Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06222-y

Workplace nomophobia: a systematic literature review

Hassan Hessari1 · Fatemeh Daneshmandi3 · Peter Busch2 · Stephen Smith2

Accepted: 2 June 2024 / Published online: 4 July 2024

© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Nomophobia, or the fear of being without one’s smartphone, is a growing concern in workplaces around the world. This
phenomenon affects both employee well-being and organizational productivity. Despite its prevalence, there is a notable
lack of systematic reviews investigating nomophobia in workplace, as well as the factors that intensify or inhibit it in
workplace settings. This paper bridges this gap by conducting a systematic literature review of workplace nomophobia,
drawing insights from 15,009 observations across 36 studies. Our review uncovers the widespread nature of nomophobia,
its antecedents, symptoms, and the significant consequences it has in professional settings, such as increased anxiety, work
stress, and frequent work interruptions. Demographic factors like age, gender, and education level influence the severity
of nomophobia, with younger and more educated employees being especially vulnerable. The findings highlight the urgent
need for interventions and organizational strategies to mitigate the negative effects of nomophobia and foster healthier
digital habits at work. This study enriches the theoretical understanding of nomophobia and offers practical insights for
future research and organizational practice.

Keywords Nomophobia · Workplace · Smartphone · Systematic review

Introduction life (Hessari & Nategh, 2022; Mokhtarinia et al., 2020; Al

Ali & Matarneh, 2024; Khalid, 2023). A 2021 global survey
In recent years, the global footprint of smartphones has revealed that 64% of working adults in the United States
expanded dramatically, with projections indicating that used their smartphones for business tasks, compared to
their usage will escalate from 7.1 billion to 7.7 billion by 50% in Germany, with a global average of 54% (Statista,
2028 (Press, 2024). This widespread adoption has posi- 2023). They have spurred the development of numerous
tioned smartphones as more prevalent than both landlines mobile applications and software solutions aimed at boost-
and personal computers, making them essential in everyday ing productivity, including prominent project management
tools like Trello, Asana, and Monday.com (Cennamo, 2021;
Hoeven et al., 2016). Moreover, in sectors such as healthcare
and retail, smartphones are instrumental for accessing elec-
Hassan Hessari
hassanhessari@vt.edu tronic health records, facilitating communications, manag-
ing inventory, and handling payments and sales (Blackburn
Fatemeh Daneshmandi
s.daneshmandi69@gmail.com et al., 2024; Junglas et al., 2022; Chadi et al., 2022), and
smartphones have become fundamental tools across various
Peter Busch
peter.busch@mq.edu.au sectors and countries.
The ubiquitous nature of smartphones has ushered in
Stephen Smith
stephen.smith@mq.edu.au the era of nomophobia—the anxiety of being without one’s
mobile device (Hessari et al., 2022). This phenomenon has
1
Department of Business Information Technology, Pamplin been highlighted as a significant challenge for both indi-
College of Business, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA viduals and society at large in several leading practitioner
2
School of Computing, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, journals including Forbes, Healthline, Medical News Today,
Australia and Psychology Today (Raypole & Nurmi, 2019; Travers,
3
Academic Center For Education, Culture And Research, 2023; Elmore, 2014; Today, 2022). These sources stress the
Neyshabur, Razavi Khorasan, Iran

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25935

importance of recognizing and addressing nomophobia not scholarly examination of its causes, effects, and the urgent
only for individual mental health but also for the broader need for targeted interventions.
societal impact. Moreover, research underscores the impor-
tance of understanding the complex relationships indi-
viduals have with technology (Lai et al., 2023; Yildirim & Background
Correia, 2015). This insight is crucial in empowering people
to make informed decisions and, if needed, seek support in Overview of nomophobia
managing nomophobia (Yılmaz & Bekaroğlu, 2022). In a
society where constant connectivity is commonplace, evalu- Nomophobia, a term initially introduced by the UK Post
ating the effects of problematic smartphone use is essential Office in 2008, encapsulates the anxiety associated with the
for maintaining mental well-being (Caba-Machado et al., absence of smartphone or internet connectivity (Bhattacha-
2024). rya et al., 2019). This phenomenon has garnered significant
Research underscores that nomophobia, or the fear of attention over the last decade, leading to a body of research
being without one’s smartphone, affects many individuals that explores its prevalence, origins, ramifications, and its
in varying degrees, highlighting the importance of foster- effects on diverse demographic groups including youth, uni-
ing healthy smartphone habits in the workplace (Hessari et versity students, and working professionals (Notara et al.,
al., 2022; Travers, 2023; Centor, 2023). As the popularity 2021; Rodríguez-García et al., 2020). Unlike conventional
of electronic devices escalates, conducting comprehensive technology-related disorders, nomophobia is distinguished
research on nomophobia within professional environments not by a specific phobia or anxiety disorder classification
becomes increasingly vital (Koppel et al., 2022). Despite but by the overarching dread of losing connection to one's
the prevalence of this phenomenon among employees, lit- smartphone (Durak, 2019). This fear is deeply rooted in
erature reviews specifically addressing nomophobia in the manifold advantages that smartphones provide, such
workplace contexts are vividly absent. Moreover, there as seamless communication, ready access to information,
exists disparate information regarding factors are associ- and entertainment (Rodríguez-García et al., 2020). Dis-
ated with levels of nomophobia (León-Mejía et al., 2021). tinct from the broader category of problematic smartphone
While there are some systematic reviews on nomophobia usage, nomophobia is specifically characterized by the fear
among students (Tuco et al., 2023; Osorio-Molina et al., of disconnection, rather than by a loss of control over the
2021; Notara et al., 2021; Devi & Dutta, 2022), the distinct device's use (Buctot et al., 2020).
dynamics of workplace settings—which differ markedly Various theoretical frameworks have been proposed to
from academic environments—underscore the need for tar- elucidate the underlying mechanisms of nomophobia (Ceo-
geted reviews (Akbulut et al., 2017). These should consider banu et al., 2023). The Three-Dimensional Model identifies
specific workplace factors absent in educational settings. four principal triggers: the fear of being unable to commu-
This study, therefore, aims to systematically examine exist- nicate, anxiety from lack of connectivity, fear of not access-
ing research on employees' nomophobia, aiming to deepen ing information instantaneously, and the distress of forgoing
the understanding of this issue and contribute to its theoreti- the conveniences offered by smartphones (Rodríguez-Gar-
cal framework. cía et al., 2020). Alternatively, the Uses and Gratifications
Our research is structured around four primary goals: Theory posits that nomophobia emerges when individuals
(1) We seek to determine the prevalence of nomophobia perceive a threat to their needs and gratifications that are
among employees across various work environments and to typically fulfilled by smartphones or internet access (Notara
explore the role demographic factors play in its manifesta- et al., 2021). The Cognitive-Behavioral Model links nomo-
tion. (2) We aim to delve into the antecedents and symptoms phobia to cognitive factors and behaviors that reinforce a
associated with nomophobia among the workforce, aiming cycle of anxiety and problematic smartphone use (Kavi-
to uncover a more profound comprehension of this condi- ani et al., 2020). Collectively, these models contribute to a
tion. (3) We assess the implications of nomophobia for both deeper understanding of the complex nature of nomophobia,
organizations and their employees, underscoring its criti- although there is a need for additional theories to further
cal impact within professional settings. (4) We endeavor to clarify this modern psychological concern.
pinpoint existing research voids concerning nomophobia in
workplace contexts and suggest directions for future inqui- Nomophobia antecedents
ries that could advance our understanding of this phenom-
enon. Through this investigation, our objective is to enrich Nomophobia is influenced by a confluence of psychological,
the discourse on workplace nomophobia, fostering further social, and cultural factors. Psychological antecedents such
as anxiety, stress, and attachment styles might precipitate

