CHAPTER 5

INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRONICS
LEARNING OUTCOME

• To understand the operation and characteristic of a diode.

• To understand the application of diodes in electronics and electrical field.
• To study the half wave and full wave rectification process using diodes.
 To describe the types of diode in electronics and electrical field.
TABLE OF CONTENT

5.0 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS

5.1 DIODE

5.2 DIODE APPLICATIONS

5.3 RECTIFICATION USING DIODES

5.3.1 FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION

5.3.2 HALF WAVE RECTIFICATION

5.4 TYPES OF DIODES

 Introduction

• Diode is an electronic • It only allows one direction • If anode has higher voltage • On the other hand, if • The unidirectional feature
component that has two of current flow during level compared to the cathode has higher voltage is used for rectification
terminals namely anode forward biased condition. cathode, the diode is level compared to the purpose which to convert
(positive terminal) and forward biased and anode, the diode is reverse from alternating current
cathode (negative forward current will flow biased. (AC) to direct current (DC).
terminal). thus resulting small
forward voltage drop
across the diode.
 5.1 DIODE

Diode is a
semiconductor Anode
+
Cathode
+
device that is made
of silicon or silicon Symbol

carbide. The symbol

and physical
structure of a diode Figure 7.1 The symbol and
are shown in Figure physical structure of a
diode
7.1.

There are three types of

diodes and each type has Silicon diode (VD = 0.7 V)
different forward voltage Germanium diode (VG = 0.3 V)
drop depending on the
Ideal diode (VID = 0 V)
material used:
 5.1 DIODE

The operation of a diode is

divided into two
conditions:

i) Forward biased ii) Reverse biased

 5.1 DIODE
The operation of a diode is divided into two conditions:

Forward Figure 7.2 shows the connection

of a diode in forward biased
When anode is connected to
voltage level higher than anode,

biased
the diode is switched on or said
condition.
to be in forward biased condition.

By applying KVL equation, the

In this condition, forward current flows from high to low voltage
output voltage, Vo across the
point and causing small forward voltage drop across the diode.
resistive load can be calculated.

VD
+ VD - + VD = 0 V -
+ + +

𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 − 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷 = 0 𝑉𝑉 VDC VO VDC VO VDC VO

- - -
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 − 𝑉𝑉𝐷𝐷
Real diode Ideal diode

Figure 7.2 The connection of a diode in forward biased condition

 5.1 DIODE
The operation of a diode is divided into two conditions:

ii) Reverse biased Figure 7.3 shows the connection of a diode

in reverse condition.

When anode is connected to voltage level

In this condition, the diode becomes open
lower than anode, the diode is switched off
circuit thus preventing the current flow.
or said to be in reverse biased condition.

- VD + + VD - + VD -
+ + +

VDC VO VDC VO VDC VO

- - -

Real diode Ideal diode

Figure 7.3 The connection of a diode in reverse biased condition

5.2 DIODE APPLICATIONS Power conversion
Rectifier is the circuit that uses
diodes to convert from AC to DC.
There are two types of rectifier that
include half-wave and full-wave
rectifier. Rectifier is essential when
the available power is AC while the
load requires DC power to operate.

Clipper
Voltage multiplier
A variety of diode configuration
Voltage multiplier uses clamping
in a clipper circuit is able to limit
capability of diodes to level up the
or “clip” off a portion of AC
peak rectified voltage by the
input voltage without distorting
multiplication factor of two, three,
DIODE the other part of the waveform.
four or more without having to
The application of clipper
increase the transformer voltage APPLICATIONS includes the protection of
rating. Voltage multipliers are
circuits for example digital
applied in low-current high-
circuit that requires an input
voltage circuits for example in
level voltage not more than the
particle accelerators and cathode-
power supply voltage in order to
ray tube (CRT).
avoid damages to the circuit.

