1060 university Gender, self esteem and father's educational status significantly
Vagka et al., 2023 Association, comparison NMP-Q
region / Greece students predicts NMP vategories in a multivariaye ordinal model
and regression

· NMP scores were higher in those who started using their

smartphone 7–8 years ago (compared to 0-6 years), those who had
· Older students had lower NMP scores. a mobile internet data plan, used the cell phone for 4-5 h , 6–9 h NMP scores were higher for students with
Analytical cross-
European 3139 human medical · No sex differences in NMP. and for more than 10 h (compared to those who used it for less possible anxiety (B- 6.5. CI- 4.3 to 8.9) and
Copaja-Corzo et al., 2022 sectional design, NMP-Q
region/ Peru students · Level of education significantly associated than 4 h). depressive symptomology (B= 19.5, CI- 5.2 to
modelling
with NMP. · Purpose of use: those who mainly used smartphones for social 9.6)
networking, entertainment as compared to communication had
higher NMP scores.
· No significant difference in NMP scores based on daily usage
time.
· Higher daily checks of smartphone have significantly higher
Females have a significantly higher NMP NMP levels.
score as compared to men. · Moderate positive correlation (r = 0.579) between nomophobia
European 451 University and social media addiction
Cirak & Dost, 2022 Multiple regression NMP-Q
region/Turkey students · Moderate positive correlation (r = 0.316) with impact on daily
life.
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale

33% variance in NMP levels explained by game addiction, social media addiction, effect on daily life, social connectedness and life satisfaction. Only social media
addiction was statistically significant (p<.001).

Significant difference - nomophobia scores based on daily

smartphone usage time, daily internet use time, frequency of
Descriptive, cross Significant difference in NMP levels between checking per hour, charger possession, spending time before
European
Uguz & Bacaksiz, 2022 669 nurses sectional and NMP-Q males adn females, age, years of professional going to sleep, bedtime smartphone shut down and checking
region /Turkey
correlational; Comparison adn institutional experience. smartphone first thing in the morning after waking up.
Significant relationship between nurses’ nomophobia levels and
neuroticism scores (r= 0.211; p< .001)

· Females are more exposed than males to

nomophobia (p < 0.001)
· Nurses who record high anxiety levels also
· Age from 31 to 40 years and also with less
report nomophobia (p < 0.001).
than 10 years of work experience seem to be
· Physical activity less · The trend is inverse by considering
more affected comparing to the other sub
than 1-2 hours per week reported significantly high levels depression conditions since most of the nurses
groups (p < 0.001).
nomophobia condition (p < 0.001). suffering from mild or moderate nomophobia
· No statistical differences between
· Negative correlation between Physical activity and NMP (r= - levels report the absence of the depression
nomophobia levels and shift work (p =
European 0.241). condition (p < 0.001).
Vitale et al., 2022 430 nurses Regression NMP-Q 0.269), nursing educational
region/Italy · Positive correlation between NMP and
level (p = 0.242) and BMI levels (p =
anxiety (r= 0.302) and depression (r= 0.231)
0.183). No significant correlation between
BMI and NMP.

· Physical activity negatively predicts NMP (B= -0.221, p<.05).

· Anxiety positively predicts NMP (B= 0.237, p< .05)

· Greater frequency of smartphone and social media use.

· Those who own a smartphone from an earlier age experience Significant moderate correlations with
European 257 students of Cross sectional, Females and younger students experience
Santl et al., 2022 NMP-Q higher level of NMP. Negative associations between emotional depression (r= 0.35, p< .001), anxiety (r= 0.44,
region/ Croatia University of Croatia correlational design greater severity of NMP symptoms.
skills and competences and NMP. p< .001) and stress (r= 0.44, p< .001).
· No significant association between NMP and loneliness.

· Significant positive correlation between stress

SIgnificant negative correlations with age (r= and nomophobia (r= 0.32, p=.025).
· Significant correlation with how long and how frequently
-0.094) and gender (r= -0.132) · Depression and anxiety positively correlated
smartphone was used per day.
but correlation not significant.
NMP-Q-D · Significant correlation (r- 0.373, p< .001) between nomophobia
European Translation of NMP-Q Females significantly higher nomophobia - Significant positive correlation between
Coenen & Görlich, 2022 807 students (German and Fear of Missing out.
region/ Germany and validation study. scores nomophobia and smartphone addiciton (r=
translation)
0.599)
Time spent daily on a smartphone (B= 0.13, p= .001), number of smartphone activations (B= .15, p< .001), gender (B= -.09, p= .016), and the personality
dimension neuroticism (B= .16, p< .001) explained 10% variance using a multiple regression model.
Descriptive cross
European Neuroticism and perceived social support from family are
Serin & Ister, 2022 101 students sectional and NMP-Q
region/ Turkey significantly correlated with NMP scores.
correlational study
Validation study of
NMP-Q
Enez & Yalçınkaya- European Mobile phone attachment Strong positive correlation between NMP and mobile phone
242 university students Turkish
Alkar, 2022 region/ Turkey questionnaire Turkish attachment (r= 0.70, p< .001)
Version
version
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
NMP total scores were correlated highest with
interpersonal sensitivity (r = 0.31, p < .001),
paranoid ideation (r = 0.29, p < .001), Phobic
anxiety (r= 0.24, p< .001), obsessive
compulsive (r= 0.23, p< .001), depression (r=
0.23, p< .001), Psychoticism (r= 0.23, p< .001),
271 participants from
anxiety (r= 0.21, p< .001) and hostility (r=
European İzmir Bakırçay
Yılmaz & Bekaroğlu, Cross sectional study, 0.15, p< .05)
region/ University and Ankara NMP-Q
2022 regression based
Turkey Hacı Bayram Veli
Multiple linear regression- IVs- Somatization, Phobic anxiety, psychoticism, anxiety, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, Obsessive-compulsive, hostility,
Universit
paranoid ideation, additional items; explained variance of 13%.; none of the items were significant on their own.
Hierarchical regression analysis:
· Phase 1: Obsessive compulsive, depression, anxiety and phobia subscales- 7.3% variance
· Phase 2: Phase 1+ paranoid ideation- 9.5% variation in Nomophobia scores
· Phase 3: Phase 2 + Interpersonal sensitivity- 11% Variance.

