Introduction to Biology

Module 1
 Contents
Introduction to Biology:
• Origin and evolution of life.
• The cell - the basic unit of life,
• Structure and functions of a cell.
• The Plant Cell and animal cell,
• Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cell,
• Stem cells and their application.
• Biomolecules:
• Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic acids,
• proteins, lipids.
• Importance of special biomolecules
• Enzymes, vitamins and hormones.
Reference Text Books
GUESS ....?

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck,
French Naturalist
 Biology for Engineering: What is it?
• Biological engineers study biological processes and integrate them with engineering
principles to develop solutions for a wide variety of technical problems.

• For example, biological engineers design medical

devices ranging from glucose sensors to materials and
structures for hip replacements, new processes which
can clean our air and water.
• Genetically engineer bacteria to produce fuel,
pharmaceuticals, or remove toxins, and develop
equipment which harvest and process our food.

• Biological engineers typically study many engineering

disciplines such as mechanical, chemical and electrical
engineering but also understand biology. This diverse
expertise make biological engineers exceptionally valuable
in today's challenging interdisciplinary world.
• Biological engineers contribute to our society through many professional roles within academia, industry
and government. Given the diversity of the biological engineering discipline, biological engineers find
themselves working in a variety of fields including bioprocessing, bioenergy, environment, food production,
genetic engineering, and biomedical, while always working toward a sustainable world.
• Some of the specific subfields of biological engineering includes
molecular engineering, soil and water engineering, physiological
engineering, controlled-environment agriculture, nucleic acid
engineering, microbial fuel cells, strength structures engineering,
soil and water engineering, and bioenergetics and strain factors.

• By researching biological processes and merging them with

engineering concepts, biological engineers are able to tackle a
wide range of technical problems.
• Biological Engineering is an interdisciplinary area focusing on the application of engineering principles to
analyze biological systems and to solve problems in the interfacing of such systems — plant, animal or
microbial–with human-designed machines, structures, processes and instrumentation.
• It incorporates biology, chemistry, and physics to solve problems in biological systems and biomedical
technologies.
• A career in this field can do work in many different fields including, but not limited to: medicine, biological or
environmental research, natural systems, environmental health, bio-energy, bio-fuels, and sustainable energy.
• Living organisms can now be analyzed, measured and "engineered" as never before. Designer "bugs" are being
produced to enhance biological processes. These changes continue to redefine the research and graduate
programs that continue to emphasize biological, environmental and food and fiber engineering.
• A basic goal is to design technology that operates in harmony with the biology of living systems. In many cases,
currently available knowledge is inadequate to support engineering design of food and biological processes.
Hence, greater fundamental knowledge of biology and its potential applications are also of concern to the
biological engineer.
• For conventional engineering disciplines like Mechanical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Electrical Engineering,
biology may not be a distinctive subject, but it is an integral part of disciplines such as biosystems engineering,
Ergonomics, Biomedical engineering, etc.
Molecular Bioengineering Nucleic Acid Engineering
Microbial Fuel cells
• Molecular Bioengineering (Chemical based)
Biosensors, bioassays and microfluidic lab-on-a-chip systems will be developed for the
detection of pathogenic organisms, toxins, and clinically relevant markers. Applications of the
sensors will be toward clinical diagnostics, food safety, environmental protection or biosecurity.

• Nucleic Acid Engineering (Chemical based)

Work with engineering DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) into a nanomaterial for real world
applications including drug (DNA/siRNA/cell) delivery, molecular sensing, cell-free protein
production, protein engineering and nanoparticle-based
photonic/optoelectronic/photovoltaic devices.

• Physiological Engineering (Mechanical based)

Experiment with measurement and modeling of physiological functions in animals and plants.

• Microbial Fuel cells (Physical based)

Microbial fuel cells use bacterial cells for the generation of bioelectricity from waste products.
Differences Between DNA and RNA
• DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, while RNA contains the
sugar ribose. The only difference between ribose and
deoxyribose is that ribose has one more -OH group than
deoxyribose, which has -H attached to the second (2') carbon
in the ring.
• DNA is a double-stranded molecule, while RNA is a single-
stranded molecule.
• DNA is stable under alkaline conditions, while RNA is not
stable.
• DNA and RNA perform different functions in humans. DNA
is responsible for storing and transferring genetic information,
while RNA directly codes for amino acids and acts as a
messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins.
• DNA and RNA base pairing is slightly different since DNA
uses the bases adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine; RNA
uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. Uracil differs from
thymine in that it lacks a methyl group on its ring.
 Some Examples
The Biorobotics Revolution
• The term “biot,” which means “biological robot,” is a smart adjective. Several new disciplines
are bridging the gap between biology and robotics. Cybernetics, bionics, biomimicry, and
synthetic biology are only a few examples.
• 3D printers will be used to create human tissue, stem cells, and even artificial blood cells in
this scenario. Bone, cartilage, muscle, teeth, organs, blood arteries, and even ears may be printed
using other 3D manufacturing equipment.
• Artificial blood can produced in different ways using chemical isolation, recombinant
biochemical technology or synthetic production, depenting on the type of the blood.
Engineering design inspired by examples in biology

Termite Den = Office building

Biomimicry

burdock seeds
Science and Technology
Science and Biology
• The origins of modern biology and its
approach to the study of nature are most
often traced back to ancient Greece.
• (Biology is derived from the Greek word “bio”
meaning “life” and the suffix “ology”
meaning “study of ”)
• Biology is a a natural science concerned with
the study of life and living organisms.
• science is a process for learning about the
natural world that tests ideas using evidence
gathered from nature.
• biology comprises of series of engineering
problems which have been solved by nature.
“Nature is called Greatest Engineer”
 Biology Vs Life Science – The Major Difference
BIOLOGY
• Biology is the study of life, which is applied in different fields.
• learn about about life, the Origin of life, evolution, different scientists, diseases, organisms and many other
aspects related to life on planet earth
• Biology is the study of life’s various forms, processes, and systems, such as microbes, fungi, plants, and animals.
• Biologists work in all natural environments, as well as agricultural and clinical
settings.
• Biologists recognise that life is linked across recent and geologic time, as well as
across the molecular-to-biome spectrum.
• Biologists use integrative and comparative approaches to resolve the general
processes, principles, and unifying themes that govern living systems in order to
understand this great biological complexity.
• As a result, the field of biology is highly interdisciplinary, with biologists relying
on knowledge from the physical sciences and mathematics to advance knowledge
and make breakthroughs in applied and basic research problems.
 LIFE SCIENCE
• Life Science is a group of advanced biology. Life science is also called biological Science.
• Biotechnology, Biochemistry, Genetics, Ecology, Microbiology, Immunology, Molecular biology, etc. are
different fields of Life Science.
• The life sciences have changed dramatically: new disciplines, such as
genomic and metabolomic technologies, have transformed the descriptive
and normative power that these disciplines now wield.
• Technological advancements, accompanied by new scientific approaches and
positions, have resulted in daily practices in life science laboratories that are
radically different from life science practices prior to these advancements.
• New scientific work organisations emerge, with profound social and
normative consequences.
• Approaches and practices incorporate new norms and values that are
significantly different from previous forms of life science practises.
• These new sciences have acquired new forms of descriptive and normative
impact, both internally and externally.
 Bio- Polymers (Muscular)
• Polymers have become a necessary commodity of everyday life and are
used for manufacturing of hundreds of things of our daily use from
house hold items to transportation and communication.
• Polymers are also used in medicine; however, all the polymers cannot be
used for this purpose.
For medical applications, a polymer should have the following properties:
Ø bio-safe and non-toxic which means that it should be non-
carcinogenic, non-teratogenic, non-mutagenic, non-cytotoxic, non-
pyrogenic, nonhemolytic, non-allergenic and chronically non-
inflammative etc.
Ø Must be effective in terms of functionality, durability, and
performance
Ø must be interfacial, mechanically and biologically biocompatible
Ø Sterilizable through different techniques like autoclave, dry heating,
electron beam irradiation etc.
 • It should also be chemically inert and very stable i.e. it should not decay or disintegrate to give obnoxious toxic
products with the passage of time especially when it is intended to be implanted within body.
• The selection of a polymer for a particular medical application is also made upon the basis of its host response.
Therefore a biopolymer is any polymeric non-viable material which is used in medical devices or applications
that where it is intended to interact with biological systems such as tissues, cells, bones, blood and any other
living substance.
• Biopolymers used in manufacture of medical devices which
are used to replace or repair some diseased, damaged or
non-functional piece of tissue or bone like replacement of
joints, heart valves, arteries, teeth, tendons, ligaments, ocular
lenses etc.
• More advanced devices are used to partially or entirely
replace or assist in functioning of a vital organ like lung,
kidney, liver, heart etc.
• Furthermore, biocompatible and degradable polymers are
used to prepare advanced and efficient drug delivery
systems.
• Drugs (like pilocarpine, contraceptives, insulin etc.) are
encapsulated within polymeric microcapsules for their
controlled and sustained release or targeted delivery of
drugs (like delivery of an anticancer drug only to the tumor).
 Bio-sensors
• A biosensor is a device that can convert a biological signal into an electrical or electronic signal.

