Introduction to Electronics Engineering Module-1

SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Govt. of Karnataka)
Accredited by NBA, New Delhi (CSE, ISE, ECE, MECH, CIVIL), NAAC – “A” GRADE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Rajanukunte, Bangaluru- 560 064, Karnataka
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98, E-mail: hodece@saividya.ac.in, URL www.saividya.ac.in

Course Name: Introduction to Electronics Engineering Course Code: BESCK104C/204C

Course Coordinator: Prof. Monisha Uday Scheme: 2022

SYLLABUS

Power Supplies – Block diagram, Half-wave rectifier, Full-wave rectifiers and filters,
Voltage regulators, Output resistance and voltage regulation, Voltage multipliers.
Amplifiers – Types of amplifiers, Gain, Input and output resistance, Frequency
response, Bandwidth, Phase shift, Negative feedback, multi-stage amplifiers

Learning Outcome:

CO1: Analyze the working of various electronic circuits such as Power supplies and
Amplifiers.

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Introduction to Electronics Engineering Module-1

1.1 DC Power supplies

A regulated power supply ensures that the output current remains
constant, even if the input changes, by converting unregulated AC
(alternating current) to a constant DC (direct current).
The block diagram of a D.C power supply is shown in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1 Block diagram of a D.C power supply

• Step down Transformer: It is a device that has two windings namely primary
and secondary used to convert a high AC voltage (240V/50Hz) to a required
low AC voltage (say12V/50Hz).

• Rectifier: It is a device has one or more diodes, converts transformer AC

voltage to Pulsating DC.

• Smoothing Filter: It is a circuit used to remove ripples or AC components

present in the rectifier output.

Example: Capacitor filters, LC Filters, π Filters.

• Voltage Regulator: It is a circuit which provides constant DC output voltage

irrespective of changes in the load current or changes in the input voltage.

Figure 1. 2: Schematic diagram of a D.C power supply showing principal

components
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• Fig 1.2 shows schematic diagram of a D.C power supply showing principal
components. Step-down transformer is made of iron core that feeds low level
AC voltage from its secondary windings to a rectifier.
• Rectifier output is unsmoothed DC that is applied to a high value capacitor
to minimize ripples.
• Capacitor filter charges as the rectifier output voltage increases until its peak
value.
• When the rectifier output voltage reduces, it discharges gradually through
load.
• Voltage regulator consist of a series transistor and a zener diode to provide a
regulated DC voltage.
1.2 Rectifiers:
• Semiconductor diodes are commonly used as rectifiers. They allow current to
flow only in one direction; hence it converts A.C voltage to pulsating D.C
voltage.
• Rectifiers can be grouped into two types:
i) Half-wave Rectifier
ii) Full-wave Rectifier

1.2.1 Half-wave Rectifier

• The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and, since it
operates on only either positive or negative half-cycles of the supply, it is
known as a half-wave rectifier. Fig. 1.3 shows a simple half- wave rectifier
circuit.

Figure 1.3 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit

• The mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to the primary of a step- down
transformer (T1).
• The secondary of T1 steps down the 240 V r.m.s. to 12 V r.m.s.

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• During positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased and acts as a
closed switch as shown in figure 1.4, thus diode allows the current flows
through the load RL and voltage is developed across it.

Figure 1.4 Half-wave rectifier circuit with D1 conducting

• During negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased and acts as an
open switch as shown in figure 1.5, thus there will be no flow of current
through the load RL, thereby the output voltage is zero.

Figure 1.5 half-wave rectifier with D1 not conducting

• The input and output voltage waveform of a half-wave rectifier is shown in
Fig. 1.6.
Input signal

Output signal

Figure 1.6 The input and output voltage waveform of a half-wave

rectifier

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Half wave Rectifier with Filter:

• Fig. 1.7 shows a simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor.

Figure 1.7 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor

• The capacitor, C1, has been added to ensure that the output voltage remains
at, or near, the peak voltage even when the diode is not conducting.
• When the primary voltage is first applied to T1, the first positive half- cycle
output from the secondary will charge C1 to the peak value seen across RL.
• Hence C1 charges to the peak of the positive half-cycle. Because C1 and RL
are in parallel, the voltage across RL will be the same as that across C1.

Figure 1.8 A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor

1.2.2 Full-wave rectifiers

• Unfortunately, the half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as

conduction takes place only on alternate half-cycles.

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Figure 1.9 Full wave rectifier circuit

• A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and negative
half-cycles. These full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable improvement
over their half-wave counterparts.
• Fig 1.9 shows the circuit diagram of full wave rectifier.
• Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of the step-down transformer
(T1) which has two identical secondary windings, each providing 12 V r.m.s.
• During positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point
B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point C. In this
condition D1 will be forward biased and act as a closed switch. Thus Diode
D1 allow conduction. While D2 is reversed biased and act as an open switch.
Thus D2 will not allow conduction. Hence D1 alone conducts on positive half-
cycles.