Netlessphobia (r = 0.666; p < .001) and fear of missing out (r=

Descriptive cross 0.403, p< .001) have a positive moderate correlation with NMP.
European
Bacaksiz et al., 2022 802 nursing students sectional, correlational NMP-Q
region/ Turkey
study
Netless phobia accounted for 44.4% variance and FoMo 18.5% of variance in NMP scores. Together, they predicted 45.4% of variance in scores.

· Males had significantly higher NMP scores · No significant difference in NMP scores based on smartphone
a.c.t women (z= -2.563, p= .010). use duration, daily checking smartphones, daily smartphone usage
· Those who were not working had time, time elapsed with search, number of social media , state of
European significantly higher NMP scores (z= -2.106, being obstacle lessons using the phone, power bank transport.
Correlational, cross
çatıker et al., 2022 region/ 241 participants NMP-Q p= .035) · Those who did used smartphones during theoretical lessons, and
sectional study
Turkey · No significant differences were observed had a higher frequency of checking smartphones during
in terms of age, number of siblings, income theoretical lessons, had significantly higher NMP scores.
status, social insurance, region of residence, · Moderate significant positive correlation between FoMO and
and place of residence. NMP (r= 0.363, p< .001)

· Those who used SP as soon as waking up in the morning had

significantly higher scores a.c.t those who did not. (t= 3.110, p= NMP significantly correlated with depression
European Descriptive, correlational
Tolan & Karahan, 2022 356 university students NMP-Q No gender differences. .02). (r= 0.261, p< .01), anxiety (r= 0.307, p< .01)
region/ Turkey study
· Higher frequency of daily checking SP associated with higher and stress (r= 0.341, p< .01).
NMP scores (F= 8.407, p< .001)

641 university · Females have a significantly higher NMP

European students studying score (p= .003). No significant difference in
Descriptive, correlational No significant difference between smokers and nonsmokers in No significant correlation between nomophobia
Işcan et al., 2021 region/ medicine, dental, NMP-Q NMP scores w.r.t age.
design terms of NMP scores. and smoking addiction.
Turkey nursing and · No statistically significant difference in
physiotherapy terms of department.

Negative correlation between NMP and age

European Positive correlation between NMP and Fear of missing out (r=
Hoşgör et al., 2021 178 nurses Descriptive, regression NMP-Q (r= -0.238, p= .001) and length of service in
region/ Turkey 0.558, p< .001) and perceived work overload (r= 0.270, p< .001)
profession (r= - 0.254, p= .001)

Moderate, positive relation with smartphone

addiction (r= 0.602) and digital addiction (r=
European 0.518) with NMP.
Descriptive correlational,
Çobanoğlu et al., 2021 region / 215 nursing students NMP-Q
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country Descriptive correlational, scale
Çobanoğlu et al., 2021 region / 215 nursing students NMP-Q
regression study
Turkey Dependence subdimension of Digital addiction scale and Smartphone addiction scale- SV and its subdimensions including daily life disturbances and tolerance
significantly explain 47.3% of variance in NMP scores.

· No statistically significant relationship between NMP severity

and duration of MP ownership.
· Significant difference between NMP and daily MP usage time
Moderate, positive correlation between
· Females had higher NMP scores a.c.t males and daily internet usage time and daily frequency of checking MP.
nomophobia and psychopathological symptoms
((t (495) = 5.634, p< .001). · Positive significant correlation between NMP and emotion
(r= 0.26, p< .001) namely, somatization (r=
· Living setting had a significant effect on dysregulation (r = 0.29, p< .001).
0.20, p< .001), depression (r= 0.23, p< .001),
NMP (Dormitory > living at home) · No significant correlation exists between NMP and trait positive
European anxiety (r= 0.26, p< .001), hostility (r= 0.25, p<
Cross sectional study, · No significant relationship between NMP affect.
Enez, 2021 region / 497 students NMP-Q .001) and negative self-concept (r= 0.22, p<
Predictive level in terms of living with someone. · A positive correlation exists between NMP-Q scores and
Turkey .001)
negative affect ( r= 0.24, p< .001).
· NMP has a significant and positive correlation with boredom
proneness (r= 0.28, p< .001)

Multiple regression analysis revealed that factors explained 13.9% of variance in NMP scores.
Boredom proneness (β= 0.22, p< .001) > Positive affect A (β= 00.17, p< .001) > Emotion dysregulation (β= .14, p= .023) > Psychopathological symptom severity
y (β= .07, p> .05) > Negative affect A (β= .0, p> .05).