• The biosensors are also identified as Analytical

devices. The term 'Biosensor' implies that it integrates
biological elements (e.g. enzymes, antibodies,
tissue, etc) with a physicochemical detector.
• When the biosensor comes into contact with the
substance it's looking for (e.g., glucose in our blood),
a chemical reaction happens.
• This reaction changes the properties of the sensing
element, kind of like how a key fits into a lock and
turns it.
• The detector or transducer used in biosensors works in a physicochemical way that may be optical or
piezoelectric or electrochemical and it transforms the signal resulting from the interaction between the
analyte and biological element into an electrical signal or another signal that can be measured easily.
• The electrical signal is then sent to a simple display or a device that shows the results. It could be a number on
a screen or a light that turns on, indicating the level of the substance detected.
Biosensor Applications and Uses Biosensor Advantages
1. There is a huge application of biosensors in the medical
industry for testing purposes. 1. Using biosensors we can easily detect the
2. The biosensor is used for pathogens detection purposes. harmful chemicals or biological agents inside a
3. Biosensors are also used for water treatment purposes. human body.
4. Biosensors are used for environmental monitoring purposes 2. A biosensor can convert the biological signal
such as gas detection or tracing. into an electrical or electronic signal which can be
5. They are used for toxic metabolite detection. easily measured, quantified, and amplified.
6. The biosensor is used to identify the contaminants in water 3. A biosensor can work just by utilizing a specific
such as heavy metal ions. This process is generally used when biochemical reaction, there is no more complexity
river water is treated for drinking. in the working of the biosensor.
7. Biosensors are used in the security system and biodefense 4. Biosensor technology is not so costly, day by
technology. day the use of biosensor technology increases.
8. Blood Glucose biosensor is used for glucose monitoring 5. Biosensors are highly specific for the analyte.
inside the human body. 6. Biosensor devices are very smaller in size and
9. The biosensor is also used for testing of cholesterol. they are biocompatible.
10. Biosensors are used for the measurement of vitamins, 7. Biosensors are very reliable.
biotin, folic acid, etc.
11. Biosensors are used in Agriculture, Biotech industries to
continuously monitor types of chemicals, and their properties
in a specific system.
 Bio chips
• A biochip is a collection of miniaturized test sites (micro arrays) arranged on a solid substrate that permits
many tests to be performed at the same time in order to get higher throughput and speed.
• Typically, a biochip's surface area is not longer than a fingernail.
• Computer chip that can perform millions of mathematical
operation in one second, a biochip can perform thousands of
biological operations, such as decoding genes, in a few seconds.
• A genetic biochip is designed to "freeze" into place the structures
of many short strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), the basic
chemical instruction that determines the characteristics of an
organism. Effectively, it is used as a kind of "test tube" for real
BIOCHIPS CURRENTLY UNDER
chemical samples.
DEVELOPMENT
• The biochip implants system consists of two components: a
transponder and a reader or scanner.
1. Chips that follow footsteps
• The transponder is the actual biochip implant. The biochip system
2. Glucose level detectors
is radio frequency identification ( RFID) system, using low-
3. Oxy sensors
frequency radio signals to communicate between the biochip and
4. Brain surgery with an on-off switch
reader.
5. Adding sound to life
• The reading range or activation range, between reader and biochip
6. Experiments with lost sight
is small, normally between 2 and 12 inches.
 Biochip Applications and Uses

1. Opening any lock by touch

2. Driver license and passport replacement
3. Universal discount card
4. E-Wallet tethered to bank cards
5. Patient record + insurance certificate
6. Any online service (log-in via biochip)
7. Internet of Things and Smart Home setup
8. Universal ticket to anywhere
9. Anti-theft protection for smartphones,
laptops, or other devices
10.Commanding a personal robot army
 Bio filter
• Biofiltration is a new technology used to purify contaminated air evolved from volatile
organic and inorganic compounds by involving microorganisms. It is a low cost
technology gradually becoming popular due to simple operational and waste-removal
efficiencies.
• Biofiltration is a pollution control technique using a bioreactor containing living
material to capture and biologically degrade pollutants.

• Common uses include processing waste water,

capturing harmful chemicals or silt from
surface runoff, and microbiotic oxidation of
contaminants in air.
• Industrial biofiltration can be classified as the
process of utilizing biological oxidation to
remove volatile organic compounds, odors,
and hydrocarbons.
 Biopesticides
• Biopesticides, also known as biological pesticides, are chemicals
made from natural organisms or substances used to control or
suppress agricultural pests, weeds, and disease-causing agents by
specific biological effects.
• According to the US Environment Protection Agency (EPA),
“Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from
natural materials such as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain
minerals.”
Types of Biopesticides
1. Microbial Pesticides
• Bacterial biopesticides
• Viral biopesticides
• Fungal biopesticides
2. Biochemical pesticides
• Plant extracts (Botanicals)
• Semiochemicals
• Growth regulators
3. Plant Incorporated Protectants (PIPS)
Bio concrete self healing
• Bio-concrete is a self-healing technique using bacteria that can fill the cracks in concrete by
inducing a calcium carbonate precipitation through biomineralization.
• The basic mechanism of bacteria-based crack healing happens when the concrete crack
occurs.

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA)
Bioinformatics, systems Biology and
Computational Biology
• Bioinformatics
• Collection and storage of biological information
• derives knowledge from computer analysis of biological data
• Computational Biology
• computational and mathematical analysis and modeling of
complex biological systems.
• System Biology
• developemnt of alogirhms and statistival model to analyze
biological data
Alfred Russel Wallace Charles Darwin
Origin and Evolution of Life
 Origin Of Life on Earth
• The universe is very old – almost 13 billion years old. Huge clusters of galaxies comprise
the universe.
• The Big Bang theory attempts to explain to us the origin of universe. It talks of a singular
huge explosion unimaginable in physical terms.
• The universe expanded and hence, the temperature came down. Hydrogen and Helium
formed sometime later.
• The gases condensed under gravitation and formed the galaxies
of the present day universe.
• In the solar system of the milky way galaxy, earth was supposed to
have been formed about 5 billion years back.
• There was no atmosphere on early earth. Methane,
carbondioxide and ammonia released from molten mass covered
the surface.
• The UV rays from the sun brokeup water into Hydrogen and Oxygen and the lighter
H2 escaped. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 and others.
• The ozone layer was formed. As earth cooled, the water vapor fell as rain, to fill all the
depressions and form oceans.
• Life appeared 500 million years after the formation of earth, i.e., almost four billion years
back. Some scientists believe that the life came from outerspace.
• The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back. They would
have been giant molecules (RNA, Protein, Polysaccharides, etc.). These capsules
reproduced their molecules perhaps.