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25936 Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

problematic smartphone use, which in turn may cause anxi- by a powerful desire to remain abreast of messages, noti-
ety when users are separated from their devices (Bhattacha- fications, and social media activity (Yılmaz & Bekaroğlu,
rya et al., 2019; King et al., 2013). Socially, factors like peer 2022). Moreover, a separation from their phone can precipi-
pressure and prevailing social norms may perpetuate a need tate feelings of anxiety or restlessness in those with nomo-
for continuous connectivity (Durak, 2019; Gohar & Munir, phobia, particularly when usage is precluded by a depleted
2022; Anshari et al., 2019; Dastgheyb Shirazi et al., 2021; battery, lack of network coverage, or physical separation
Sui & Sui, 2021). Additionally, while the design elements of from the device. In more acute cases, the misplacement or
smartphones, such as push notifications and infinite scroll- theft of a phone can trigger episodes of panic or heightened
ing, are commonly examined concerning user engagement, anxiety (Santl et al., 2022; Sureka et al., 2020).
a nuanced understanding of these features' impact on user Another hallmark of this condition is a diminished capac-
behavior is crucial (Morrison et al., 2017). Ongoing research ity to focus on the task at hand or maintain engagement in
explores the complex interplay between smartphone use and conversations, as the individual's attention is invariably
psychological outcomes, including anxiety and depression, tethered to their phone (Mengi et al., 2020). This may esca-
indicating that these relationships are shaped by individual late to a preference for digital over in-person communica-
variances and contextual usage (Sela et al., 2022; Mendoza tion, potentially leading to social withdrawal and strain in
et al., 2018; Arpaci, 2022). Factors such as personal his- personal relationships (Yildirim & Correia, 2015; Jilisha et
tories of trauma and cultural contexts that underscore the al., 2019). A further indication is the abandonment of duties
significance of technology also play critical roles in the or obligations, with excessive phone use usurping time oth-
development of nomophobia (Zwilling, 2022; Pavithra et erwise allocated to work or academic pursuits (Reyt & Wie-
al., 2015). Furthermore, family dynamics and personality senfeld, 2015). Furthermore, the pervasive fear of missing
traits, including perfectionism, low self-esteem, and impul- out, known as FOMO, on essential updates or experiences
sivity, alongside age and environmental conditions such as due to disconnection from their phones is also symptomatic
Wi-Fi accessibility, are significant contributors to nomo- of nomophobia (Gezgin et al., 2018; Kneidinger-Müller,
phobia (Tomczyk & Lizde, 2022; Feizollahi et al., 2022; 2019). Furthermore, physical manifestations such as trem-
García-Masip et al., 2023; Nasab et al., 2021; Vagka et al., bling, perspiration, and accelerated heart rate upon separa-
2023; Darvishi et al., 2019). tion from their phone have been documented (Bhattacharya
Recent technological advancements and shifts in work- et al., 2019). The phenomenon of phantom vibration syn-
place culture, exacerbated by the global COVID-19 pan- drome, where individuals mistakenly sense their phone
demic, have introduced additional dimensions to the vibrating, is also indicative of this condition (Rosenberger,
antecedents of nomophobia. The shift towards remote work 2015).
has heightened reliance on mobile devices for professional
communications (Vargo et al., 2021), potentially amplify- Nomophobia repercussions
ing anxieties associated with mobile phone separation.
Moreover, the erosion of work-life boundaries has led to Nomophobia, a modern ailment tied to our digital age, is
increased screen time, further integrating mobile devices intricately linked to a spectrum of mental health challenges,
into daily routines (Molino et al., 2020). Emerging psycho- including, but not limited to, anxiety, depression, and dis-
logical stressors, driven by the need for uninterrupted con- rupted sleep. Individuals grappling with this condition
nectivity to manage work tasks, have become pronounced might experience elevated levels of anxiety in the absence
contributors to nomophobia. Moreover, social shifts toward of their mobile devices, which can impede daily function-
digital communication over traditional face-to-face interac- ing and, in severe cases, precipitate panic attacks (Bhat-
tions also play a critical role in driving nomophobia (Wang tacharya et al., 2019). The perpetual tether to social media
& Suh, 2018). These changes underscore the necessity for can paradoxically engender a sense of isolation and erode
a reassessment of current strategies aimed at mitigating self-esteem as users engage in social comparison and curate
the impact of nomophobia in contemporary work settings a flawless digital persona (Anshari et al., 2019; Razzaq et
(Erdurmazlı et al., 2022). al., 2018). The overuse of smartphones, particularly before
bedtime, has been implicated in sleep disturbances, laying
Nomophobia symptoms the groundwork for conditions such as insomnia or sleep
apnea—partly due to the intrusion of blue light into our
Nomophobia manifests through several distinct symp- natural sleep cycles (Jahrami et al., 2022a; Teker & Yakşi,
toms. One of them is the compulsive habit of repeatedly 2021; Jahrami et al., 2022b).
checking one’s phone, a behavior that persists even in the Furthermore, nomophobia may erode fundamental social
absence of alerts or notifications. This compulsion is fueled competencies, presenting obstacles to effective face-to-face