· Those who did not consume alcohol had higher NMP-Q scores
· Females had higher NMP scores as
as compared to those who did (t= -2.30, p= .02).
compared to men (t= 2.12, p= .03).
· Significant difference between those who use internet for diff
· Significant difference based on living
European Quantitative cross- purposes (Other> Chat> Homework> curiosity and hobby).
234 preservice status (F=2.686, p= .04) (Dorm> with
Çevik-Durmaz et al., 2021 region / sectional study, NMP-Q · No significant difference based on smoking status. No
teachers family> at home with friends> home alone)
Turkey regression difference in NMP-Q scores based on future expectations, life
· No significant difference in terms of year
satisfaction.
of school, department, maternal education,
· Sense of loneliness (B=.609, p< .001) predicts 27% variance in
family relationship status.
NMP-Q scores.

· No difference by gender and course year.

Cross sectional
European 280 nurses and · Higher percentage of moderate
Frassini et al., 2021 quantitative descriptive NMP-Q
region / Italy nursing students nomophobia among students, and mild and
study
severe nomophobia among nurses.

Observational, Positive correlation between number of hours spent on MP and

European 244 nursing students
Marletta et al., 2021 correlational descriptive NMP-Q NMP in students (r= 0.287, p< .01 and in Nurses (r= 0.319, p<
region / Italy and 72 nurses
study .01)

Significant correlation between NMP-Q scores and familial

NMP-Q loneliness (r= 0.151, p<.01). Positive and non-significant
European correlation between romantic loneliness and social loneliness.
Gezgin & Ümmet, 2021 692 university students Simple linear regression Turkish
region / Turkey
translation
Familial loneliness predicts 2.3% variance in NMP scores

People who look at phone as soon as you wake up and using

· Females have significantly higher NMP
phone before going to sleep are significantly associated with
European Descriptive correlational scores.
Celik Ince, 2021 607 nursing students NMP-Q higher NMP scores.
region / Turkey design · No difference in NMP scores based on
No significant correlation between nomophobia and self esteem
marital status.
(r= -0.067, p=.097)
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
Positive correlation between NMP and),
Obsession-Compulsion (r = 0.394, p < .001),
Anxiety (r = 0.340, p < .001), Phobic Anxiety (r
= 0.347, p < .001), Psychoticism (r = 0.382, p <
Relationship with family and friends negatively correlated with
.001), somatization (r = 0.322, p < .001),
NMP-Q (r= - 0.148, p= .001)
Descriptive cross Depression (r = 0.374, p < .001), Hostility (r =
European 495 subjects- residents 0.384, p < .001), Paranoid Ideation (r = 0.381,
Gonçalves et al., 2020 sectional correlational NMP-Q
region / Portugal of Braga District p < .001) and Interpersonal Sensitivity (r =
design (Regression)
0.390, p < .001).

Multiple regression using age, gender, education, lifestyle, smartphone use, symptomology explained 37.2% variance in NMP scores. Statistically significant IVs
included Average hours spend on smartphone per day (B= 10.976, p< .001), obsession-compulsion (B= 1.734, p< .001), number of years with smartphones (B=
1.471, p< .001), work type personality (B= 3.733, p< .001), Education (-3.444, p< .001), Family and friends (-3.094, p= .005), Physical activity (B= -1809, p=
.013)
· Positive correlation between NMP and Intolerance to uncertainty
(r= 0.29, p<.001).
· Significant negative correlation between NMP and
European differentiation of self (r= -0.43, p<.001) and emotional
Ercengiz et al., 2020 398 univeristy students Regression modelling NMP-Q
region / Turkey management skills (r= -0.39, p<.001)

The association between nomophobia and differentiation of self is partially mediated by intolerance to uncertainty.

European Turkish adaptation and An inverse significant relationship was revealed between the total
Dabudak et al., 2020 408 university students NMP-Q
region / Turkey validation of NMP-Q five factor personality scale and nomophobia (r= -0.197, p<.001).