• The first cellular form of life did not possibly originate till
about 2000 million years ago. These were probably single-
cells. All life forms were in water environment only.
• The version of a biogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose
slowly through evolutionary forces from non-living
molecules is accepted by majority.
Evolution of Life on Earth
• Evolutionary Biology is the study of history of life forms on earth.
• Homology indicates common ancestry. In the context of biology, homology is the existence of shared ancestry
between a pair of structures, or genes, in different species.
• A common example of homologous structures in evolutionary biology are the wings of bats and the arms of
primates.
• Homology is based on divergent evolution whereas Analogy refers to a situation exactly opposite [convergent
evolution].
• Wings of butterfly and of birds look alike. They are not anatomically similar structures though they perform
similar functions.
• Hence, analogous structures are a result of convergent evolution – different structures evolving for the same
function and hence having similarity.
• Other examples of analogy are the eye of the octopus and of mammals or the flippers of Penguins and
Dolphins.
• One can say that it is the similar habitat that has resulted in selection of similar adaptive features in different
groups of organisms but toward the same function: Sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem
modification) is another example for analogy.
Darwin’s Theory
 Biological Evolution
• The essence of Darwinian theory about evolution is natural selection. The rate of appearance of
new forms is linked to the life cycle or the life span.
• Microbes that divide fast have the ability to multiply and become millions of individuals within
hours.
• A colony of bacteria (say A) growing on a given medium has built- in variation in terms of ability to utilise a
feed component.
• A change in the medium composition would bring out only that part of the population (say B) that can survive
under the new conditions.
• In due course of time this variant population outgrows the others and appears as new species. This would
happen within days.
• For the same thing to happen in a fish or fowl would take million of years as life spans of these
animals are in years.
• Hence, there must be a genetic basis for getting selected and to evolve.
• Another way of saying the same thing is that some organisms are better adapted to survive in an
otherwise hostile environment. Adaptive ability is inherited. It has a genetic basis. Fitness is the end
result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature.
 Darwin's Analysis
• The finches had different beaks because they lived on different islands in different
environments.
• The environment did not cause the differences in beaks because there was no mechanism for
such an influence.
• The different beak characteristics must have all been present in the original finch population.
• As the finches from the original population settled on an island, the finches with the beaks
best adapted to the local food supply would have an advantage.
• The finches with beaks best suited to the food source on their island would survive in greater
numbers than the less adapted finches.
• Eventually, over many generations, the finches on an island would form a distinct species
with a distinct beak size and shape because finches with those beaks would be the fittest for
their environment.
• With these conclusions, Darwin explained the evolution of the finch beaks in the Galapagos
Islands by proposing the mechanism of natural selection. He summarized this mechanism as
survival of the fittest, where fitness was defined as reproductive success.
Darwin's Work Relied on Observations
The three observations that allowed Darwin to develop his theory of
evolution and natural selection were:

• The individuals in a population display a variation in traits such as

color, behavior, size and shape due to genetic variation.
• Some of the traits are passed down from parents to descendants and
are heritable.
• The parents in a population overproduce offspring so that some will
not survive.

Based on these observations, Darwin proposed that those individuals

with traits that made them fitter would be the ones to survive while the
least fit would die off.
Over time, the population would be dominated by individual with the
traits that made them fitter.
 A Brief Account of Evolution
• About 2000 million years ago (mya) the first cellular
forms of life appeared on earth.
• The mechanism of how non-cellular aggregates of giant
macromolecules could evolve into cells with membranous
envelop is not known.
• Some of these cells had the ability to release O2. The
reaction could have been similar to the light reaction in
photosynthesis where water is split with the help of solar
energy captured and channelized by appropriate light
harvesting pigments.
• Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular life
forms. By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed
and active. Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya.
Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320
mya.
• We are told that the first organisms that invaded land were
plants. They were widespread on land when animals
invaded land.
• The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick-shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those
of amphibians. Again we only see their modern day descendents, the turtles, tortoises and crocodiles.
• In the next 200 million years or so, reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on earth. Giant ferns
(pteridophytes) were present along with reptiles but they all fell to form coal deposits slowly.
• Some of these land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles probably 200 mya (e.g.
Ichthyosaurs).
• The land reptiles were, of course, the dinosaurs. The biggest of them were Tyrannosaurus and Ultrasaurus.
• About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. We do not know the true reason. Some
say climatic changes killed them. Some say most of them evolved into birds. The truth may live in between.
Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today.
• The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized. Mammals were viviparous and protected
their unborn young inside the mother’s body.
• Mammals were more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger at least. When reptiles came down
mammals took over this earth.
• There were in South America mammals resembling horse, hippopotamus, bear, rabbit, etc. Due to
continental drift, when South America joined North America, these animals were overridden by North
American fauna. Due to the same continental drift pouched mammals of Australia survived because of
lack of competition from any other mammal.
Theories on Origin of life

• Panspermia
• Spontaneous generation
• Primordial soup Theory
• Miller–Urey experiment
 Panspermia
• Panspermia, also called cosmic origin theory or extraterrestrial theory of life, is one of the theories put
forward to explain the origin of life on planet Earth. It is based, fundamentally, on the fact that life on this planet
arose from "life-bearing seeds" from outer space.
• The term "panspermia" derives from the Greek words pan,meaning "all," and sperma, meaning "seed," so it is
usually translated as seeds everywhere or seeds everywhere. This expression is used to refer to the existence of
vital "seeds" or "nuclei" traveling through outer space that could have reached Earth and given rise, by evolution,
to life as we know it today.
• Panspermia is the hypothesis that life exists throughout the Universe, distributed by space dust, meteoroids,
asteroids, comets, and planetoids, as well as by spacecraft carrying unintended contamination by
microorganisms,known as directed panspermia.
• The theory argues that life did not originate on Earth, but instead evolved somewhere else and seeded life as we
know it.
 Spontaneous generation
• Traditional religion attributed the origin of life to deities who created the natural
world. Spontaneous generation, the first naturalistic theory of abiogenesis, goes
back to Aristotle and ancient Greek philosophy, and continued to have support in
Western scholarship until the 19th century.
• The theory held that "lower" animals are generated by decaying organic substances.
Aristotle stated that, for example, aphids arise from dew on plants, flies from putrid
matter, mice from dirty hay, and crocodiles from rotting sunken logs.
• The basic idea was that life was continuously created as a result of chance events Aristotle Francesco Redi

Francesco Redi in 1668 designed one scientific experiment to test

spontaneous creation.
• In two different jars pieces of fresh meat were kept. After that one jar was
kept open and the other jar was covered with a piece of cloth.
• After a few days in the open jar maggots developed. On the other, the
covered jar did not develop any maggots.
• From this observation, Redi could be able to prove that in the open jar flies
from the exterior laid eggs on the meat, and maggots developed from the
eggs.
• On the other hand, flies could not reach the pieces of meat inside the
covered jar and therefore, no maggot could develop within the covered jar.
• This experiment then disproved the spontaneous generation of life.
 Oparin: Primordial soup hypothesis
• The early atmosphere of the Earth was a reducing atmosphere, meaning there was
little to no oxygen.
• The gases that mostly made up the atmosphere were thought to include methane,
hydrogen, water vapor, and ammonia.
• The mixture of these gases included many important elements, like carbon and Alexander Oparin
nitrogen, that could be rearranged to make amino acids.
• Since amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, scientists believe that
combining these very primitive ingredients could have possibly led to organic
molecules coming together on Earth.
• Those would be the precursors to life. Many scientists have worked to prove this Stanley Miller
theory.
• The "primordial soup" idea came about when Russian scientist Alexander Oparin
and English geneticist John Haldane each came up with the idea independently.
• It had been theorized that life started in the oceans. Oparin and Haldane thought
that with the mix of gases in the atmosphere and the energy from lightning strikes,
amino acids could spontaneously form in the oceans. This idea is now known as
"primordial soup."
• In 1940, Wilhelm Reich invented the Orgone Accumulator to harness the
primordial energy of life itself.
Harold Urey
 Miller-Urey Experiment
• The groundbreaking experiment used a sterile glass flask of 5 liters attached with a pair of electrodes, to hold water (H2O),
methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen (H2), the major components of primitive Earth.
• This was connected to another glass flask of 500 ml capacity half filled with water. On heating it, the water vaporized to fill
the larger container with water vapor.
• The electrodes induced continuous electrical sparks in the gas mixture to simulate lightning. When the gas was cooled, the
condensed water made its way into a U-shaped trap at the base of the apparatus.
• After electrical sparking had continued for a day, the solution in the trap
turned pink in color. At the end of a week, the boiling flask was
removed, and mercuric chloride added to prevent microbial
contamination.
• After stopping the chemical reaction, the scientist duo examined the
cooled water collected to find that 10-15% of the carbon present in the
system was in the form of organic compounds. 2% of carbon went into
the formation of various amino acids, including 13 of the 22 amino
acids essential to make proteins in living cells, glycine being the most
abundant.
• Though the result was the production of only simple organic molecules
and not a complete living biochemical system, still the simple prebiotic
experiment could, to a considerable extent, prove the primordial soup
hypothesis.
The cell - the basic unit of life
The cell provides minimum requirements to perform essential life properties such as organization, metabolism,
responsiveness, movements, and reproduction to live independently. Hence, it ensures
1. Independent existence
2. Performing the vital functions of life.