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25937

interactions (Bhattacharya et al., 2019; Bulut & Sengul, underpin autonomy, endowing individuals with the confi-
2023; Valenti et al., 2022). This phobia may segue into a dence to explore new locales and the capability to request
broader maladaptive relationship with smartphones, where assistance as needed. Beyond these practical utilities,
individuals display withdrawal-like symptoms in the mobile devices are gateways to an expanse of knowledge,
absence of their devices (Buctot et al., 2020; Al-Mamun, catalyzing personal development and learning opportunities
2023). For the younger demographic, judicious screen-time (Fletcher-Brown et al., 2021; Kondylakis et al., 2020).
management is critical to forestall outbursts and mitigate
internet-related problems (Adamczyk et al., 2018). Addi-
tionally, smartphone and social media usage heightens Methods
exposure to cyberbullying, which has a detrimental impact
on mental well-being (Catone et al., 2020), and increases A systematic review is a methodical endeavor designed to
the likelihood of accidents when used imprudently, such as collate and distill all relevant data pertaining to a specific
while driving (Koppel et al., 2022; Kaviani et al., 2020). question, aiming to minimize bias and provide a thorough
The compulsive use of digital devices can attenuate atten- evaluation of existing research (Pati & Lorusso, 2018). This
tion spans, complicating tasks that demand prolonged con- process not only conclusively addresses research questions
centration (Schwaiger & Tahir, 2022). It can strain personal but also facilitates informed decision-making by leveraging
relationships and provoke physical ailments such as eye dis- the current state of knowledge, thus avoiding the duplica-
comfort, headaches, and musculoskeletal pain (Beukeboom tion of previous studies (Khan et al., 2003). By integrating
& Pollmann, 2021). Collectively, nomophobia disrupts rou- results from various studies, systematic reviews enrich our
tine activities, interpersonal connections, and overall health, understanding of the subject matter, enabling the formula-
thereby diminishing life quality (Bhattacharya et al., 2019; tion of broader conclusions (Liberati et al., 2009; Moher et
Ahmed et al., 2021). Moreover, it has been associated with al., 2015).
decreased physical activity and academic underperformance Central to conducting systematic reviews is the adherence
(Durak, 2019), potentially precipitating cognitive deteriora- to the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic
tion and an increased risk of dementia in the later stages of Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. PRISMA offers a
life (Schwaiger & Tahir, 2022). In essence, the constellation structured framework for review procedures and evidence-
of nomophobia’s ramifications encompasses a gamut from based reporting, ensuring the clarity and effectiveness of the
anxiety and diminished scholarly output to sleep disorders, reviews (Moher et al., 2015). It includes a comprehensive
relational friction, health issues, and a compromised quality 27-item checklist and a flow diagram that outlines essen-
of life (Tuco et al., 2023; Jahrami et al., 2022a; AlMarzooqi, tial information necessary for a systematic review report
2022). (Pati & Lorusso, 2018; Parums, 2021). Following PRISMA
guidelines not only helps authors produce transparent, high-
Nomophobia positive side quality, and reproducible reviews but also benefits a wide
range of stakeholders, including editors, reviewers, policy-
Nomophobia, commonly viewed through a lens of concern makers, and users of the reviews (Page et al., 2021).
in relation to smartphone usage, is also posited by some In our study, we adhere to PRISMA guidelines to ensure
scholars to yield advantageous effects. One such benefit is its quality and validity. In the realm of systematic research
the enhancement of productivity, with individuals often find- review papers, it is critical to articulate both the rationale and
ing themselves impelled to maintain efficiency and manage the significance of the research topic and questions based on
their responsibilities more effectively. This stems from the the literature and PRISMA guidelines (Kitchenham, 2004).
ability to obtain work-related data and remain accessible via The rationale addresses existing gaps, needs, or issues in
their mobile devices (Wang & Suh, 2018; Nisar et al., 2019). the literature or practice, enhancing the study’s foundation.
Additionally, the condition may serve to solidify bonds with Conversely, the significance of the review highlights its
friends and family, as it facilitates immediate communica- potential contributions to advancing knowledge, informing
tion irrespective of geographic barriers (Sui & Sui, 2021; decision-making, or improving outcomes (Cumpston et al.,
Oknita et al., 2023). 2022; Khaw et al., 2023).
Moreover, for those experiencing nomophobia, the The term "Nomophobia" originated from a 2008 study by
mobile phone acts as a conduit to security and reassurance, the UK Post Office (Devi & Dutta, 2022) and has increas-
presenting a critical link to emergency services or support ingly captured attention due to its profound implications
when faced with adversity — a provision that is particularly for employees and organizations (León-Mejía et al., 2021;
valuable for those who live by themselves or are navigat- Rodríguez-García et al., 2020). This condition affects mil-
ing novel settings (Ford et al., 2022). Mobile phones also lions of workers globally, not only diminishing their quality

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25938 Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

of life but also heightening the risk of mental health chal- This study aims to systematically review the available lit-
lenges such as depression and anxiety (Rodríguez-García et erature on workplace nomophobia in several databases (see
al., 2020). Despite the growing body of research evaluating Table 1). The primary objective is to determine the preva-
nomophobia in the workplace, findings on its impact remain lence of nomophobia among employees and its effects on
inconsistent across different organizations and employees work-related matters. The review will also identify the main
(Hessari et al., 2022). objectives, variables, sample details, and measurement tools
Given this backdrop, a systematic review is crucial to employed in prior studies.
aggregate and synthesize the current evidence concerning
the effects of nomophobia on both employees and their Search strategy
employers (Gonçalves et al., 2023). Research to date high-
lights its presence in various workplace settings, yet there Our sampling criteria included all empirical studies avail-
remains no consensus on its prevalence or consistent impacts able up until the end of April 2024. This included studies
(León-Mejía et al., 2021). Furthermore, the absence of stan- accepted for publication, already published, dissertations,
dardized guidelines to address and manage nomophobia or circulated as working papers, specifically those involv-
at work, along with unclear definitions of its antecedents, ing employees. To ensure a comprehensive collection of
underscores significant gaps in the literature. Consequently, relevant studies, we utilized a rigorous search and selec-
this study is designed to address these disparities by explor- tion methodology. This process was carried out by two
ing diverse questions related to the influence of nomophobia authors and two research assistants, who were extensively
in workplace environments. trained to perform detailed searches. They used a curated
list of keywords such as "nomophobia," "nomophobic," "no
RQ1: To what extent is nomophobia prevalent among mobile phone," "at workplace," "at work," "by employees,"
employees? "by teacher," "by worker," "by nurses," "during work," "in
RQ2: How can employees' demographic characteristics im- the workplace," "on the job." These keywords were linked
pact on nomophobia? using Boolean operators to maximize the relevancy and
RQ3: What are the antecedents of nomophobia in breadth of the search across various academic databases
workplaces? listed in Table 1.
RQ4: What are the nomophobia impacts on employees? Each bibliographic resource was exhaustively searched
RQ5: What are the nomophobia consequences for with each keyword combination until no new unique stud-
organizations? ies emerged. Findings were compiled into a central online
RQ6: How can employees’ nomophobia be dealt with? repository. This methodical search was repeated for each
database to ensure saturation. We also reviewed the refer-
ence lists of all retrieved articles to identify any studies that
may have been initially overlooked. To ensure no signifi-
Table 1 List of exhaustively searched bibliographic resources cant publications were missed, three additional rounds of
Database type Electronic bibliographic resource searches were conducted using Google Scholar, Scopus, and
Bibliographic EBSCO™ Business Source Complete various publishers' websites. These searches were designed
SCOPUS Computer Science to capture recently cited articles and those recommended by
PROQUEST™, with the following subdata- these platforms.
bases selected: ABI/INFORM Global, ERIC,
LISA, PsychARTICLES, Technology
Collection Study selection
ACM Digital Library™
IEEE Xplore Digital Library™ To facilitate a rigorous review process, search results were
Emerald Insight
Association for Information Systems (AIS) meticulously cataloged in a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet,
Digital Library streamlining the subsequent removal of duplicate entries.
Directory of Open Access Journals The eligibility assessment, performed by Author A and
PubMed Author B, followed a standardized protocol without the
Search engine Google Scholar
use of blinding to maintain transparency. Initially, we scru-
Thesis repository Dissertation Abstracts™
ProQuest
tinized titles, keywords, and abstracts for congruence with
Working papers Social Science Research Network (SSRN) our inclusion criteria, which necessitated peer-reviewed
(https://ssrn.com/en/) status and English language publication. Our review was
ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate. strictly confined to studies exploring the phenomenon of
net/home) nomophobia in workplace contexts among employees and
Academia (https://www.academia.edu/)

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25939

the wider workforce. The full texts of potentially relevant The initial search amassed 771 records, spanning a
articles were then meticulously evaluated. In instances broad spectrum of academic contributions. Our investi-
of divergence in the inclusion decision, a quorum of four gation focused specifically on articles that substantively
researchers was convened to deliberate until a unanimous addressed'nomophobia' in workplace settings. Hence, in the
decision was secured. Non-conforming articles were sys- first round of exclusion, 354 records were disregarded for
tematically excluded as detailed in Fig. 1. not meeting the requisite focus, and a further 381 were dis-
counted in the second culling. The final phase of refinement

Fig. 1 PRISMA flow diagram. Note: A significant reduction in the prised exclusively of students were excluded to maintain relevance to
number of eligible papers occurred as the review specifically targets the workplace context
nomophobia within employed populations. Studies with samples com-