· There is a significant difference in NMP-Q scores of individuals

with higher frequency of checking smartphone during the day,
using phone as soon as waking up, and just before going to sleep
and keeping phone while going to sleep.
European
Dal & Korkmaz, 2020 509 participants Correlational NMP-Q · A positive correlation exists between nomophobia and
region / Turkey
personality traits. (r= 0.11, p<.05).
· Positive correlation between NMP, and agreeableness (r=
0.255, p<.01), conscientiousness (r= 0.166, p<.01), and negative
correlation with emotional stability (r= -0.223, p<.01).
· No significant gender differences in terms
No significant correlation between NMP and
European Cross sectional study of gender and department.
Fidancı, 2020 386 university students NMP-Q Smartphone addiction and alcohol addiction
region / Turkey (Correlation) · Negative, weak correlation between age
risk score.
and NMP (r= -.102, p= .046).
· Females had higher NMP scores a.c.t · No differences in NMP scores in terms of age of 1st smartphone
Márquez-Hernández et European Cross sectional study males. use.
124 nursing students NMP-Q
al., 2020 region / Spain (correlation) · No statistically significant difference in · Low positive correlation between opinion about smartphone
terms of age. restriction policies and NMP scores (r= 0.129, p= .025)
NMP-Q- PT is positively correlated with
NMP-Q
European Scale translation and smartphone addiction (r= 0.70, p< .001), stress
Galhardo et al., 2020 500 adult subjects translation in
region / Portugal validation (r= 0.28, p< .001), depression (r= 0.23, p<
Portuguese
.001), and anxiety (r= 0.27, p< .001).
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
· No significant gender differences.
· Younger students had significantly higher
Nomophobia nomophobia scores.
400 respondents in the Scale (NSPS) · Significant difference in nomophobia
European Cross sectional,
Gurbuz & Ozkan, 2020 age group of 17-29 developed by levels between high school students and
region / Turkey descriptive study
years Gurbuz and university graduates (high school students >
Ozkan (2019), university graduates).
· No significant difference in scores based
on work status.
· Females have a significantly higher NMP
· Significant difference in NMP scores based on smartphone
score distribution.
ownership.
· Age has no relationship between NMP
· Nomophobia was found to have a positive correlation with the
scores.
personality trait of extraversion (r = 0.078, p < .05)
European 496 preservice · Statistically significant difference between
Akhoroz, 2019 Predictive NMP-Q · A significant negative correlation was found between
region / Turkey teachers scores based on major,
nomophobia and agreeableness (r = -0.111, p < .01)
· No significant difference based on year.

Extraversion and agreeableness predict 2.7% variance in NMP-Q scores.

mindfulness has a
European 491 undergraduate Structural equation Women have significantly higher NMP
Arpaci et al., 2019 NMP-Q negative and significant impact on nomophobia (r=
region / Turkey students modelling scores a.c.t men (F= 2.71, p= .03)
-.34, t =-4.94, R 2 =.12, , p < .001)

Those who carry charge device/ power bank, check phone as soon
European 818 pre-service Descriptive design Females have a significantly higher NMP as waking up, use smartphones before sleeping, leave
Demı̇ r, 2019 NMP-Q
region / Turkey teachers (comparison) score distribution. smartphones at bedside during sleeping have significantly higher
NMP scores.

NMP significantly correlated with the following coping strategies:

Denial (r= 0.19, p< .001), self-distraction (r= 0.22, p< .001), use
European Cross sectional and
Bragazzi et al., 2019 403 young adults NMP-Q of emotional (r= 0.25, p< .001) and instrumental support (r= 0.16,
region / Italy correlational design
p= .001), behavioral disengagement (r=0.16, p= .001), self-blame
(r= 0.12, p= .02) and venting (r= 0.28, p< .001).

· No significant gender differences in NMP

scores. Low positive correlation between NMP and
European 810 students from Descriptive design · Participants NMP scores do not social phobia (r< .2, p< .01).
Apak & Yaman, 2019 NMP-Q significantly differ by age.
region / Turkey Bingöl University (Regression)

2.9% of variance in scores can be explained by social phobia.

· There is a positive strong correlation between

nomophobia and Smartphone addiction (r =
Validation study of
European 0.63, p < 0.01).
Csibi et al., 2018 240 volunteers Smartphone Application NMP-Q
region / Hungary · NMP-Q explained 17.6% variance in scores
based Addiction Scale
on Smartphone application based addiction
scale (b = 0.12, p < 0.01).
Questionnaire
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
to assess
Observational cross- nomophobia
Olivencia-Carrión et al., European NMP scores were significantly predicted by reward dependence (B= 1.04, p< .001), cooperativeness (B= -1.12, p< .05). The model explains 8.33% prevalence of
968 adults sectional study (QANIP;
2018 region / Spain NMP.
(regression) Olivencia-
Carrión et al.,
2018)
Significant positive correlation between NMP
Moderate significant correlation between social media use levels
and Problematic internet use (r= .259, p< .001),
and NMP (r= .499, p< .001)
European 755 nursing school Descriptive, cross- social appearance anxiety (r= .320, p< .001)
Ayar et al., 2018 NMP-Q
region / Turkey students sectional regression
Multiple regression model suggests that social media use (B= .258), social appearance anxiety (B= .320) and problematic internet use (B= .432) explaining 21.6%
variance in NMP scores with the overall model being significant (F= 68.745, p< .001)

· Portuguese students: females had higher

nomophobia scores.
European Comparative,
Gutierrez-Puertas et al., · Spain- no significant gender differences
region / Spain 258 participants observational descriptive NMP-Q
2018 were observed.
and Portugal design
· No relationship between age and
nomophobia scores in both countries
European 1350 university No significant correlation between NMP scores and self-esteem
Kadirhan, 2018 Correlational study NMP-Q
region / Turkey students scores.
Females had significantly higher score
SIgnificant difference with respect to daily frequency of
Significant difference in terms of department
European 414 undergraduate smartphone checking.
Yogurtcu, 2018 Correlational NMP-Q of study
region / Turkey students Significant correlation between NMP and extraversion,
No significant difference in terms of class
neuroticism and openness to experience
level
Mindfulness has a negative and significant impact on NMP (r=-
.34, R2= .12, p < .001)
European 450 undergraduate Multigroup Structural
Arpaci et al., 2017 NMP-Q
region / Turkey students equation Modelling study Nomophobia significantly predicted by Avoidant, anxious attachment style and mindfulness. 33% variance. The indirect influence of both avoidant and anxious
attachment on nomophobia through the mediator, mindfulness, was found to be statistically significant (P<.001)