• Cells are built from Biomolecules such as carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and
Nucleic acids.
• They exhibit variations in their size
• In the Human body, (the Largest cell is the ovum and the smallest cell
is the sperm),
• shape (round, spherical or elongated),
• life span (white blood cells only live for about 13 days, whereas red
blood cells live for about 120 days) and
• function (Organ specific).
• Cells that have a similar structure and function form tissues.
• A cell can form a whole organism as inunicellulars like bacteria, or it may be part
of the multicellulars like Humans.
 First usable microscopes ever made
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was this simple instrument
24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723
Dutch microbiologist
first observed cell
Guess..?

Robert Brown
Robert Hook
December 21, 1773-June 10, 1858
July 18 1635 -March 3, 1703
Cell theory is a scientific theory that states that all living organisms are made of cells. 17th
century onwards many curious scientists kept on observing diverse groups of organisms.
The three major contributions brought a comprehensive understanding that Cells act as a
basic unit of life.
They are listed as follows
a. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German botanist, examined
many plants and observed that all plants are composed of different
kinds of cells that form the plant tissues.

b. Theodore Schwann (1839), a British Zoologist, studied

different types of animal cells and reported that cells had a thin outer
layer which is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’.

c. Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divide and new
cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
Cell Theory
Cells are fundamental to the study of biology. Every living thing is composed of cells, they are the
building blocks of life.

All cells share similar characteristics and can be defined by the cell theory.

1. All living things are composed of cells.

2. All cells arise from preexisting cells through cell division.
3. Cells contain hereditary material, which they pass to daughter cells during cell division.
4. The chemical composition of all cells is quite similar.
5. The metabolic processes associated with life occur within cells.

The three important points of the modified cell theory are as follows:
1. The cell is the basic functional and structural unit of all living organisms.
2. All living organisms are made up of cells.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Structure and Function of a Cell

Plant Cell Animal Cell

 Sclerenchyma Cells – Sclerenchyma is a dead cell that has thick
secondary cell walls found in the nongrowing regions of the plant body,
such as bark and stems. They are a type of simple permanent tissue that
also forms a part of the ground tissues along with parenchyma and
collenchyma in plants.
The cells of the sclerenchyma are stiffer. They are the primary sustaining
cells in plant regions that have stopped developing. Mature sclerenchyma
cells are often dead cells with thickened secondary walls. They also have a
high cellulose content (60–80%) and serve the purpose of giving
structural support to plants.

Functions
Based on the structure and location where they are found in the plant, the
two types of sclerenchyma tissues perform the following functions:
Structure: Providing the skeletal covering of the plant, thus giving shape
and morphology

Support: Contributing to the rigidity of the plant and thus provide permanent structural support
Strength and Protection: Giving mechanical strength and protection to the inner, delicate parts of the plant to withstand
outside stress
Hardness: Sclerids, forms the shell of nuts, the coat of many seeds, and the stone of cherries and plums
Texture: Sclerids provide gritty texture to some fruits such as pears and guavas
 • Parenchyma Cells – The simple permanent ground tissues that make up the
majority of plant tissues, such as the soft component of leaves, fruit pulp, and
other plant organs, are known as parenchyma. They are present in leaves and
perform photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and metabolic processes. They
also store chemicals such as carbohydrates and proteins and aid in plant
healing.

• Xylem Cells – This tissue aids in the transfer of dissolved chemicals

and water throughout the plant. Tracheids, vessels, xylem
parenchyma, and xylem fibres are examples of xylem components.
The xylem transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots to
the leaves of the plant.

• Phloem Cells – It delivers nutrients produced by photosynthesis to

all areas of the plant. Sugars and amino acids dissolved in water are
transported by phloem. The phloem transports nourishment from
the leaves to the roots.
Difference between plant cell and Animal cell
Basis of Comparison Plant Cell Animal Cell

They are eukaryotic cells having a true nucleus It is a type of that lacks a cell wall and has a
Meaning along with specialized structures known as true, membrane-bound nucleus along with
organelles which perform specific functions. other cellular organelles.

Fixed-size which is generally larger. The normal Irregular and small in size. Ranges from 10-30
Size
range is from 10-100 micrometres. micrometres.

They have a fixed and rigid shape – generally

Shape They have round and irregular shapes.
rectangular or cubical.

Has a cell wall composed of the cell membrane

Cell Wall Does not have a cell wall.
and cellulose.

Surrounded By Rigid wall cell and plasma membrane Flexible and thin plasma membrane

Plastids Present Absent

Chloroplast Present in plant cells Not present in animal cells

Ribosomes Present Present

Cytoplasm Present Present

 Basis of Comparison Plant Cell Animal Cell

Nucleus Lies on one side Lies in the cell wall’s centre

Cilia Absent Generally present

Centrioles Absent Present

Mitochondria Present in a small number Present in a large number

Glyxoxysomes May be present Absent

Lysosomes Absent Present

Centrosomes Absent Present

Generally large and provide structural support. Vacuoles are small in size. Many
Vacuoles
One huge vacuole. vacuoles.

Plant cells can synthesize their own nutrients

Animal cells cannot synthesize their
Essential Nutrients such as amino acids, vitamins coenzymes that
own nutrients.
are required by the plant.

Present as complex carbohydrates and

Reserve Food Present as starch
glycogen
Cell Membrane
• The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of
substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment.
The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
• The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as
the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
• By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of
selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects
the cellular component from damage and leakage.
• It forms the wall-like structure between two
cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
• Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are
well-adapted to protect them from external
factors.
• The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
 Cell Wall
• The cell wall is the most prominent part of
the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
• The cell wall is present exclusively in plant
cells. It protects the plasma membrane and
other cellular components. The cell wall is
also the outermost layer of plant cells.
• It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding
the cell membrane.
• It provides shape and support to the cells
and protects them from mechanical
shocks and injuries.
Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present
inside the cell membrane.
• Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in
this cytoplasm.
• The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles,
mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus
• The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the
cell, the DNA.
• It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide
and die.
• The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that
separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.
• The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral
component of a plant’s cell structure.
 Cell Organelles and their Functions
Nucleolus: is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in
controlling cellular activities and cellular reproduction.
Nuclear membrane : protects the nucleus by forming a boundary
between the nucleus and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes: play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual.
Each human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum: is involved in the transportation of substances
throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of
carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies: are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the
transportation of materials within the cell.
Ribosome: are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
Centrioles (in animals): Assist in cell division.
Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell movement
Mitochondria: is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
Lysosomes: protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the
cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplasts: are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.
Vacuoles: store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.
Despite the fact that all cells share the above characteristics, they can be remarkably different in size, shape and function.
 Mitochondria Chloroplasts

Ribosomes Golgi Apparatus

 Centrosome and Centrioles Microbodies

Cell Theory
1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. All cells arise from preexisting cells through cell division.
3. Cells contain hereditary material, which they pass to daughter cells during cell division.
4. The chemical composition of all cells is quite similar.
5. The metabolic processes associated with life occur within cells.
 Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

• Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

• The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
• The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and
cell growth.
• Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
• Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
• Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
• Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation of the cell by
synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their
appropriate locations.
General Characteristics of Cell
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen
2. Cell can produce its own energy required for its growth, repair and other activities
3. Eliminates carbon dioxide(CO2) and other metabolic wastes
4. Maintains the medium, ie., the internal environment for its survival
5. Shows immediate response to entry of foreign substances into the body.
6. Cell can reproduce by division eg., binary fission, mitosis etc., (neutron is an
exception, which do not reproduce)
Understanding cell structure and functions is key to understanding life
processes Structure:

1. Plasma Membrane: Surrounds the cell, regulating the passage of substances.

2. Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance filling the cell, containing organelles.
3. Nucleus: Houses genetic material (DNA), controlling cell activities.
4. Organelles: Specialized structures:
a. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Involved in protein and lipid metabolism.
b. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages molecules.
c. Mitochondria: Generates energy through respiration.
d. Lysosomes: Break down waste materials.
e. Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
f. Centrioles (in animals): Assist in cell division.
g. Cytoskeleton: Provides structural support and aids in cell movement
 Functions of Cells
1. Respiration: Converts glucose into Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for energy.
2. Protein Synthesis: Translates genetic information into proteins.
3. Storage and Processing: Synthesizes, modifies, and transports molecules.
4. Cellular Communication: Signals between cells via various molecules.
5. Waste Management: Breaks down and recycles cellular waste.
6. Cell Division: Replicates cells for growth, repair, and reproduction.
7. Movement: Supports cell movement and shape changes.