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25940 Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

involved eliminating duplicate entries, culminating in a Results

distilled set of 36 studies earmarked for comprehensive
analysis. The investigation into nomophobia at work began in 2018
with four studies. The first of these specifically explored
Bias control the nomophobia among teachers and academics (Shan-
kar et al., 2018), while the remaining three investigated
In this systematic review (SR), we recognized the inherent the prevalence of nomophobia across a broader employee
challenges of subjectivity and implemented stringent mea- spectrum (Wang & Suh, 2018; Olivencia-Carrión et al.,
sures to mitigate bias, a detail that is not lost in scholarly 2018; Tams et al., 2018). The next year, 2019, saw a sin-
pursuits. The primary authors, charged with the analytical gle study focusing on leaders (Shields, 2019). In 2020, the
framework of the review, reached a unanimous agreement research included healthcare professionals, with two papers
on all studies included, signaling our unwavering dedication on nurses (Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; Lupo, 2020), and two
to methodological precision (Mallett et al., 2012). papers evaluated nomophobia among employees in various
To anchor our review in objectivity, we established professions (Aslan & Aslan, 2020; Karademir Coskun &
clearly defined criteria for the inclusion of studies, which Kaya, 2020). Four more studies in 2021 were dedicated to
were: (1) Direct relevance to the central research question— teachers and academics (Boyer, 2021; Fryman & Romine,
this ensured that each selected study provided insights spe- 2021; Gokani et al., 2021; Kukreti, 2021), and one to avia-
cifically related to nomophobia within workplace settings; tion employees (Bilkay, 2021). That year also included a
(2) Methodological rigor—this required an examination of study on nurses (Hoşgör, 2021). Research continued in 2022
the design, data collection, and analytical rigor within each with three studies on various employees (Afzal et al., 2022;
study, affirming the dependability of the results; and (3) Daniel, 2022; Merdan & Erdem, 2022) and three on nurses
Transparency in reporting—this enabled us to evaluate how (Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Lupo et al., 2022; Uguz
clearly and comprehensively studies disclosed their meth- & Bacaksiz, 2022), plus two on teachers and academics
ods and outcomes. Employing these criteria as our compass, (Erdurmazlı et al., 2022; Önder et al., 2022). In 2023, four
we were able to impartially assess the merit of each study, studies investigated nomophobia among healthcare profes-
irrespective of its origin, thus cultivating an extensive and sionals, including nurses, doctors, and other medical staff
unbiased review of literature on nomophobia (Lowry et al., (Kapikiran et al., 2023; Vitale et al., 2023; Abdulrahman,
2023). 2023; Chouhan, 2023). Eight additional studies looked at
To encompass the full gamut of research, our search various employees from an array of sectors, including sea-
strategy transcended the confines of databases tradition- farers and journalists (García-Masip et al., 2023; Ahmed
ally recognized, such as SCOPUS or WoS. A thorough SR & Yousaf, 2023; Arumuganathan et al., 2023; Özgür et
demands an expansive approach, hence our exploration al., 2023; Aladag & Altinpinar, 2023; Saidon et al., 2023;
extended to various scholarly communications including Contreras Pinochet et al., 2023; Sapmaz, 2023). One study
journal articles, book chapters, working papers, and confer- also evaluated nomophobia among teachers and academics
ence proceedings, as well as doctoral dissertations, ensuring (Pala, 2023). The trend of increasing publications year after
an exhaustive representation of the field (Mohamed Shaffril year reflects a rising academic interest in nomophobia and
et al., 2021). Searches were also conducted on institutional its importance for practitioners and researchers (see Fig. 2).
repositories to circumvent publication bias and to discover This uptick is likely due to the growing use of smartphones
grey literature (Dalton et al., 2016; Hedin et al., 2016). The and their apps (Koppel et al., 2022). Table 2 summarizes
inclusion of non-indexed journals was judicious, abiding these studies succinctly.
by rigorous selection criteria that fortified the integrity of
our research process (Begg & Mazumdar, 1994; Duval & Sample details
Tweedie, 2000). While our extensive search through vari-
ous repositories, including Google Scholar, unveiled a mul- Our study rigorously analyzed 36 papers spanning from 2018
titude of publications on nomophobia, it was discerned that to 2023, all delving into the phenomenon of nomophobia
a substantial number did not meet the established criteria, among employees. Collectively, these papers encompassed
particularly with respect to context relevance, language, and a sample size of 15,009 individuals. Within this corpus, 18
methodological robustness. Ultimately, only those studies papers with a total of 7,783 participants scrutinized nomo-
that rigorously aligned with our criteria were integrated into phobia across various sectors such as government and pri-
the SR. vate organizations, civil aviation, seafaring, journalism, and
service industries (García-Masip et al., 2023; Wang & Suh,
2018; Olivencia-Carrión et al., 2018; Tams et al., 2018;

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25941

Fig. 2 Publication trend of workplace nomophobia studies

Shields, 2019; Aslan & Aslan, 2020; Karademir Coskun & & Erdem, 2022; Uguz & Bacaksiz, 2022; Önder et al., 2022;
Kaya, 2020; Bilkay, 2021; Afzal et al., 2022; Daniel, 2022; Kapikiran et al., 2023; Özgür et al., 2023; Aladag & Altin-
Merdan & Erdem, 2022; Ahmed & Yousaf, 2023; Arumu- pinar, 2023; Sapmaz, 2023; Pala, 2023), three in the USA
ganathan et al., 2023; Özgür et al., 2023; Aladag & Altin- (Boyer, 2021; Fryman & Romine, 2021; Daniel, 2022), and
pinar, 2023; Saidon et al., 2023; Contreras Pinochet et al., three in Italy (Lupo, 2020; Lupo et al., 2022; Vitale et al.,
2023; Sapmaz, 2023). Focusing on the healthcare sector, ten 2023). India was the focus of four papers (Shankar et al.,
papers surveyed 3,286 healthcare professionals, including 2018; Gokani et al., 2021; Chouhan, 2023; Arumuganathan
nurses, doctors, and medical staff, to gauge the impact of et al., 2023), while two studies utilized samples from Spain
nomophobia (Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; Lupo, 2020; Hoşgör, (García-Masip et al., 2023; Olivencia-Carrión et al., 2018).
2021; Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Lupo et al., 2022; Uguz Additionally, the research included one study each from
& Bacaksiz, 2022; Kapikiran et al., 2023; Vitale et al., 2023; China (Kukreti, 2021), South Korea (Wang & Suh, 2018),
Abdulrahman, 2023; Chouhan, 2023). Additionally, eight and Canada (Tams et al., 2018), with two from Pakistan
papers explored the condition among 3,940 teachers and (Afzal et al., 2022; Ahmed & Yousaf, 2023). Single studies
academics (Erdurmazlı et al., 2022; Shankar et al., 2018; were also performed in Indonesia (Anggoro & Handiyani,
Boyer, 2021; Fryman & Romine, 2021; Gokani et al., 2021; 2022), Brazil (Contreras Pinochet et al., 2023), Malaysia
Kukreti, 2021; Önder et al., 2022; Pala, 2023). (Saidon et al., 2023), and Saudi Arabia (Abdulrahman,
Geographically, the studies showcase a wide range: four- 2023). Moreover, one paper aimed to capture a global view
teen were conducted in Turkey (Erdurmazlı et al., 2022; of the issue (Shields, 2019).
Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; Aslan & Aslan, 2020; Karademir This compilation of research highlights that nearly
Coskun & Kaya, 2020; Bilkay, 2021; Hoşgör, 2021; Merdan half of the studies focused on nomophobia within various