· For turkey, there was a significant

European
difference across gender, year and interaction
region & NMP moderate significant correlation with loneliness (r= .627,
729 university Quantitative relational of gender and year.
Eastern p<.01), self-happiness (r= -.336, p< .01) and self-esteem (r= .223,
Ozdemir et al., 2017 students from Turkey survey method NMP-Q · Whereas, for Pakistan there was a
Mediterranean / p< .01).
and Pakistan (Regression) statistically significant difference across the
Pakistan &
variable of year.
Turkey
Multiple regression with 3 factors predicted 51.7% variance in NMP scores with loneliness (B= .346), self-happiness (B= -.336) and self esteem (B=.233). All
Region of Descriptive cross- Positive correlations ranging between r= 0.56 to
326 people from 22
Guimarães et al., 2022 Americas / sectional design NMP-Q r= 0.71 between NMP sub-dimensions and
Brazilian states
Brazil (Correlation) smartphone addiction.
Anxiety/
Dependence
on
Technology
subscale of the
Region of Descriptive study Negative correlation between NMP and A positive correlation exists between NMP and Boredom
Regan et al., 2020 135 college students Media and
Americas / USA (Correlation) Gender (r= -0.204, p< .05). Proneness (r= 0.305, p<.01) and impulsivity (r=0 .175, p< .01)
Technology
Usage and
Attitudes
Scale (Rosen
et al., 2013)
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
· Mean female scores were significantly
higher a.c.t male scores.
· More females reported scores qualifying as
severe NMP. I
Region of
Cain & Malcom, 2019 224 pharmacy students Association NMP-Q · Phone users were more likely to report
Americas / USA
moderate to severe NMP compared to non-
iPhone users.
· No significant association with respect to
age.
Region of Validity and reliability of Weak positive significant relationship b/w
Lee et al., 2018 400 undergraduates NMP-Q
Americas / USA NMP-Q NMP and Obsessive thoughts (r= 0.30, p< .001)
· Female students have significantly higher
nomophobia scores than males.
Eastern · Single students significantly higher scores
Cross-sectional survey Students who did not smoke had higher nomophobia scores a.c.t
Aldhahir et al., 2023 Mediterranean/ 1428 students NMP-Q as compared to married students.
(Comparison) smokers
Saudi Arabia · Students living away from family scored
significantly higher nomophobia scores as
compared to those with their families.
Duration of smartphone usage positively correlated with NMP
Eastern
scores (r=.22)Secure, preaccupied and fearful attachment style has
Gohar & Munir, 2023 Mediterranean / 208 university students Cross sectional study NMP-Q
a positive and direct effect on NMP. Whereas Mindful awareness
Pakistan
has a negative effect on NMP.

Physical activity has a low, non significant association with NMP-

Eastern
Q scores (r=0.01, p=.86). Screen time significantly correlated Insomnia severity index and NMP-Q - positive
Jahrami, 2023 Mediterranean / 444 participants Correlation NMP-Q
with NMP-Q (r=0.11, p=.02). Sleep duration not significantly significant correaltion (r=0.32, p<.001).
Bahrain
associated with NMP (r= -.0.08, p=.1).

Weak positive correlations between higher negative affect (r =

0.113, P < .001), detachment (r = 0.087, P < .001), antagonism (r
= 0.093, P < .001), disinhibition (r = 0.145, P < .001),
Significantly Higher mean NMP scores seen
psychoticism (r = 0.100, P < .001), neuroticism (r = 0.179, P <
in females a.c.t males and in those who
.001), extraversion (r = 0.045, P = .032), and openness (r = 0.068,
Eastern smoked waterpipes a.c.t to those who did not.
P = .001).
Dib et al., 2022 Mediterranean / 2260 residents Cross sectional study NMP-Q
Negative weak association between NMP scores and
Lebanon
agreeableness (r = −0.154, P < .001)

higher neuroticism (B = 0.648), number of waterpipes smoked per week (B = 0.749), and disinhibition (B = 0.706) were significantly associated with higher
nomophobia scores, whereas more agreeableness (B = −0.535) and detachment (B = −0.594) were significantly associated with lower nomophobia scores

Eastern
Rahme et al., 2022 Mediterranean / 2260 participants Linear regression NMP-Q · Lower nomophobia severity was predicted by higher hyperthymic temperament (β = −0.34).
Lebanon · Higher nomophobia severity was predicted by higher irritable temperament (β = 0.43).
893 (216 eSP vs. 677 Weak statistically significant positive
Eastern
non-eSP (NeSP)) Cross sectional study correlations exist between anxiety (r= 0.281, p<
AlMarzooqi et al., 2022 Mediterranean / NMP-Q
participants aged over (correlational) .01), Insomnia (r= 0.253, p< .01), Internet
Saudi Arabia
18 years addiction (r= 0.158, p< .01) and nomophobia.
· Weak negative correlation between NMP and Self-esteem (r=-
0.28, p< .001), extraversion (r= -.010, p< .05), conscientiousness
Age is negatively correlated with (r= -0.30, p< .001) and openness (r- -0.11, p< .05), agreeableness
Eastern 378 students from Descriptive correlational Azadmanesh nomophobia (r= -.21, p< .001) (r= -0.18, p< .001).
Amiri & Taghinejad, 2022 Mediterranean / Bandar Abbas cross-sectional study et al.’s NMP · Weak positive correlation was found between Neuroticism and
Iran University (regression) questionaire nomophobia (r= 0.24, p< .001)
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country
Iran University (regression) scale
questionaire
Prediction of students' nomophobia based on age (B= -.21, p= .001), self-esteem (B= -.16, p= .003), and personality traits of conscientiousness (B= -.18, p= .001),
neuroticism (B= .16, p= .001). The multiple regression model explains 19% variance in nomophobia scores.