Biological diagram shows structure of Adenosine

triphosphate or ATP as energy substance in living
organism
Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells
 Prokaryotic cells
• The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro“,
(meaning: before) and “karyon” (meaning: kernel). It translates to
“before nuclei”.
• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as
bacteria have a region within the cell where the genetic material is
freely suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.
• They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include
archaea, bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
• The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
• The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
• Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual
reproduction. They are also known to use conjugation – which is often
seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it
is NOT sexual reproduction).
 Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cell
The basic facts and characteristic features of a prokaryotic cell are:

• They lack a true nucleus, i.e., they do not have a nuclear membrane.
• The entire genetic material or DNA is located in a central region of the cell called the
nucleoid. It typically consists of a single, circular double-stranded DNA.
• Membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria, chloroplast, Golgi bodies, and
lysosomes are absent.
• The cell wall consists of carbohydrates and amino acids.
• The plasma membrane also acts as the mitochondrial membrane.
• Reproduce asexually through binary fission and sexually by conjugation, transformation,
and transduction.
Eukaryotic Cells
• The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word
“eu“, (meaning: good) and “karyon” (meaning: kernel),
therefore, translating to “good or true nuclei.”
• Eukaryotes are more complex and much larger than
prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms
except kingdom monera.
• Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.
• The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
• This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and
animals.
• The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and
electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
• They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
• There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell
contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.
Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells
The basic characteristic features of a eukaryotic cell are:

• They contain membrane-bound organelles and a well-defined nucleus. A complex

nuclear membrane surrounds the nucleus
• Their cell wall consists of cellulose and some other carbohydrates
• The genetic material is DNA, which is linear and has multiple origins of replication.
The DNA is complexed with histone proteins
• They contain cytoskeletal structural elements (microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments) that provide structural support to the cell
• Cilia and flagella are the locomotory organs
• Reproduce either asexually by mitosis or fission or sexually, involving two partners
Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular
Cell size Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – 2.0 μm in Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm in diameter
diameter
Cell wall Usually present; chemically complex in nature When present, chemically simple in nature
Nucleus Absent. Instead, they have a nucleoid region in Present
the cell
Ribosomes Present. Smaller in size and spherical in shape Present. Comparatively larger in size and linear in shape
DNA arrangement Circular Linear
Mitochondria Absent Present
Cytoplasm Present, but cell organelles absent Present, cell organelles present
Endoplasmic Absent Present
reticulum
Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes
Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes
Lysosome Lysosomes and centrosomes are absent Lysosomes and centrosomes are present
Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis
Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size
Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual
Example Bacteria and Archaea Plant and Animal cell
 Stem Cells and Their Applications
• Stem cells also have the ability to repair damaged cells. These cells
have strong healing power. They can evolve into any type of cell.
• Research on stem cells is going on, and it is believed that stem
cell therapies can cure ailments like paralysis and Alzheimer’s
Parkinson's disease, spinal cord injury, heart disease,
diabetes, and arthritis.
• Stem cells are cells with the potential to develop into many
different types of cells in the body.
• They serve as a repair system for the body. There are two main
types of stem cells: embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells.
Stem cells are different from other cells in the body in three ways: Types of cells
• They can divide and renew themselves over a long time Stem cells are of the following different types:
• They are unspecialized, so they cannot do specific functions in the Embryonic Stem Cells
body Adult Stem Cells
• They have the potential to become specialized cells, such as muscle Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells
cells, blood cells, and brain cells Mesenchymal stem cells
 Stem Cells: Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the remarkable
ability to differentiate into specialized cell types.

They possess two main characteristics:

1. Self-Renewal: The ability to divide and produce more stem cells,
maintaining a renewable source for further differentiation.
2. Differentiation: The potential to differentiate into various cell types
depending on their environment and the signals they receive.
Stem cells are classified based on their potency or potential to
differentiate into different cell types:
Totipotent: Totipotent stem cells are the most versatile stem cell type,
because they are formed shortly after fertilization of an egg cell by a
sperm cell. They can become all of the cells of the human body, as
well as the cells of the embryo and developing fetus.
Pluripotent: Can differentiate into cells of all three germ layers:
ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm. Examples include embryonic
stem cells (ESCs).
Multipotent: Can differentiate into a limited range of cell types within
a particular lineage or tissue. Examples include adult stem cells.
Applications of Stem Cells:
Application Description
Tissue Engineering Stem cells comobined with biomaterials can engineer tissues and organs for transplantation. This
apprach holds promise for creating replacement tissues and organs, addressing the shortage of donor
organs and reduding the risk of rejections
Biomaterial Stem cells can be integrated into various biomaterial scaffolds, providing a platform for tissue
integration regeneration and repair. Engineers design and optimize these scaffolds to mimic the natural
microenviroment and guide stem cell differentiation
Bioprinting Stem cell based bioprinting involves the precise deposition of stem cells and biomaterials to create
complex three dimensional structures. This technology enables the fabrication of tissue constructs
with defined architectures, suitable for transplantation.
Drug screening and stem cell based models can be used for drug screening and development, providing a more accurate
Development representation of human biology than traditional cell lines. Engineers develop high throughput
platforms for screening potential drugs and assessing their safety and efficacy
Gene Therapy Engineers design stem cell based gene delivery systems for gene therapy applications. Stem cells can
serve as vectors for delivering therapeutic genes to target tissues, offering potential treatments for
genetic disorders and other dieseases
Diesease modeling Stem cells are used to model diseases in the laboratory, providing insights into disease mechanisms
and testing personalized therapies. Engineers develop sophistivated platforms for culturing and
analyzing stem cells, facilitating disease modeling and drug discovery
 Biomolecules
• Biomolecules are the most essential organic molecules, which are involved in the
maintenance and metabolic processes of living organisms.
• These non-living molecules are the actual foot-soldiers of the battle of sustenance of life.
• They range from small molecules such as primary and secondary metabolites and
hormones to large macromolecules like proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids etc.
• All living organisms are made up of a
fundamental unit called the cell.
• Each cell is made up of organic as well as
inorganic compounds.
• The elemental analysis of the cell constituents
shows that a cell comprises carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorus, etc. Proteins,
Carbohydrates, Fats, and Nucleic acids are
known as Biomolecules.
"CHONPS" stands for
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
and nitrogen, phosphorus
and sulfur.
Carbohydrates • Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the
three main ways by which our body obtains its energy.
• They are called carbohydrates as they comprise
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen at their chemical level.
• Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which include
sugars, fibers and starches.
• They are found in grains, vegetables, fruits and in
milk and other dairy products.
• They are the basic food groups which play an
important role in a healthy life.
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are biological molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of
roughly one carbon atom (C) to one water molecule (H2O).
• This composition gives carbohydrates their name: they are made up of carbon (carbo-) plus
water (-hydrate).
• Carbohydrate chains come in different lengths, and biologically important carbohydrates
belong to three categories: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sugar”) are simple sugars, the most
common of which is glucose.
• Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides join together via a
dehydration reaction, also known as a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis.
The hydroxyl group of one monosaccharide combines with the hydrogen of another,
releasing a molecule of water and forming a covalent bond known as a glycosidic
linkage.
• A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is known as a
polysaccharide (poly- = “many”).
There are two main types of carbohydrates: simple and complex. Simple carbs are made up of just one or two
sugars while complex carbs are made up of multiple sugar units.
Simple Carbs
• Monosaccharides are the simplest and smallest type of sugar made of just one sugar unit. When you consume
carbs, your body breaks them down into monosaccharides so they can be absorbed and used for energy.
There are three main monosaccharides:
Glucose Fructose Galactose
• Disaccharides are made of two monosaccharides units bonded together.There are three main disaccharides:
Sucrose (glucose + fructose) Maltose (glucose + glucose) Lactose (glucose + galactose)
• Simple sugars like glucose, fructose, and sucrose are found in a number of foods, including healthy foods like
fruits and dairy products.
• However, many less healthy, ultra-processed foods are high in simple sugars like high-fructose corn syrup
and table sugar. Some examples of foods and drinks high in simple sugars include candy, soda, sugary
cereal, and ice cream.
• Simple sugars are easily digested by the body, which causes a rapid increase in blood sugar and a release of the
hormone insulin from the pancreas.
• Additionally, foods rich in simple carbs like candy, soda, and sugary baked goods are high in calories, but low in
important nutrients like fiber, protein, vitamins, and minerals.
• Because of this, a diet too high in simple carbs can increase your risk of developing health conditions like
obesity, type 2 diabetes, and heart disease.
properties of carbohydrates
Property Description
Chemical Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a ratio of 1:2:1, respectively.
Composition
Structure Consists of chains or rings of sugar molecules.
Types Divided into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides.
Solubility Most carbohydrates are soluble in water due to their hydrophilic nature, except for
some larger polysaccharides
Sweetness Monosaccharides and disaccharides are generally sweet-tasting, while polysaccharides
are not.
Energy Source The primary source of energy for living organisms, providing 4 calories per
gram upon digestion.
Storage Stored as glycogen in animals and as starch in plants for energy reserves
Structural Function Act as building blocks for cell walls in plants (cellulose) and exoskeletons in
arthropods (chitin).
Biological Essential for cellular processes such as metabolism, cell signalling, and immune
Significance system functioning.
Functions of Carbohydrates
Functions of carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic components of food, including
sugars, starch, and fibre which are abundantly found in grains, fruits and milk
products.
• Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex carbohydrates
and so on.
• It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
• Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source
of energy.
• An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into glucose,
finally to produce energy for metabolism.
Function Description
Energy Source Carbohydrates serve as the primary source of energy for the body, providing fuel for various physiological
processes. Glucose, derived from carbohydrates, is particularly vital for brain function and muscle activity.
Structural Support In organisms, carbohydrates play a crucial role in providing structural support. For instance, cellulose, a
complex carbohydrate found in plant cell walls, offers rigidity and strength, contributing to the overall
structural integrity of plants.
Storage of Energy Carbohydrates are stored in the body as glycogen in the liver and muscles. When energy demand increases,
glycogen is broken down into glucose to meet the energy requirements, maintaining blood glucose levels within
a normal range.
Facilitate Dietary fibers, a type of carbohydrate found in plant-based foods, aid in digestion by promoting regular bowel
Digestion movements, preventing constipation, and supporting a healthy digestive system