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25942 Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

Table 2 Summary of all articles included

Reference Study Year Publication Country Sample details Aim Method
type
Wang & Suh, Wang & Suh 2018 Conference South 187 employees Nomophobia outcomes Survey
2018 Korea
Olivencia-Carrión Olivencia- 2018 ISI Journal Spain 181 employees Nomophobia antecedents and Survey
et al., 2018 Carrion et al inhibitors
Tams et al., 2018 Tams et al 2018 ISI Journal Canada 270 employees Nomophobia outcomes Mix
Method
Shankar et al., Shankar et al 2018 Non-ISI India 50 teachers and Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
2018 Journal academics antecedents
Shields, 2019 Shields 2019 Dissertation Worldwide 401 employees Nomophobia antecedents Survey
(Leaders)
Bülbüloğlu et al., Bulbuloglu 2020 ISI Journal Turkey 314 healthcare pro- Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
2020 fessionals (Nurses) antecedents
Lupo, 2020 Lupo et al 2020 Non-ISI Italy 539 healthcare pro- Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
Journal fessionals (Nurses) prevalence
Aslan & Aslan, Aslan & 2020 Non-ISI Turkey 207 employees Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
2020 Aslan Journal antecedents
Karademir Karademir 2020 Non-ISI Turkey 210 employees Nomophobia prevalence, antecedents, Survey
Coskun & Kaya, Coskun Journal and inhibitors
2020
Boyer, 2021 Boyer 2021 Dissertation USA 161 teachers and Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
academics antecedents
Fryman & Fryman & 2021 Non-ISI USA 56 teachers and Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
Romine, 2021 Romine Journal academics antecedents
Gokani et al., Gokani et al 2021 Non-ISI India 32 teachers and Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
2021 Journal academics antecedents
Kukreti, 2021 Kukreti et al 2021 ISI Journal China 2603 teachers and Nomophobia outcomes Survey
academics
Bilkay, 2021 Bilkay 2021 Book Turkey 1073 employees Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
antecedents
Hoşgör, 2021 Hosgor et al 2021 ISI Journal Turkey 178 healthcare pro- Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
fessionals (Nurses) prevalence
Afzal et al., 2022 Afzal et al 2022 Non-ISI Pakistan 300 employees Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
Journal antecedents
Daniel, 2022 Daniel 2022 Dissertation USA 434 employees Nomophobia outcomes Survey
Merdan & Erdem, Merdan & 2022 Non-ISI Turkey 357 employees Nomophobia outcomes Survey
2022 Erdem Journal
Anggoro & Anggoro & 2022 Non-ISI Indonesia 113 healthcare pro- Nomophobia antecedents and Survey
Handiyani, 2022 Handiyani Journal fessionals (Nurses) inhibitors
Lupo et al., 2022 Lupo et al 2022 Non-ISI Italy 502 healthcare pro- Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
Journal fessionals (Nurses) antecedents
Uguz & Bacaksiz, Uguz & 2022 ISI Journal Turkey 669 healthcare pro- Nomophobia antecedents and Survey
2022 Bacaksiz fessionals (Nurses) inhibitors
Erdurmazlı et al., Erdurmazli 2022 ISI Journal Turkey 398 teachers and Nomophobia outcomes Survey
2022 et al academics
Önder et al., 2022 Onder et al 2022 Non-ISI Turkey 310 teachers and Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
Journal academics antecedents
Kapikiran et al., Kapikiran 2023 ISI Journal Turkey 186 healthcare pro- Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
2023 et al fessionals (Nurses) prevalence
Vitale et al., 2023 Vitale et al 2023 ISI Journal Italy 430 healthcare pro- Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
fessionals (Nurses) antecedents
García-Masip et García-Masip 2023 ISI Journal Spain 366 employees Nomophobia antecedents and Survey
al., 2023 et al inhibitors
Contreras Pino- Contreras 2023 ISI Journal Brazil 454 employees Nomophobia outcomes Survey
chet et al., 2023 Pinochet et al
Sapmaz, 2023 Sapmaz 2023 Non-ISI Turkey 204 employees Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
Journal antecedents

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25943

Table 2 (continued)
Reference Study Year Publication Country Sample details Aim Method
type
Ahmed & Yousaf, Ahmed & 2023 Non-ISI Pakistan 1005 employees Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
2023 Yousaf Journal (Journalists) antecedents
Arumuganathan Arumugana- 2023 Non-ISI India 661 employees Nomophobia prevalence and Survey
et al., 2023 than et al Journal antecedents
Özgür et al., 2023 Özgür et al 2023 Non-ISI Turkey 850 employees Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
Journal antecedents
Pala, 2023 Pala 2023 Non-ISI Turkey 330 teachers and Nomophobia antecedents Survey
Journal academics
Chouhan, 2023 Chouhan 2023 Non-ISI India 40 healthcare pro- Nomophobia prevalence Survey
Journal fessionals (Doctors)
Aladag & Altin- Aladag & 2023 ISI Journal Turkey 351 employees Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
pinar, 2023 Altinpinar (Seafarer) antecedents
Saidon et al., Saidon et al2023 Non-ISI Malaysia 272 employees Nomophobia antecedents Mix
2023 Journal Method
Abdulrahman, Abdulrahman 2023 Non-ISI Saudi 315 healthcare pro- Nomophobia outcomes and Survey
2023 Journal Arabia fessionals (Medical prevalence
professionals)

employment settings, indicating its recognized prevalence Aims

in the occupational sphere. The healthcare profession's
encounter with nomophobia is also significant, reflected by In our systematic review, we categorized the research papers
the ten studies focusing on this group, underlining the per- into four distinct groups based on their primary objectives
tinence of nomophobia in high-stress, high-stakes environ- concerning nomophobia, noting that many papers had over-
ments (see Fig. 3). lapping goals (see Fig. 4). The prevalence of nomophobia

Fig. 3 Distribution of sample groups in workplace nomophobia studies

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25944 Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

Fig. 4 Cumulative Focus in Workplace Nomophobia Studies. Note: address both'Prevalence' and'Antecedents'). As such, the total number
The numbers in the chart above reflect counts of study focuses, where of category counts exceeds the actual number of studies, which is 36
some studies may fall into multiple categories (e.g., a study might