No statistically significant association

between severity of NMP and gender (X2 (df Screen size of the mobile phone was not significantly associated Significant positive correlation between NMP
Eastern Exploratory cross-
= 2, n = 654) = 0.90, p = 0.70). with nomophobia scores. and insomnia (r= .60, p= .001)
Jahrami et al., 2021 Mediterranean / 654 Young adults sectional study NMP-Q
BMI not associated with NMP-Q
Bahrain (regression)

Multiple regression analysis with age, sex and BMI as IVS revealed only significant predictor was the score on Insomnia severity Index (β = 2.6 p < 0.001.)

· Severe nomophobia significantly associated

· Females have a higher prevalence of with higher anxiety (B= .44, p< .001), insomnia
Eastern
moderate nomophobia. (B= .22, p= .001) and impulsivity (B= .31, p=
Farchakh et al., 2021 Mediterranean / 2260 residents Scale validation NMP-Q
· Younger age significantly associated with .003).
Lebanon
higher odds of having nomophobia. · Stress negatively associated with severe
nomophobia (B= -.15, p= .036)
Eastern
Bano et al., 2021 Mediterranean / 230 medical students Comparison NMP-Q Significant association with anxiety and stress
Saudi Arabia
· No significant difference between NMP
Descriptive cross- scores of nursing, science and economics
Eastern
sectional study college students. No significant difference between students according to habits
Qutishat et al., 2020 Mediterranean / 735 university students NMP-Q
(comparison and · No significant gender differences. such as smoking, drinking alcohol, sleeping duration.
Oman
association) · No significant difference between students
un different academic years.
· Females had higher NMP-Q scores as
Weak correlation between nomophobia and hours of usage per
compared to men (t (135) = -2.135, p < .05).
day (r = .295, p< .001), and number of times daily checking
Eastern · Age had no significant correlation with
156 undergraduate phone (r = .198, p< .05).
Schwaiger & Tahir, 2020 Mediterranean / Regression NMP-Q nomophobia.
students
Pakistan
Regression model- daily usage (in hours), daily checking phone (number of times) and number of credit hours. Model explained 10.9% of variance in NMP scores,
daily phone usage (in hours) (B= .226, p< .05) statistically significant predictor.

· No significant age or gender differences in

NMP scores. · Those with internet access through mobile had a significantly
Eastern
Cross sectional study · Those pursuing a degree in Applied higher scores a.c.t those who did not.
Almusa et al., 2019 Mediterranean / 625 university students NMP-Q
design Medical Sciences had a higher percentage of · Duration of smartphone use was significantly associated with
Saudi Arabia
severe NMP scores, followed by Pharmacy, NMP scores.
Dentistry and medicine.
NMP and social media usage positively correlated (r= .389, p<
Smartphone addiction and NMP have a
.001). NMP and locus of control positively related (r= .073, p<
significant positive correlation (r= .781, p< .01)
Eastern .05)
regression based cross-
Alkhunaizan, 2019 Mediterranean / 285 students NMP-Q
sectional study
Saudi Arabia
Social media usage (B= .113, p< .001) and smartphone addiction (.645, p< .001) significantly predict NMP scores and explain 58.4% variance in scores. The
model also includes locus of control.

Age negatively correlated with nomophobia Frequency of use of mobile phones and nomophobia are
Eastern 320 students from Survey based cross
(r= - .286, p< .001) positively correlated (r= .402, p< .001).
Daei et al., 2019 Mediterranean / Isfahan University of sectional study NMP-Q
Iran Medical Sciences (Regression) Frequency of UMP predicts nomophobia (B= .402, p = .05)
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
· No significant correlation between NMP and duration of internet
Eastern
95 undergraduate Exploratory correlational No significant correlation between NMP and use, duration of ownership of smartphone. Significant correlation between NMP and
Mahgoub et al., 2019 Mediterranean / NMP-Q
nursing students design age, grade level · Positive correlation between NMP and number of friends made problematic Internet Use (r= 0.705, p< .001)
Egypt
online (r= 0.226, p= .041)
Eastern Psychometric evaluation
Al-Balhan et al., 2018 Mediterranean / 512 university students of Arabic version of NMP-Q Nomophobia is not significantly predicted by gender and age.
Kuwait NMP-Q
Eastern 425 medical students Validity and reliability Strong significant correlation between mobile
NMP-Q No significant relationship between
Elyasi et al., 2018 Mediterranean / of Mazandaran Persian version of NMP- phone addiction score and nomophobia (r=
Persian version nomophobia and gender
Iran University Q 0.805, p< .001)

· NMP significant moderate correlation with

smartphone addiction (r = 0.592, p < 0.001) and
First year students reported highest
Facebook addiction (r = 0.420, p < 0.001).
nomophobia scores as compared to those in
South East · Weak significant correlation between NMP
Cross sectional survey other academic years (F = 3.497, p = 0.008)
Al-Mamun et al., 2023 Asian regions / 585 participants NMP-Q and Depression (r = 0.259, p < 0.001) and
study (Regression)
Bangladesh insomnia (r = 0.267, p < 0.001).