Fig. 1.10 (a) D1 is shown conducting on a positive half- cycle

• During negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point
B. Similarly, point B will be positive with respect to point A. In this

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condition D2 will be forward biased and act as a closed switch. Thus Diode
D2 allow conduction. While D1 is reversed biased and act as an open switch.
Thus D1 will not allow conduction. Hence D2 alone conducts on negative
half-cycles.

Fig. 1.10 (b) D2 is shown conducting on a Negative half- cycle

Output waveforms:

Full wave Rectifier with Filter:

• In Full wave rectifier with filter circuit, a capacitor is connected across the
load resistor. Capacitor operates in exactly the same way as for the half-
wave circuit, i.e. it charges to the peak of the positive half-cycle and
discharges until the next peak of the positive half-cycle.
• Fig 1.11 shows voltage waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier, with C1
present.

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Figure 1.11 Full wave rectifier with Filter

Output waveforms:

A simple half-wave rectifier circuit with reservoir capacitor

Bridge rectifier circuits
• An alternative to the use of the bi-phase circuit is that of using a four-
diode bridge rectifier.
• A full-wave bridge rectifier arrangement is shown in Fig. 1.12.

Figure 1.12 Full-wave bridge rectifier circuit

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• Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-downtransformer

(T1). The secondary winding provides 12 V r.m.s. (approximately 17 V peak)
and has a turns ratio of 20:1, as before.
• On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B.
In this condition, diode D1 and D2 are forward biased, acts as a closed
switch and there will be a flow of current across the load. Thus Diode D1
and D2 will allow conduction. While D3 and D4 are reversed biased, acts
as an open switch and there will be no flow of current across the load.
Thus Diode D3 and D4 will not allow conduction.

Figure 1.13 (a) Bridge rectifier with D1 and D2 conducting, D3 and D4 non-
conducting
• On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect to point A.
In this condition, diode D3 and D4 are forward biased, acts as a closed
switch and there will be a flow of current across the load. Thus Diode D3
and D4 will allow conduction. While D1 and D2 are reversed biased, acts
as an open switch and there will be no flow of current across the load.
Thus Diode D1 and D2 will not allow conduction.

Figure 1.13 (b) bridge rectifier with D1 and D2 non-conducting, D3 and

D4 conducting
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Bridge rectifier with filters:

• Fig. 1.14 shows how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be added to maintain the
output voltage when the diodes are not conducting.

Figure 1.14 Bridge rectifier with reservoir

• In Bridge wave rectifier with filter circuit, a capacitor is connected across

the load resistor. Capacitor operates in exactly the same way as for the
half-wave circuit, i.e. it charges to the peak of the positive half-cycle and
discharges until the next peak of the positive half-cycle.
• The secondary and rectified output waveforms for the bridge rectifier are
shown in Fig. 1.15.

Figure 1.15 Waveforms for the bridge rectifier

1.3 Voltage regulators
• Voltage regulator is a circuit that maintains a constant D.C output voltage
irrespective of variations in the input line voltage or in the load.
• Voltage regulator is one of the important application of a Zener diode.

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• A simple voltage regulator is shown in Fig. 1.16.

Figure 1.16 A simple shunt Zener voltage regulator

• RS is included to limit the zener current to a safe value when the load is
disconnected.
• When a load (RL) is connected, the zener current (IZ) will fall as current is
diverted into the load resistance (it is usual to allow a minimum current of 2
mA to 5 mA in order to ensure that the diode regulates).
• The output voltage (VZ) will remain at the Zener voltage until regulation fails
at the point at which the potential divider formed by RS and RL produces a
lower output voltage that is less than VZ.
• The ratio of RS to RL is thus important.
• Regulated output VZ is given by:
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁𝑋
𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆

where VIN is the unregulated input voltage.

• Thus the maximum value for RS can be calculated from:
𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝑆(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅𝐿 𝑋 ( − 1)
𝑉𝑍

where VIN is the unregulated input voltage.

• The power dissipated in the zener diode will be given by PZ = IZ × VZ, hence
the minimum value for RS can be determined from the off-load condition
when:

𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑍 𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑍 (𝑉𝐼𝑁 − 𝑉𝑍)𝑋 𝑉𝑍

𝑅𝑆(min) = ( )= l =
𝐼𝑍 𝑃 𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 𝑃𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝗁 𝑉𝑍 )

where PZ max. is the maximum rated power dissipation for the zener
diode.

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Example: A 5 V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of

500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a simple regulator circuit to supply
a regulated 5 V to aload having a resistance of 400 Ω, determine a suitable
value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9 V.