was extensively examined; seven studies focused on health- Uguz & Bacaksiz, 2022; Vitale et al., 2023), thirteen on a
care professionals (Lupo, 2020; Hoşgör, 2021; Lupo et al., diverse set of employees (García-Masip et al., 2023; Oliv-
2022; Kapikiran et al., 2023; Vitale et al., 2023; Abdulrah- encia-Carrión et al., 2018; Shields, 2019; Aslan & Aslan,
man, 2023; Chouhan, 2023), four on teachers and academ- 2020; Karademir Coskun & Kaya, 2020; Bilkay, 2021;
ics (Shankar et al., 2018; Boyer, 2021; Gokani, et al. 2021; Afzal et al., 2022; Ahmed & Yousaf, 2023; Arumuganathan
Önder et al., 2022), and four addressed a broader employee et al., 2023; Özgür et al., 2023; Aladag & Altinpinar, 2023;
base including those in various industries (Karademir Saidon et al., 2023; Sapmaz, 2023), and six on teachers and
Coskun & Kaya, 2020; Bilkay, 2021; Ahmed & Yousaf, academics (Shankar et al., 2018; Boyer, 2021; Fryman &
2023; Arumuganathan et al., 2023). Romine, 2021; Gokani et al., 2021; Önder et al., 2022; Pala,
Concerning the consequences of nomophobia, the litera- 2023). Furthermore, some papers assessed factors that they
ture varied across professions. Five papers considered its are associated with nomophobia reduction among employ-
impact on healthcare professionals (Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; ees and healthcare professionals (García-Masip et al., 2023;
Lupo, 2020; Hoşgör, 2021; Kapikiran et al., 2023; Abdulrah- Olivencia-Carrión et al., 2018; Karademir Coskun & Kaya,
man, 2023), three on teachers and academics (Erdurmazlı et 2020; Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Lupo et al., 2022).
al., 2022; Fryman & Romine, 2021; Kukreti, 2021), and ten The aggregate findings from these studies underscore a
on a mixed group of employees (Wang & Suh, 2018; Tams robust scholarly engagement with the factors that precipi-
et al., 2018; Aslan & Aslan, 2020; Afzal et al., 2022; Daniel, tate nomophobia and its repercussions on employees and
2022; Merdan & Erdem, 2022; Özgür et al., 2023; Aladag & their work environments. Notably, there remains a scarcity
Altinpinar, 2023; Contreras Pinochet et al., 2023; Sapmaz, of research dedicated to strategies or interventions aimed
2023), highlighting the widespread relevance of this issue at preventing or mitigating nomophobia. This gap high-
across different sectors. lights the urgent need for further studies that could offer
The studies also explored antecedents of nomophobia actionable insights for organizational leaders to combat
with five focusing on healthcare professionals (Bülbüloğlu nomophobia effectively within their teams. Such research
et al., 2020; Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Lupo et al., 2022; is indispensable for developing informed strategies that

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25945

not only address the symptoms but also the root causes of also for enhancing overall organizational productivity and
nomophobia in workplace settings. job satisfaction.
Addressing the second research question, our review of
the literature reveals gender differences in the experience of
Discussion nomophobia. Specifically, a study by (Shankar et al., 2018)
highlights that female teachers exhibit significantly higher
Smartphones have evolved into indispensable tools across levels of nomophobia, largely due to fears related to los-
various industries, markedly enhancing workplace flex- ing convenience, access to information, and connectivity.
ibility and productivity (Cijan et al., 2019). However, this This finding is echoed in additional research (Boyer, 2021;
reliance on constant connectivity can have a downside, Fryman & Romine, 2021; Gokani et al., 2021; Afzal et al.,
manifesting as nomophobia—a condition characterized by 2022; Uguz & Bacaksiz, 2022; Vitale et al., 2023; Aladag
anxiety when separated from one’s smartphone (Wang & & Altinpinar, 2023), which also notes a higher prevalence
Suh, 2018). Although nomophobia is not recognized as a of nomophobia among female employees compared to their
formal psychiatric disorder, its growing prevalence has sig- male counterparts. In contrast, (Lupo et al., 2022) pres-
nificant repercussions, detracting from employee well-being ents an anomaly, indicating that male employees experi-
and potentially undermining organizational efficiency. It ence greater levels of nomophobia than females. However,
is imperative for employers to recognize and address the several studies (Karademir Coskun & Kaya, 2020; Bilkay,
challenges posed by nomophobia actively (Wang & Suh, 2021; Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Önder et al., 2022;
2018). Promoting balanced technology use within the work- Ahmed & Yousaf, 2023; Arumuganathan et al., 2023; Pala,
place can mitigate its negative impacts and enhance over- 2023) found no significant differences in nomophobia lev-
all employee satisfaction and productivity (Afzal et al., els between male and female employees, suggesting that
2022; Leesakul et al., 2022). This paper reviews the extant the impact of gender may vary across different contexts or
research on nomophobia, pinpointing critical gaps such as methodologies.
the need for more empirical studies on intervention strate- This discrepancy underscores multiple factors influenc-
gies and the long-term effects of nomophobia on workplace ing gender-specific smartphone engagement (Andone et
dynamics. These insights are summarized, which serves as a al., 2016). Gender roles and societal norms may shape how
resource for both researchers and practitioners interested in men and women use their smartphones, with women often
developing effective policies to foster healthier digital hab- relying more on these devices for social interaction, thereby
its among employees. intensifying their experience of nomophobia (Sharma et al.,
The prevalence of nomophobia among employees is 2022). Research suggests that varying anxiety and stress lev-
increasingly recognized as a significant issue in workplaces els, which differ by gender, could amplify this phenomenon.
globally. The most studies have documented its prevalence, Higher stress levels reported among women, potentially
showing severe levels of nomophobia among employees linked to multitasking, and managing work-life balance,
(e.g., journalists in Pakistan, healthcare professionals in emphasize the necessity of smartphones for connectivity
Saudi Arabia, and teachers in India, Turkey, and the USA) (Deursen et al., 2015). These differences have profound
(Shankar et al., 2018; Boyer, 2021; Gokani et al., 2021; Önder implications for understanding workplace nomophobia and
et al., 2022; Abdulrahman, 2023; Chouhan, 2023; Ahmed & necessitate tailored intervention strategies. Policies promot-
Yousaf, 2023; Arumuganathan et al., 2023), while moderate ing digital wellness should incorporate gender-sensitive
levels of nomophobia have been observed among Turkish approaches, recognizing the unique aspects of problematic
and Italian healthcare professionals (Lupo, 2020; Hoşgör, smartphone use. Understanding these variations can help
2021; Lupo et al., 2022; Kapikiran et al., 2023). Although design support systems to mitigate nomophobia's impact,
moderate to low levels are noted in other employee groups enhancing employee well-being and productivity, and fur-
(Karademir Coskun & Kaya, 2020), and one study suggested ther investigation into gender-based differences in nomo-
mild nomophobia among Turkish healthcare professionals phobia is imperative to deepen our understanding of these
(Vitale et al., 2023), our analysis indicates a general trend dynamics.
towards moderate to severe nomophobia across all types of Additionally, the relationship between nomophobia and
employees. This pervasive issue underscores the need for educational level among employees has been explored,
well-defined organizational strategies to mitigate nomopho- with studies (Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; Aslan & Aslan, 2020;
bia, particularly as smartphones become ever more integral Aladag & Altinpinar, 2023) suggesting that individuals with
to daily professional life. Addressing nomophobia is crucial higher education are more prone to experience nomophobia.
not only for improving individual employee well-being but This correlation is supported by a consensus in the literature
that higher educational levels tend to correlate with more

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25946 Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