Cellular Carbohydrates on cell surfaces play a crucial role in cell recognition and communication. They help cells
Communication identify and interact with each other, facilitating various physiological processes such as immune responses and
tissue development.
Flavor and Texture Carbohydrates contribute to the taste, texture, and appearance of foods.They enhance the flavor of foods,
provide sweetness, and contribute to the texture of baked goods, making them palatable and appealing to
consumers.
Metabolic Carbohydrates participate in metabolic regulation by influencing insulin secretion and blood glucose levels.
Regulation Maintaining proper carbohydrate intake and metabolism is essential for preventing metabolic disorders such as
diabetes
Fuel for Exercise During physical activity, carbohydrates provide the necessary energy to sustain muscle contractions and
endurance. Athletes often rely on carbohydrate-rich foods to fuel their performance and enhance recovery
after exercise
 Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides that
contain these three factors: nitrogenous base, five-
carbon sugar and phosphate group.
• These three are connected to each other in a process
called dehydration synthesis.
• when the sugar and phosphate factors of
nucleotides, it results to phosphodiester bond that
serves as the spine and strength of ribonucleic
acid or RNA and Deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA.

• During the mitosis phase or the process of cell division, a cell gives off its DNA to the progeny cell.
• The DNA then is sorted into chromosomes that comprise the scheme of instructions for cellular activity.
• The DNA contains adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). These four are nitrogenous
bases and are paired off as A-T and G-C.
• RNA or ribonucleic acid is important for the fusion of proteins or in the process also known as “translation,”
making it a component of ribosome.
• The data inside the parents’ (or a parent’s) genetic code is transferred from DNA to RNA and to the proteins.
 Properties of Nucleic acid
• Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acid.
• These make up all living things’ genetic material.
• In a live cell, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two forms of nucleic acids.
• A nucleotide is made up of three chemically different components. A heterocyclic base, or nitrogenous
base, a monosaccharide pentose sugar and phosphoric acid, or phosphate group,
• The nitrogenous bases are made up of one or two heterocyclic rings that include nitrogen atoms. Adenine
(A), guanine (G), uracil (U), cytosine (C), and thymine (5-methyl uracil) are the five bases (T).
• Adenine and guanine are substituted purines with two heterocyclic rings, whereas uracil, cytosine, and
thymine are substituted pyrimidines with three heterocyclic rings (1 heterocyclic ring).
• DNA has the nitrogenous bases A, T, G, and C, whereas RNA has the nitrogenous bases A, U, G, and C.
• Polynucleotides either include beta-ribose sugar (in RNA) or beta 2′ deoxyribose sugar (in DNA).
• Nucleosides: Sugar + Base
• Nucleotides are made up of three parts: base, sugar, and phosphate.
• The backbone of DNA strands is made up of phosphodiester linkages, which are sugar and phosphate
residues.
• Due to the presence of phosphate groups, they are acidic and negatively charged.
Properties of Nucleic acid
properties Description
Polarity Nucleic acids exhibit polarity, with distinct 5' (five-prime) and 3' (three-prime) ends. This polarity arises
from the orientation of the sugar-phosphate backbone, where the 5' end contains a phosphate group
attached to the 5' carbon of the sugar molecule, and the 3' end terminates with a hydroxyl group on the
3' carbon.
Double Helix DNA molecules possess a double helix structure, characterized by twocomplementary polynucleotide
Structure strands winding around each other in a right-handedmanner. This structure provides stability and
protection to the genetic informationencoded within the DNA molecule and facilitates replication and
transcriptionprocesses.
Base Pairing Nucleic acids exhibit specific base pairing rules, where adenine (A) pairs with thymine (T) in DNA or
uracil (U) in RNA via hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C) pairs with guanine (G). This complementary
base pairing ensures the accurate replication and transmission of genetic information during cellular
processes.
Hydrogen Hydrogen bonding plays a crucial role in stabilizing the structure of nucleic acids. Within the double
Bonding helix of DNA, hydrogen bonds form between complementary base pairs, contributing to the structural
integrity and specificity of the molecule. These bonds are relatively weak individually but collectively
provide stability to the DNA double helix.
Acidic Nature Nucleic acids are acidic molecules due to the presence of phosphate groups in their structure. The
negatively charged phosphate groups confer an overall negative charge to the nucleic acid molecule,
influencing its interactions with other molecules and its behavior in biochemical processes.
Functions of Nucleic Acid
• Nucleic acids are responsible for the
transmission of inherent characters from
parent to offspring.
• They are responsible for the synthesis of
protein in our body
• DNA fingerprinting is a method used by
forensic experts to determine paternity.
• It is also used for the identification of
criminals. It has also played a major role in
studies regarding biological evolution and
genetics.

Refer notes for more information

 Proteins
• Protein, highly complex substance that is present in all living organisms.
• Proteins are of great nutritional value and are directly involved in the chemical processes essential for life.
• The word derived from the Greek prōteios, meaning “holding first place.”
• Proteins are species-specific; that is, the proteins of one species differ from those of another species.
• They are also organ-specific; for instance, within a single organism, muscle proteins differ from those of
the brain and liver.
The structure of the protein is classified at 4 levels:
• Primary – The primary structure of a protein is the linear polypeptide chain
formed by the amino acids in a particular sequence. Changing the position of even
a single amino acid will result in a different chain and hence a different protein.