Being in a relationship (B= 5.478, p- .035), Using psychoactive substances (B= 10.048, p = .014) and greater daily number of hours spent on smartphone (B=
1.427, p= .001) significantly predicts 10.1% variance in nomophobia scores

· No significant association of NMP with

gender. · Significant association between NMP and average time of
South East · Prevalence of NMP higher for individuals smartphone (Hours), frequency of checking smartphone in a day
320 undergraduate Cross-sectional
Neelima et al., 2023 Asian regions / NMP-Q in the lower age group of 18-20 as compared and in an hour, messages sent per day and smartphone apps.
medical students association-based study
India to 21-26. · No significant association between NMP and duration of
· Significant association between NMP and smartphone use in Years and calls made per day.
year of study.
· No gender difference in prevalence of NMP
scores.
· Age up-to 20 years (lower age) and
South East
Cross-sectional, presence of addictions had statistically Time spent of mobile phone per day had statistically significant
Basu et al., 2022 Asian regions / 395 college students NMP-Q
regression significant higher odds of moderate and higher odds of moderate and severe NMP.
India
severe NMP. upper and upper middle socio-
economic status had lower odds of severe
NMP.
Significant association between NMP and time per day spent on Weak positive correlation between NMP and
Descriptive correlational using a smartphone. social interaction anxiety (r= .221, p= .001).
South East
209 students from study, chi square, t-test,
Kaur et al., 2021 Asian regions / NMP-Q
Chitrakara university ANOVA and linear
India
regression Linear regression analysis results revealed that SAI significantly predicts NMP and explained 4.9% variance in NMP scores.

South East 65 students acress

Nomophobia is significantly correlated with loneliness (r=0.381,
Lekra, 2021 Asian regions / Haryana and Correlational NMP-Q
p<.01) & Boredom (r=0.322, p<.01).
India Chandigarh

Self-distraction (r= .178, p= .005), active coping (r= .156, p =

South East .015), denial (r= .213, p= .001), substance use (r= .187, p= .003),
Anjana et al., 2021 Asian regions / 246 medical students Cross sectional study NMP-Q venting (r= .206, p= .001), acceptance (r= .150, p = .018),
India religion (.142, p= .026) and self-blame (r= .261, p< .001) as
coping strategies have a significant correlation with NMP.
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
Average time spent on SP (more than 3 hours) (χ2 = 10.5, p =
South East
Cross sectional No significant association with gender. Age 0.005), checking SM> 20 times a day (χ2 = 7.99, p = 0.018) and
Bartwal & Nath, 2020 Asian regions / 451 college students NMP-Q
association-based study significantly associated with NMP. at a frequency of every 5 min to every hour (χ2 = 7.93, p = 0.019)
India
were significantly associated with NMP.

· No significant difference in terms of years of smartphone use.

· Higher prevalence in younger participants · Higher prevalence of NMP was observed in students who had
South East as compared to older (p= .051), difference access to internet on their smartphones a.c.t without internet (p=
Cross-sectional
Marthandappa et al., 2020 Asian regions / 419 medical students NMP-Q not statistically significant. .01).
descriptive study
India · No significant differences observed in · Higher daily duration of time spent on smartphones (p= .041)
terms of sex, year of study. and higher number of applications (p= .033) significantly
associated with higher prevalence of NMP.

· Chi square tests revel that duration of SM use (in years), having
a mobile data plan are not significantly associated with NMP.
· Higher duration of smartphone use (in hours), phone have been
significantly associated with NMP.
· Number of applications did not have a significant association
South East No significant gender differences in NMP with NMP.
228 undergraduate
K et al., 2020 Asian regions / Cross sectional study NMP-Q scores. First year students reported higher · Use of SM for gaming, texting, killing time, and music had
students
India prevalence of NMP a.c.t other years. associated with significantly higher NMP scores.
· NMP positively with loneliness (r= 0.12, p= .06) and
significantly negatively correlated with self-happiness (r= -0.06,
p= .3). These correlations were not statistically significant.
· Significant negative correlation between nomophobia and self-
esteem (r= -0.13, p= .05).

Multiple regression model: Age (3.98, p< .001), male gender (B= 3.58, p= .03), frequency of checking smartphone use per day (B= .59, p= .008), duration of
South East 774 undergraduates
Mixed-method study smartphone use per day (B= .84, p< .001), Purpose: Texting (B= 5.68, p= .02) and social networking (B= 5.56, p= .005), Checking smartphone without reason:
Jilisha et al., 2019 Asian regions / government aided NMP-Q`
(Multiple regression) always (18.65, p< .001) and sometimes (B= 11.72, p< .001), , p< Checking the smartphone immediately after waking up in the morning (B= 8.78, p< .001)-
India colleges in Puducherry
explained 26% variance in NMP scores.