severe manifestations of nomophobia. While a few studies to address work-related communications outside of normal
(Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Önder et al., 2022) report working hours, potentially leading to problematic smart-
no significant relationship between educational level and phone use (Ahmed & Yousaf, 2023; Arumuganathan et al.,
nomophobia, the majority position maintains that employ- 2023).
ees with higher education are more susceptible to prob- The extent and manner of smartphone use significantly
lematic smartphone use and consequent higher levels of influence nomophobia among employees. While a solitary
nomophobia. This suggests an intricate interplay between study questions the link between the length of mobile phone
educational attainment and technological reliance, warrant- usage and levels of employee nomophobia (Gokani et al.,
ing further scholarly attention. Moreover, studies (Aslan & 2021), most research supports a direct correlation. Exten-
Aslan, 2020; Karademir Coskun & Kaya, 2020; Gokani et sive studies have consistently found a robust relationship
al., 2021) indicate a positive association between nomopho- between the duration of smartphone usage and increased
bia and single employees, with married employees typically nomophobia among employees. These investigations high-
exhibiting lower levels of this anxiety. Conversely, findings light specific behaviors such as frequent smartphone checks,
from (Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Önder et al., 2022) carrying a charger, using smartphones immediately before
reveal no significant relationship between nomophobia and sleep, and using them in bed, which are indicative of higher
marital status, while (Bilkay, 2021) identifies higher preva- nomophobia levels. Moreover, the accessibility of the inter-
lence among married employees. This disparity underscores net and social media through smartphones further exacer-
the need for further inquiry into how marital status influ- bates this issue. Research indicates that employees with
ences nomophobia. high internet and social media usage exhibit more severe
Furthermore, research consistently shows that younger nomophobia (Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; Fryman & Romine,
employees are more susceptible to nomophobia, particu- 2021; Afzal et al., 2022; Uguz & Bacaksiz, 2022; Ahmed
larly those under 35, who exhibit higher levels, supported & Yousaf, 2023; Arumuganathan et al., 2023; Saidon et al.,
by a distinct negative correlation between age and nomo- 2023), and those habituated to checking their social media
phobia as documented in (Shankar et al., 2018; Bülbüloğlu applications are notably more prone to nomophobia (Kar-
et al., 2020; Karademir Coskun & Kaya, 2020; Boyer, 2021; ademir Coskun & Kaya, 2020; Önder et al., 2022; Pala,
Gokani et al., 2021; Bilkay, 2021; Uguz & Bacaksiz, 2022; 2023).
Abdulrahman, 2023; Arumuganathan et al., 2023; Aladag & The exacerbation of these trends has been notably
Altinpinar, 2023). However, two papers report no signifi- observed during the COVID-19 pandemic, which has inten-
cant age-related trends (Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; Önder sified nomophobia among specific groups, such as teachers
et al., 2022). Predominantly, evidence supports higher inci- who experience heightened virus-related fears and utilize
dence of nomophobia among younger workers. Conversely, their smartphones to find coping mechanisms (Kukreti,
employees with extensive work experience generally report 2021). Additionally, social pressures can magnify nomo-
lower nomophobia levels, contrary to newer employees who phobia. A study demonstrated that employees subjected to
are more affected (Aslan & Aslan, 2020; Bilkay, 2021; Uguz intense social pressures tend to exhibit significant levels
& Bacaksiz, 2022; Vitale et al., 2023). Yet, another paper of nomophobia, often using their smartphones as coping
suggests that those with greater work experience might also mechanisms (Afzal et al., 2022). This finding corroborates
experience heightened nomophobia (Lupo et al., 2022), a another study, which highlighted a robust positive correla-
finding not corroborated by (Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022; tion between social threats and nomophobia (Tams et al.,
Önder et al., 2022). Overall, the data portrays younger 2018). Similarly, a study found that employees with lower
employees as more tethered to their smartphones, experienc- physical activity levels suffer more from nomophobia due
ing increased anxiety and discomfort when disconnected. to increased smartphone engagement (Vitale et al., 2023).
In exploring the third research question, research delin- These findings collectively underscore that both the dura-
eates a range of factors exacerbating nomophobia among tion and frequency of smartphone use, along with problem-
employees. One notable factor involves the influence of atic social media and internet use, are crucial contributors to
leadership and work-related expectations. A study high- nomophobia in employees across various sectors.
lights that leaders heavily reliant on their smartphones tend In addressing the fourth research question, a substan-
to exhibit increased nomophobia (Shields, 2019). This issue tial body of research (Tams et al., 2018; Aslan & Aslan,
is compounded by work-related expectations, such as the 2020; Kukreti, 2021; Afzal et al., 2022) illuminates how
need for constant availability and the utilization of technol- nomophobia escalates stress levels in employees by fos-
ogy for professional tasks, which significantly contribute tering an unrelenting need to remain connected. This con-
to the development of nomophobia. This condition is par- stant connectivity makes it challenging for individuals to
ticularly pronounced among employees who feel obligated detach from work responsibilities and indulge in leisure

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25947

activities, thus intensifying work-related stress. Further- factors to diminished productivity and job dissatisfaction.
more, there is evidence suggesting that nomophobia may Conversely, another perspective (Wang & Suh, 2018) sug-
directly cause post-traumatic stress disorder and contribute gests that employees with pronounced nomophobia levels
to heightened anxiety and loneliness (Fryman & Romine, might experience heightened work engagement, potentially
2021; Kukreti, 2021; Vitale et al., 2023; Contreras Pinochet boosting their productivity relative to their peers. This dis-
et al., 2023). The phenomenon also exacerbates the fear parity points to a fragmented understanding of how nomo-
of missing out (FoMo) and is linked to emotional exhaus- phobia truly affects employee performance and underscores
tion, fatigue, job burnout, and perceived workload (Wang & the need for more in-depth research to clarify these contra-
Suh, 2018; Shields, 2019; Hoşgör, 2021; Afzal et al., 2022; dictory findings.
Abdulrahman, 2023; Özgür et al., 2023; Aladag & Altin- Regarding our last research question, studies underscore
pinar, 2023; Sapmaz, 2023), which can lead employees to the significance of individual personality traits and illustrate
feel overworked and underappreciated. Moreover, nomo- that traits such as conscientiousness and emotional stability
phobia contributes significantly to work-family conflict, tend to be inversely related to nomophobia levels, indicat-
impeding employees' ability to maintain a healthy work-life ing that employees who are more diligent and emotionally
balance (Erdurmazlı et al., 2022). Although a few studies stable are less likely to experience anxiety related to smart-
(Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; Vitale et al., 2023) report no signif- phone separation (García-Masip et al., 2023; Uguz & Bacak-
icant link between nomophobia and depression, the consen- siz, 2022; Saidon et al., 2023). However, the relationship
sus remains that nomophobia induces a spectrum of adverse between nomophobia and other personality traits, including
psychological effects including stress, anxiety, loneliness, agreeableness, openness, and extraversion, presents a more
emotional exhaustion, work-family conflict, and potentially complex picture. While some findings suggest a negative
depression. association between nomophobia and agreeableness (Uguz
Turning to the fifth research question, the implications of & Bacaksiz, 2022), other studies report no significant cor-
nomophobia extend beyond individual psychological effects relation (García-Masip et al., 2023). This inconsistency also
to include detrimental impacts on organizational outcomes. extends to traits like extraversion and openness, where the
Employees experiencing high levels of nomophobia often results vary, showing both positive and negative impacts
show decreased levels of organizational identification, pas- on nomophobia levels (García-Masip et al., 2023; Uguz &
sion, and dedication (Merdan & Erdem, 2022). It has also Bacaksiz, 2022).
been noted that high nomophobia levels adversely affect Further research has enriched our understanding of the
employees' decision-making capabilities (Kapikiran et al., psychological dimensions influencing nomophobia. Nota-
2023), correlating with an increased likelihood of medical bly, higher levels of life satisfaction have been correlated
errors, thus undermining effective decision-making. Addi- with lower instances of nomophobia (Karademir Coskun
tionally, nomophobia is a notable cause of work interrup- & Kaya, 2020; Özgür et al., 2023), suggesting that initia-
tions and distractions, particularly noted among healthcare tives aimed at improving overall employee well-being could
professionals, where it leads to considerable challenges effectively reduce this modern workplace challenge. The
(Wang & Suh, 2018; Bülbüloğlu et al., 2020; Afzal et al., element of self-efficacy is also pivotal; findings indicate
2022). The presence of nomophobia also significantly ele- that employees with strong self-efficacy are less affected by
vates the risk of errors in clinical settings (Lupo, 2020), nomophobia, as they are better equipped to manage related
highlighting its broad and detrimental effects on organiza- anxieties (Anggoro & Handiyani, 2022). Additionally, the
tional efficiency and safety. nature of workplace relationships plays a critical role in
In exploring the effects of nomophobia on workplace influencing nomophobia levels. A cooperative work envi-
dynamics, our findings challenge the hypothesis that height- ronment has been identified as a beneficial factor in coun-
ened nomophobia enhances communication and networking teracting nomophobia and excessive smartphone use, which
capabilities. Instead, the evidence reveals no significant link can otherwise decrease collaboration and increase feelings
between the severity of nomophobia among employees and of isolation among staff (Olivencia-Carrión et al., 2018).
their networking skills (Merdan & Erdem, 2022). This lack This highlights the importance of fostering a supportive
of correlation highlights the complex nature of nomopho- workplace culture to alleviate the effects of nomophobia.
bia's impact on professional interactions. Further scrutiny These insights demonstrate the multifaceted approach
into nomophobia’s role in the workplace reveals mixed out- needed to address nomophobia, emphasizing the interaction
comes on work engagement and productivity. Some studies between personal psychological traits and organizational
(Afzal et al., 2022; Daniel, 2022) indicate that nomophobia dynamics. By focusing on enhancing well-being and culti-
may lead to lower work engagement, citing distractions and vating positive workplace environments, organizations can
interruptions from excessive smartphone use as contributing effectively mitigate the impact of nomophobia.