Clamper
Diodes are applied
in a clamper circuit
that is used to add a
dc level to an AC
voltage waveform.
5.3 RECTIFICATION USING DIODES

Diodes can be used for

rectification purpose to convert
from AC to DC. Rectifier is
needed in the case where some
loads require DC supply to
operate while the only available
source is AC. Two types of
rectification setups are;

Half wave ii) Full wave

rectification rectification
 5.3 RECTIFICATION USING DIODES

The configuration
of half wave
rectification can be
either a single
diode with single
phase supply or
three diodes with + VD - + VD - + VD -
a three phase
+ + +
supply.
VO + VO = Vin - VO =
AC AC AC 0V
- +
The output voltage - -
waveform is shown in -

5.3.1 Half wave Figure 5.4 shows

Figure 5.5 whereby
only half cycle
(positive cycle) of the
Positive input cycle

Figure 5.4 The half wave rectifier circuit

Negative input cycle

rectification
the half wave AC voltage source is
rectifier circuit. passed at the output Vin Vout
load while the other
half cycle (negative
cycle) is blocked. +ve +ve

-ve -ve

Half wave
rectifier is very Figure 5.5 The output voltage waveform of half wave rectifier
inefficient for
power transfer
purpose since
only half of the
input waveform
is rectified
 5.3 RECTIFICATION USING DIODES

Vin
The output voltage Vout
waveform of full

5.3.2 Full wave

wave rectifier is +ve +ve
shown in Figure 5.6
-ve -ve
whereby both
rectification positive and
negative cycle of
the AC voltage Figure 5.6 The output voltage waveform of full wave rectifier
source are passed
at the output load.

Full wave rectifier

is more efficient
for power transfer
purpose compared
to half wave
rectifier.
5.3.2 Full wave rectification

i) Center
tapped
transformer

ii) Bridge
rectifier

There are two

arrangements of a
full wave rectifier;
 5.3.2 Full wave rectification
+ VD -
Figure 5.7 shows the center tapped
transformer circuit. The center tapped D1
transformer circuit during positive and
negative cycle of AC source is shown in Figure - VO +
5.8. AC

i) Center
tapped During positive cycle of AC source, diode 1, D1
D2

transformer and the top half secondary winding conducts

+ VD -
current thus delivering positive cycle to the
load. Figure 5.7 Center tapped transformer circuit

During negative cycle of AC source, diode 2, D2 + VD -

and the bottom half secondary winding +

conducts current thus delivering positive cycle AC
to the load. + - - VO + - - VO +
AC AC
-
- +
AC
The secondary side of a center tapped +
+ VD -
transformer can be treated as two back-to-back
half wave rectifiers whereby one rectifies the Positive input cycle Negative input cycle

positive cycle and the other rectifies the

negative cycle of AC source. Figure 5.8 Center tapped transformer circuit during positive
and negative cycle of AC source

Note that the same waveform for both half

cycle at the output is due to the same direction
of current flow through the load for both cycle.
5.3.2 Full wave rectification
• A bridge rectifier circuit consists of four diodes as shown in Figure 5.9.
ii) Bridge
rectifier • The bridge rectifier circuit during positive and negative cycle of AC source is
shown in Figure 5.10.

• D1 and D2 conducts during positive half cycle while D3 and D4 conducts

during negative half cycle of AC source.

• Note that the same waveform for both half cycle at the output is due to the
same direction of current flow through the load for both cycle.

D1
D1 D3 D3
+ +
+
VO VO
VO + -
AC AC
AC - -
- +
- D2
D4
D4 D2

Positive input cycle Negative input cycle

Figure 5.9 Bridge rectifier circuit Figure 5.10 Bridge rectifier circuit during positive and negative cycle of AC source
 5.4 TYPES OF DIODE
TYPES OF DIODE

Special
Thyristors
purpose diode

ii) Varactor iii) Optical iv) Other types

i) Zener diode i) Diac
diode diode of diode

a) LED a) Laser diode ii) Triac

b) Schottky
b) Photodiode iii) SCR
diode

c) Tunnel diode
 5.4 TYPES OF DIODE
TYPES OF DIODE

Special
Thyristors
purpose diode

ii) Varactor iii) Optical iv) Other types

i) Zener diode i) Diac
diode diode of diode

a) LED a) Laser diode ii) Triac

Zener diode can maintain constant dc voltage

when it is operating under proper conditions.
It is made of silicon pn junction and designed b) Schottky
to operate in reverse-breakdown region b) Photodiode iii) SCR
diode
whereby the diode voltage maintains nearly
constant despite the drastic change of current.
Hence, Zener diode often used as voltage
regulator to provide stable reference voltage c) Tunnel diode
for example in voltmeters and power supplies.
 5.4 TYPES OF DIODE
TYPES OF DIODE