• Secondary – The secondary structure of a protein is formed by

hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide chain. These bonds cause
the chain to fold and coil in two different conformations known
as the α-helix or β-pleated sheets. The α-helix is like a single
spiral and is formed by hydrogen bonding between every
fourth amino acid. The β-pleated sheet is formed by
hydrogen bonding between two or more adjacent polypeptide
chains.
• Tertiary – The tertiary structure is the final 3-dimensional
shape acquired by the polypeptide chains under the attractive
and repulsive forces of the different R-groups of each amino
acid. This is a coiled structure that is very necessary for protein
functions.
• Quaternary – This structure is exhibited only by those proteins
which have multiple polypeptide chains combined to form a
large complex. The individual chains are then called subunits.
Properties of proteins
• Solubility in Water
• The relationship of proteins with water is complex.
• The secondary structure of proteins depends largely on the interaction of peptide bonds with water through
hydrogen bonds.
• Hydrogen bonds are also formed between protein (alpha and beta structures) and water. The protein-rich static
ball is more soluble than the helical structures.
• At the tertiary structure, water causes the orientation of the chains and hydrophilic radicals to the outside of the
molecule, while the hydrophobic chains and radicals tend to react with each other within the molecule
(hydrophobic effect).
• Denaturation and Renaturation
• Proteins can be denatured by agents such as heat and urea that cause the unfolding of polypeptide chains without
causing hydrolysis of peptide bonds.
• The denaturing agents destroy secondary and tertiary structures, without affecting the primary structure.
• If a denatured protein returns to its native state after the denaturing agent is removed, the process is called
renaturation.
• Physical agents: Heat, radiation, pH
• Chemical agents: Urea solution which forms new hydrogen bonds in the protein, organic solvents, detergents.
• Coagulation
• When proteins are denatured by heat, they form insoluble aggregates known as coagulum. All the proteins are not
heat coagulable, only a few like the albumins, globulins are heat coagulable.
• Isoelectric point
• The isoelectric point (pI) is the pH at which the number of positive charges equals the number of
negative charges, and the overall charge on the amino acid is zero.
• At this point, when subjected to an electric field the proteins do not move either towards anode
or cathode, hence this property is used to isolate proteins.
• Molecular Weights of Proteins
• The average molecular weight of an amino acid is taken to be 110.
• The total number of amino acids in a protein multiplied by 110 gives the approximate molecular
weight of that protein.
• The molecular weights of proteins range from 5000 to 109 Daltons.
• Posttranslational modifications
• It occurs after the protein has been synthesized on the ribosome.
• Phosphorylation, glycosylation, ADP ribosylation, methylation, hydroxylation, and acetylation
affect the charge and the interactions between amino acid residues, altering the three-dimensional
configuration and, thus, the function of the protein.

Refer notes for more information

Functions of Proteins
The body uses proteins for a variety of purposes, and their structure
determines how they work. Several notable functions include:
• Digestion – The digestive enzymes, which are primarily
proteinaceous in origin, carry out digestion.
• Movement – Muscles include a protein called myosin, which
helps muscles contract, allowing for movement.

• Structure and Support – The structural protein known as

keratin is what gives humans and other animals hair, nails, and
horns.
• Cellular communication – Through receptors on their
surface, cells can communicate with other cells and the outside
world. These receptors are made of proteins.
• Act as a messenger – These proteins serve as chemical
messengers that facilitate communication among cells, tissues,
and organs.
Proteins are nitrogenous organic compounds of high molecular weight which play a vital
or prime role in living organisms. They are made up of 20 standard a-amino acids.
The main functions of proteins in human body are:
• 1. They serve as body building units, e.g., muscle proteins.
• 2. They provide support and protection to various tissues, e.g., collagen and keratin.
• 3. All chemical reactions in the body are catalysed by proteinaceous enzymes, e.g., trypsin.
• 4. They transport various molecules and ions from one organ to the other, e.g., hemoglobin,
serum albumin.
• 5. They store and provide nutrients, e.g., milk casein, ovalbumin.
• 6. They defend the body from harmful foreign organisms, e.g., immunoglobulin’s, fibrinogen.
• 7. They help to regulate cellular or physiological activity, e.g., hormones, viz., insulin, GH.
 Lipids
• Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen,
carbon, and oxygen atoms, which form the framework for
the structure and function of living cells.
• They are hydrocarbon-based macromolecules that are
grouped together because of their hydrophobic qualities.