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25948 Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954

Limitation detoxes and face-to-face interactions is critical for cultivat-

ing a culture of less problematic smartphone use (Ko et al.,
This investigation offers valuable insights into the phenom- 2015). Workshops on digital wellness and effective time
enon of nomophobia; however, it is imperative to acknowl- management also play a significant role in fostering health-
edge several inherent limitations that may influence the ier digital habits (Anrijs et al., 2018). This multidisciplinary
interpretation of the findings. First, while the systematic approach highlights the need for targeted interventions that
review was designed to encompass a broad array of schol- prioritize psychological health, responsible technology use,
arly communications to mitigate publication bias, there and supportive organizational cultures. As this field evolves,
remains a propensity for the academic publishing landscape ongoing empirical research will be crucial in validating
to predominantly favor studies that report significant find- these strategies and ensuring they meet the diverse needs of
ings. This selection bias may inadvertently skew the syn- workplace environments.
thesis of data and the conclusions drawn therein. Second,
the methodologies employed across the studies reviewed
exhibited considerable heterogeneity in the measurement of Future research
nomophobia, introducing variability that may compromise
the generalizability of the results. The lack of standard- This study has highlighted several gaps and potential
ized measures across studies poses a significant challenge areas for further investigation. Addressing these areas will
to deriving uniform conclusions from the aggregated data. deepen our understanding of workplace nomophobia and
Lastly, the predominance of cross-sectional study designs help develop effective interventions. One key area needing
within the corpus of literature reviewed restricts our capac- attention is the development of longitudinal studies. Current
ity to infer causality between nomophobia and its psycho- research predominantly relies on cross-sectional designs,
logical and organizational impacts. To overcome these limiting our grasp of causality and long-term impacts. Lon-
limitations, future research should endeavor to include lon- gitudinal studies would enable us to track the development
gitudinal studies that can better ascertain causative relation- and progression of nomophobia over time, offering insights
ships and develop a consensus on measurement standards to into its sustained effects on employee well-being and orga-
enhance the reliability and comparability of findings across nizational productivity.
studies. Given the varying impact of nomophobia across different
professional settings, sector-specific research is necessary.
Understanding how job characteristics, industry demands,
Interventions to mitigate nomophobia and work environments influence the prevalence and impact
of nomophobia will help tailor interventions to the specific
Nomophobia leads to numerous repercussions for both needs of different sectors. Future studies should also include
employees and organizations, with a moderate to severe cross-cultural comparisons to explore how nomophobia
prevalence observed among employees. As technologi- manifests differently across cultural and regional contexts,
cal advancements continue to proliferate, nomophobia is enabling the development of culturally sensitive interven-
increasingly becoming a concern (Abdulrahman, 2023). To tions that consider varying attitudes towards technology and
effectively tackle nomophobia among employees, it's essen- work-life balance.
tial to integrate diverse strategies. Psychological methods Moreover, the rapid evolution of technology continu-
like mindfulness training and cognitive-behavioral therapy ously changes the nature of smartphone use. Future research
(CBT) have proven effective in reducing problematic smart- should explore how emerging technologies such as wear-
phone use by enhancing self-awareness and improving ables, augmented reality (AR), and virtual reality (VR)
stress management (King et al., 2013; Arpaci et al., 2019). influence nomophobia. Additionally, examining the impact
Organizational policies that promote digital wellness, of new technological trends on workplace dynamics will
such as scheduled screen-free times and regular breaks, provide valuable insights into managing nomophobia in
are equally crucial (Tams et al., 2018). Additionally, apps modern work environments. Investigating the psychologi-
that monitor and limit phone usage offer practical tools for cal mechanisms underlying nomophobia is another impor-
managing problematic smartphone use (Economides et al., tant area for future research. Studies should focus on how
2018). However, the success of these interventions depends personality traits, cognitive biases, and emotional factors
on their integration into a holistic approach that recognizes contribute to the development of nomophobia. Understand-
the multifaceted nature of nomophobia. ing these mechanisms can inform the creation of targeted
Moreover, implementing apps that limit smartphone psychological interventions.
usage and organizational policies that encourage digital

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Current Psychology (2024) 43:25934–25954 25949

As remote and hybrid working models become more understanding of nomophobia and help develop effective
prevalent, it is essential to examine their impact on nomo- strategies to mitigate its adverse effects on employees and
phobia. Future studies should explore strategies for manag- organizations, ultimately promoting healthier digital habits
ing work-life integration to minimize the negative effects of and improving overall productivity in the digital age.
constant connectivity and enhance overall well-being. The
mixed findings on gender differences in nomophobia high- Funding This work was supported by Macquarie University (Interna-
tional Macquarie University Research Excellence Scholarship).
light the need for more nuanced research. Future studies
should investigate how gender roles, societal expectations, Data availability This study does not involve the use of specific data,
and individual coping strategies influence nomophobia, lead- as it is based on a review of existing literature.
ing to the development of gender-sensitive interventions.
Nomophobia is associated with various physical health Declarations
issues, such as eye strain, musculoskeletal pain, and sleep
disturbances (Fu et al., 2021). Future research should delve Conflicts of interest The authors of this paper declare that they have
deeper into these health consequences and explore preven- no conflicts of interest related to this research. This research was con-
ducted in an unbiased manner, and the authors have no financial, per-
tive measures that can be implemented in the workplace. sonal, or professional affiliations that could be perceived as influencing
Moreover, the influence of nomophobia on workplace the research, analysis, or interpretation of the results presented in this
collaboration and communication needs further explora- article.
tion. Understanding its effects on team dynamics, leader-
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons
ship effectiveness, and organizational culture can provide
Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing,
insights into creating a more supportive and productive adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format,
work environment. as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the
Finally, future research should focus on developing source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate
if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this
and implementing organizational policies aimed at reduc-
article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
ing nomophobia. This includes evaluating the impact of indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
policies on digital detox, screen-free times, and promoting included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
face-to-face interactions. Studies should assess the effec- use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
tiveness of these policies in different organizational settings
holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
and their impact on employee productivity and well-being. org/licenses/by/4.0/.
By addressing these research gaps, future studies can sig-
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