Special
Thyristors
purpose diode

ii) Varactor iii) Optical iv) Other types

i) Zener diode i) Diac
diode diode of diode

a) LED a) Laser diode ii) Triac

A varactor diode always operates in reverse
bias condition and under this condition,
depletion region in a varactor diode provide
capacitance. Hence, it is often used as voltage- b) Schottky
b) Photodiode iii) SCR
diode
controlled capacitor that is widely used in
communication system such as in cellular and
tuning network.
c) Tunnel diode
 5.4 TYPES OF DIODE
TYPES OF DIODE

Special
Thyristors
purpose diode

ii) Varactor iii) Optical iv) Other types

i) Zener diode i) Diac
diode diode of diode

When the diode is in forward-biased condition, the electrons that

recombine with the holes release energy in the form of photon a) LED a) Laser diode ii) Triac
which is later emitted as visible light. Other than for lighting
purpose, LED is used as light emitter in readout display and
remote control units.
b) Schottky
b) Photodiode iii) SCR
diode
Photodiode is also known as photodetector which is used to detect light.
Photons inside a photodiode produce hole-electron pairs when the
semiconductor junction inside it is exposed to the light. Photo current
flows as the charges diffuse across the junction and the current increases c) Tunnel diode
as the intensity of light goes up. Several area of application of photodiode
includes in optical communication, photometry and solar cells whereby
photodiodes can be packaged as linear or two-dimensional array
 5.4 TYPES OF DIODE
TYPES OF DIODE

Special
Thyristors
purpose diode

ii) Varactor iii) Optical iv) Other types

i) Zener diode i) Diac
diode diode of diode

Laser diode emits coherent (single wavelength) light while LED emits
incoherent (wide band of wavelength) light. Laser stands for light a) LED a) Laser diode ii) Triac
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. The applications of
laser diodes include CD players, laser printers and fiber-optic system.

The main features of Schottky diode are b) Schottky

b) Photodiode iii) SCR
fast-switching and quick response time. diode
That is why this diode is used in high-
frequency application with short switching
time such as in radar system, analog-to- A significant characteristic of a tunnel diode is that
c) Tunnel diode
digital converter, AC-to-DC converter and it has a negative-resistance region whereby the
detectors in communication equipment. terminal voltage increases as the diode current
reduces. This feature makes tunnel diode useful in
microwave amplifier and oscillator applications.
 Diac is a two-terminal

5.4 TYPES OF DIODE semiconductor and is capable

of conducting current in both
directions. This feature makes
TYPES OF DIODE
diac useful for AC application.

Special
Thyristors
purpose diode The difference between
triac and diac is that triac
has three terminals instead
ii) Varactor iii) Optical iv) Other types of two with extra gate
i) Zener diode i) Diac
diode diode of diode terminal for turn-ON
control purpose. Triac is
used to control average
power to a load using
a) LED a) Laser diode ii) Triac
phase control method

b) Photodiode
b) Schottky
iii) SCR Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is a
diode three-terminal semiconductor
device with gate terminal to control
the turn-ON process. The common
c) Tunnel diode applications include chopper,
inverter, battery charger and
temperature controller
 EXAMPLE

1. The Diode connected in figure below is made up of silicon. Calculate the Vo and Vi of the circuit.

I Vo
I 4.7kΩ Si
Vi 2.2kΩ

10V

5V

Current

−10 + 4.7𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼 + 0.7 + 2.2𝑘𝑘 𝐼𝐼 − 5 = 0

−14.3 + 6.9𝑘𝑘(𝐼𝐼) = 0

𝐼𝐼 = 2.07𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

Voltage

𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = 2.07𝑚𝑚 × 2.2𝑘𝑘 = 4.554𝑉𝑉

2.2𝑘𝑘 2.07𝑚𝑚 − 5 − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 0

−0.446 − 𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = 0

𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 = −0.446𝑉𝑉
REFERENCES

 [1] Robert Boylestad, “Electronic devices and circuit theory”, 7th Edition. USA: Prentice
Hall.

 [2] Thomas L. Floyd, “electronic devices electron flow version”, 9th Edition. USA: Prentice
Hall. 2012.