• These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar solvents and
insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule.
• In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are found in oil, butter, whole milk,
cheese, fried foods and also in some red meats.
There are theer main families of lipids: fats, phospholipids, and steroids.
Lipid arrangements:
A. Glycerophospholipids (i.e., phospholipids) contain a polar head and nonpolar tail.
B. A lipid bilayer is composed of glycerophospholipid molecules with their heads facing
outward, and tails inward.
C. This arrangement is usually preferred by glycerophospholipids because their hydrophobic
tails are often too bulky for the spherical shape of a micelle.
 Properties of Lipids
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils.
These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different
functions within the human body.
Listed below are some important characteristics of Lipids.
• Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose
tissue of the body.
• Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed
of hydrocarbon chains.
• Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for
different life processes.
• Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in
nonpolar solvents and insolubility in water.
• Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical
barrier dividing a cell from the external environment known as the cell
membrane.
• Pure fats and oils are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• Lipids are considered hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules.
• Lipids are greasy in texture and stored in adipose tissues inside the
body.
• Lipids are either liquid or non-crystalline solid at room temperature.
 Chemical Properties of Lipids
• Hydrolysis of triglycerides: Triglycerides (neutral lipids) on reacting
with water form carboxylic acid and alcohol.
• Saponification: Triglycerides on hydrolysis with alkali (NaOH or
KOH) or lipase enzymes (termed alkaline hydrolysis) lead to the
formation of two products: soap or fatty acid salts of sodium or
potassium, and glycerol.
• Hydrogenation: The breakage of double bonds occurs after the
reaction of unsaturated fatty acids with hydrogen. This turns the
molecules into saturated fatty acids.
• Halogenation: Free or combined fatty acids in the reaction with
halogens gain double bonds and cause decolorization of halogen
solutions.
• Rancidity: Oxidation and hydrolysis of fats and oil to generate a
disagreeable odor – this is known as rancidity.
Functions of Lipids
1. It serves as a food reserve in both plants and
animals.
2. In animals, fat occurs as droplets (adipocyte), and
provides protection against low temperature,
3. Plant oils are used as low cholesterol in fat.
4. They act as chemical coordinators and also
stimulate anabolism.
5. Steroids are essential for growth and flowering in
plants. Steroids also control sex expression.
6. Cholesterol is an essential component of animal
plasma membrane. Cholesterol produces bile salt.
7. Fats can be converted to carbohydrates. Therefore, fats stored in oilseeds (e.g., groundnut, mustard, castor,
sunfiower, cotton, coconut) not only provide energy but also raw materials for the growth of the embryo.
8. Cholesterol forms vitamin D on exposure to UV rays
9. Subcutaneous fat rounds off the body contours of animals and human beings. In animals, the tats produce a shock
absorbing cushion around eyeballs, gonads, kidneys and other vital organs.
10. Waxes form a protective layer over the animal fur. They protect the floating leaves of aquatic plants against wetting.
In land plants, they reduce the rate of transpiration.
11. Myelin sheath around nerve fibres takes part in insulation.
 Enzymes
• Enzymes help with specific functions that are vital to
the operation and overall health of the body. They help
speed up chemical reactions in the human body. They
are essential for respiration, digesting food, muscle Lock and key hypothesis
and nerve function, and more.
• Each cell in the human body contains thousands of
enzymes. Enzymes provide help with facilitating
chemical reactions within each cell.
• Since they are not destroyed during the process, a cell
can reuse each enzyme repeatedly.
Induced fit hypothesis
• The name ‘enzyme’ literally means ‘in yeast’, and this was referred to denote one of the most important reactions
involved in the production of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide through the agency of an enzyme zymase,
present in yeast.
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that catalyze more than 5000 different biochemical reactions taking place in all
living organisms.
• Enzymes are proteins that are prone to damage and inactivation.
Properties of Enzymes
• Enzyme molecules are large, and because of their large size, the enzyme molecules possess meager rates of
diffusion. As a result, enzymes form colloidal systems in water.
• Enzymes act catalytically and accelerate the rate of chemical reactions occurring in biological systems and
involving biological substrate.
• Most enzymes also do not participate in the reactions they catalyze. Similarly, some enzymes that are
involved in the reaction are recovered without undergoing any qualitative or quantitative change at the end
of the reaction.
• Most enzymes are highly specific in their action.
• Being proteinaceous in nature, the enzymes are
susceptible to heat. The rate of an enzyme action
increases with the rise in temperature; the rate being
frequently increased 2 to 3 times for a rise in
temperature of 10ºC.
• The enzymes catalyze the reversion of the reactions
they catalyze.
• Enzymes are also pH sensitive as the pH of a medium
will affect the efficiency of an enzyme and their
activity is maximum at a specific pH.
 Functions of Enzymes
Enzymes play vital roles in biochemical reactions and metabolic processes within living organisms. Their functions are diverse and
essential for maintaining life processes.
• Catalysis: Enzymes act as biological catalysts, increasing biochemical reaction rates by using less activation energy. This catalytic
activity allows cells to carry out metabolic processes efficiently, such as breaking down nutrients, synthesizing biomolecules, and
producing energy.
• Digestion: These play a crucial role in digestion by breaking down complex macromolecules into smaller, absorbable molecules. For
example:
• Amylase breaks down starch into glucose during carbohydrate digestion.
• Proteases hydrolyze proteins into amino acids.
• Lipases aid in the hydrolyzation of fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
• Energy Production: Enzymes participate in energy production pathways like glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
These pathways involve enzyme-catalyzed reactions that convert carbohydrates, fats, and proteins into energy-rich molecules such as
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) that cells use for various cellular processes.
• Synthesis of Biomolecules: Enzymes are involved in synthesizing biomolecules essential for cellular structure, function, and
regulation. Examples include:
• DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase catalyze the synthesis of DNA and RNA, respectively, during replication and
transcription.
• Although not enzymes, ribosomes facilitate protein synthesis (translation) by assembling amino acids into polypeptide chains
based on mRNA instructions
• Detoxification: These in the liver and other organs participate in detoxification by metabolizing and eliminating harmful substances
(such as drugs, toxins, and foreign compounds) from the body. These enzymes, such as cytochrome P450 enzymes, modify xenobiotics
to make them more water-soluble for excretion.
• Cell Signaling: Enzymes are involved in cell signaling pathways, where
they catalyze reactions that regulate cellular responses to external stimuli,
including hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors. Examples
include protein kinases that phosphorylate proteins in signal transduction
cascades and phosphatases that dephosphorylate them.
• Immune Response: Enzymes are part of the immune system’s defense
mechanisms. For instance, enzymes like lysozyme and proteases in tears,
saliva, and mucus help protect against pathogens by breaking down their
cell walls or proteins.
• Repair and Maintenance: Enzymes participate in DNA repair
mechanisms, ensuring genomic stability and integrity. Enzymes such as
DNA repair polymerases, nucleases, and ligases recognize and correct
DNA damage caused by various factors, including radiation, chemicals,
and oxidative stress.
• Regulation of Metabolic Pathways: These play a crucial role in
regulating metabolic pathways by controlling the rates of specific
reactions. Regulation can occur through feedback inhibition, allosteric
regulation, covalent modification (such as phosphorylation), and gene
expression changes affecting enzyme levels.
 Vitamins
• The vitamins are natural and essential nutrients, required in small quantities and play a
major role in growth and development, repair and healing wounds, maintaining
healthy bones and tissues, for the proper functioning of an immune system, and
other biological functions.
• These essential organic compounds have diverse biochemical functions.
Types of Vitamins
Based on the solubility, Vitamins have been classified into two Casimir Funk
different groups:
• Fat-Soluble Vitamins.
• Water-Soluble Vitamins.
• Fat-soluble vitamin are stored in the fat cells and as the
name suggests, these vitamins require fat in order to be
absorbed. Vitamin A, D, E and K are fat-soluble vitamins.
• Water-soluble vitamin not stored in our body as its excess
gets excrete through the urine. Therefore, these vitamins
need to be replenished constantly. Vitamin B and C are
water-soluble vitamins.
 Sources of Vitamins
There are thirteen different types of vitamins and all are required for the metabolic processes.
Similar to minerals, vitamins cannot be synthesized by our body. Therefore, we need to get them from the food we consume or in
extreme cases supplements to keep ourselves healthy.
• The best sources of fat-soluble vitamins include: Ø Vitamins can sometimes cause side
• Vitamin A: Found in potato, carrots, pumpkins, spinach, beef and eggs. effects.
• Vitamin D: Found in fortified milk and other dairy products.
Ø Typically, this happens at high doses.
• Vitamin E: Found in fortified cereals, leafy green vegetables, seeds, and nuts.
Ø Since vitamins are already in the foods
• Vitamin K: Found in dark green leafy vegetables and in turnip or beet green.
Other sources of Vitamin B and C include:
we eat, it can be easy to accidentally take
• Vitamin B1 or Thiamin: Found in pork chops, ham, enriched grains and a higher dose of a vitamin than you need.
seeds.
• Vitamin B2 or Riboflavin: Found in whole grains, enriched grains and dairy This can lead to side effects, including:
products.
• Vitamin B3 or Niacin: Found in mushrooms, fish, poultry, and whole grains. • a bad taste that lingers in your mouth
• Vitamin B5 or Pantothenic Acid: Found in chicken, broccoli, legumes and • stomach pain
whole grains. • nausea
• Vitamin B6 or Pyridoxine: Found in fortified cereals and soy products. • vomiting
• diarrhea
• Vitamin B7 or Biotin: Found in many fruits like fruits and meats.
• constipation
• Vitamin B9 or Folic Acid: Found in leafy vegetables.
• Vitamin B12: Found in fish, poultry, meat and dairy products.
• Vitamin C: Found in citrus fruits and juices, such as oranges and grapefruits.
 key benefits of vitamins
• Vitamin A: helps with your vision and the formation and maintenance of your teeth, bones, skin, and soft
tissues.
• Vitamin B6: maintainshealthy brain function and form the red blood cells you need.
• Vitamin B12: maintain central nervous system, it’s also important for metabolism and for the formation of
red blood cells.
• Vitamin C: healthy tissue and promotes dental health. It’s also important for wound healing.
• Vitamin D: body can absorb enough calcium and develop healthy teeth and bones.
• Vitamin E: important forTrusted Source organ function.
• Vitamin K: helps blood clot.
• Thiamine: essential for Trusted Source turning the carbohydrates you eat into energy you can use.
• Riboflavin: helps body Trusted Source produce red blood cells.
• Niacin: helps to maintain Trusted Source your skin and nervous system.
• Pathogenic acid: important for Trusted Source metabolism and the production of hormones and
cholesterol.
• Biotin: helps the body Trusted Source metabolize proteins and carbohydrates and helps the body produce
cholesterol and hormones.
• Folate: helps to produce Trusted Source red blood cells and DNA.
Functions of vitamins
 Hormones
Hormones are your body's chemical messengers. They travel in your
bloodstream to tissues or organs. They work slowly, over time, and affect
many different processes, including:
• Growth and development
• Metabolism - how your body gets energy from the foods you eat
• Sexual function
• Reproduction
• Mood
• Endocrine glands, which are special groups of cells, make hormones.
• The major endocrine glands are the pituitary, pineal, thymus, thyroid, adrenal glands, and pancreas.
• In addition, men produce hormones in their testes and women produce them in their ovaries.
• Hormones are powerful.
• It takes only a tiny amount to cause big changes in cells or even your whole body.
• That is why too much or too little of a certain hormone can be serious.
• Laboratory tests can measure the hormone levels in your blood, urine, or saliva.
• Your health care provider may perform these tests if you have symptoms of a hormone disorder.
 Properties of Hormones
• Because of their low molecular weight, they can easily pass through
capillaries.
• Because they are water-soluble, they can be transported through the
blood.
• Hormones always have a low concentration of action. Hormones
are important because they are non-antigenic.
• They function as organic catalysts. In the human body, hormones
serve as coenzymes for other enzymes.
• Hormones are notable for their ability to be destroyed, excreted, or
inactivated after their function has been completed.
• Hormones cause a limited number of reactions in their initial action
and do not directly influence any metabolic activities of a cell.
• Hormonal activity is not inherited.
 Functions of Hormones
Following are some important functions of
hormones:
• Food metabolism.
• Growth and development.
• Controlling thirst and hunger.
• Maintaining body temperature.
• Regulating mood and cognitive functions.
• Initiating and maintaining sexual development
and reproduction.

Refer notes for more information

Youtube video link
• DARWIN, THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BcpB_986wyk
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djceb3pDsfE
• Cells
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nR-lsNDVhcY
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m35jZGyEDhI
• Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pxujitlv8wc
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ApvxVtBJxd0
• Biomolecules
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Dx7LDwINLU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FgfknBZaVTI