· Weak positive correlation between NMP and hours of mobile

South East phone usage (r= 0.32) Weak positive correlation between NMP and
Gender and year of study have no significant
Veerapu et al., 2019 Asian regions / 364 Medical students Cross sectional study NMP-Q · Number of years of usage of mobile phones and number of sleeping difficulty (r= 0.25) and general anxiety
association with NMP
India times of checking phone have no statistically significant (r= 0.26)
correlation with NMP.
145 students from
South East Bharati Vidyapeeth
Cross Sectional No significant gender difference over
Farooqui et al., 2018 Asian regions / Medical NMP-Q
observational study. prevalence of nomophobia was observed.
India College(BVMC),
Pune.
· No significant associations with gender,
quota of admission, place of origin (Urban/
South East Rural), Place of Stay (Hostellites/ Day
429 undergraduate
M et al., 2017 100 Asian regions / Cross sectional study NMP-Q Scholars).
medical students
India · A statistically significant association was
observed b/w grades of NMP and phase of
MBBS (p= .001)
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
South East
No significant relationship between self-esteem and nomophobic
Heriyani et al., 2015 101 Asian regions / 57 students Regression NMP-Q
behaviors.
Indonesia
945 college students NMP-Q A positive significant correlation exists between
Western Pacific Cross sectional Nomophobia and Problematic smartphone use are significantly
Ren et al., 2023 and graduate students Chinese NMP and depression (r= .352, p< .05), (r- .432,
/ China observational study correlated (r= .773, p< .05)
in Tianjin, version p< .05) anxiety and stress (r= .450, p< .05)
Cross-sectional study;
Western Pacific 547 University Nomophobia is positively influenced by perceived stress positively influenced nomophobia (β = 0.206, p < 0.001) and perceived social support (β = 0.326, p <
Lai et al., 2022 Partial structural NMP-Q
/ Malaysia students 0.001)
equational modelling
· Positive correlation between NMP and personality trait of
openness to experience (r= 0.14) and neuroticism (r= 0.45).
Western Pacific Structural equational · Solitude behaviors, namely positive solitude, seclusiveness,
Li et al., 2022 678 college students NMP-Q
/ China modelling social avoidance and loneliness had a positive, partial and
significant mediating and moderating effect in the relationship
between nomophobia and the personality trait of neuroticism.
Multivariate regression
Western Pacific 3135 university model- study Female participants had significantly higher Nomophobia was not a significant factor in predicting physical
Xu et al., 2022 NMP-Q
/ China students Nomophobia- levels of NMP. activity (in females, indirect effect)
comparison
Significant and moderate associations observed
Western Pacific 380 Malaysian Descriptive correlational between NMP-Q and Anxiety (r= .295, p<
Tung et al., 2022 NMP-Q
/ Malaysia university students. study .001), Depression (r= .304, p< .001), and Stress
(r= .339, p< .001)
· The likelihood of females experiencing
moderate and severe nomophobia levels as
compared to males.
· Younger participants (i.e., aged 18–25
· Individuals with higher duration of daily smartphone use were
Western Pacific Survey based study (Chi years) were more likely to experience severe
Kaviani et al., 2020 3806 participants NMP-Q more likely to experience severe levels of nomophobia compared
/ Australia square) levels of nomophobia as compared to older
to participants who spend three hours or less per day.
participants (i.e. aged 40-29 and aged 60+
years).
· Education levels and income were not
statistically associated with nomophobia.
Positive significant correlations b/w NMP and
Significant positive correlation between NMP and smartphone
Descriptive quantitative Smartphone addiction (r= .728, p< .05) and
Western Pacific 98 undergraduate usage (r= .708, p< .05)
Yin et al., 2019 study NMP-Q internet addiction (r= .737, p< .05)
/ Malaysia university students.
(Multiple regression) A multiple regression model was used to predict levels of NMP based Internet addiction (B= .40, p< .05), smartphone usage (B= .20, p= .02) and smartphone
addiction (B= .31, p< .05). The model predicted 64.9% variance in NMP scores.
· Females had a higher composite score on
NMP a.c.t males.
· No difference in terms of sleep hours and daily internet usage
· Age did not have a significant impact on
time.
nomophobia behaviors.
· Having two or more smartphones had a significant impact on
· Christians had significantly higher mean
345 Preservice Descriptive correlational NMP.
Essel et al., 2022 African / Ghana NMP-Q scores a.c.t Muslims, traditional and other
teachers design (MANOVA) · Having a smartphone for more than 7 years significantly
religions.
impacts presence of NMP.
· Teachers with good subjective economic
· Access to active internet services on the phone significantly
status had a significantly larger average
impacts NMP behaviors.
scores than managing and poor economic
status
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Region/ Nomophobia
Author(s)/ Year Population Description Demographic Behavioral and Psycho-social Clinical
Country scale
· No statistically significant difference
between NMP and academic level,
Descriptive, cross
residential status, marital status, colleges/
sectional design No significant difference among student habits such as sleep
Essel et al., 2021 African / Ghana 670 college students NMP-Q disciplines, religious affiliations,
(ANOVA and Chi- duration and eating.
participation in extra-co-curricular activities.
square)
· Statistically significant association b/w
NMP and academic achievement.
181 undergraduates of
Okoye et al., 2017 African / Nigeria Nnamdi Azikiwe Regression based study NMP-Q Personality traits of openness to experience (B=.64, p<.05) , neuroticism (B = .68, p<.05) and extraversion (B= .82, p <.05), and positively and significantly
University Awka predicts nomophobia among undergraduates.