Soln: Given:

𝑉𝑍 = 5𝑉, 𝑉𝐼𝑁 = 9𝑉, 𝑅𝐿 = 400Ω, 𝑃𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 500𝑚𝑊

𝑉𝐼𝑁 9
𝑅𝑆(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅𝐿𝑋 ( − 1) = 400𝑋 ( − 1) = 320Ω
𝑉𝑧 5

𝑉𝐼𝑁-𝑉𝑍 − 𝑉𝑍2 (9 − 5) − 52
𝑅𝑆(𝑚𝑖𝑛) = ( )=( ) = 40Ω
𝑃𝑍(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 0.5

1.4 Output resistance and voltage regulation

• In a perfect power supply, the output voltage would remain constant
regardless of the current taken by the load.
• Output resistance Rout is defined as the change in output voltage divided
by the corresponding change in output current and hence is given by:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 ∆𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ( )=
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡

where △ 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 represents a small change in output (load) current and △ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
represents a corresponding small change in output voltage.
• The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑋100%
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

• Ideally, the value of regulation should be very small.

• Simple shunt zener diode regulators of the type shown in Fig. 1.17 are capable
of producing values of regulation of 5% to 10%.
• More sophisticated circuits based on discrete components produce values
of between 1% and 5% and integrated circuit regulators often provide
values of 1% or less.
1.5 Voltage multipliers
Voltage multiplier is a type of diode rectifier circuit which can produce an
output voltage many times greater than that of the applied voltage. Such

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power supplies are used for high-voltage and low-current devices such as
cathode-ray tubes.
Voltage multiplier circuits are classified as voltage doubler’s, tripler’s, or
quadrupler’s, etc, depending on the ratio of output voltage to the input
voltage.
1.5.1 Voltage Doubler
Voltage Doubler is a voltage multiplier circuit which has a voltage
multiplication factor of two. The circuit consists of only two diodes, two
capacitors and an oscillating AC input voltage. The circuit diagram for a

𝑽𝑪𝟏 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏.

During negative half cycle, Diode D2 is forward biased and conducts while Diode
D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct. Capacitor C2 gets charged to a sum of
𝑽𝑪𝟏 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏. And 𝑽𝑪𝟐 = 𝑽𝒊𝒏. Thus capacitor voltage in –ve half cycle is 𝑽𝒄𝟐 = 𝟐𝒗𝒊𝒏
Total output voltage will be 𝑽𝑪𝟏 + 𝑽𝑪𝟐 = 𝟐𝑽𝒊𝒏
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1.5.2 Voltage Tripler

Voltage Tripler is a voltage multiplier circuit which has a voltage
multiplication factor of three. The circuit consists of only three diodes,

During negative half cycle, D2 is forward biased and D1 & D3 is reverse biased.
C2 gets charged to the peak value. Thus 𝑽𝒄𝟐 = 𝟐𝒗𝒊𝒏

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During the second positive half cycle, D1 and D3 are forward biased and
conducts, while D2 is reverse biased. C3 gets charged to the peak value. Thus
the final output voltage is a sum of voltage across C1 and C3: 𝑽𝒊𝒏 + 𝟐𝑽𝒊𝒏 =
𝟑𝑽𝒊𝒏

1.6 Amplifiers
An amplifier is an electronic device that increases the voltage, current,
or power of a signal without changing other parameters. Amplifiers are used
in wireless communications and broadcasting, and in audio equipment of all
kinds.
Types of Amplifiers:
The following are the types of amplifiers:
1. A.C. coupled amplifiers
In a.c. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such a way
that d.c. levels are isolated and only the a.c. components of a signal
are transferred from stage to stage.
2. D.C. coupled amplifiers
In d.c. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in
such a way that stages are not isolated to d.c. potentials. Both a.c. and
d.c. signal components are transferred from stage to stage.
3. Large-signal amplifiers
Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable voltage

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and/or current levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more).

4. Small-signal amplifiers
Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level signals
(normally less than 1 V and often much smaller). Small-signal
amplifiers have to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.
5. Audio frequency amplifiers
Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is
normally associated with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
6. Wideband amplifiers
Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide range of
frequencies, typically from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz.
7. Radio frequency amplifiers
Radio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of frequencies that is
normally associated with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1
GHz).
8. Low-noise amplifiers
Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute negligible
noise (signal disturbance) to the signal being amplified. These
amplifiers are usually designed for use with very small signal levels
(usually less than 10 mV or so).
1.7 Gain
• One of the most important parameters of an amplifier is the amount of
amplification or gain that it provides.
• Gain is simply the ratio of output voltage to input voltage, output current to
input current, or output power to input power.
• These three ratios give, respectively the voltage gain, current gain and power
gain. Thus,

Figure 1.19: Block diagram of amplifier showing input & output voltages &
currents
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Note that, since power is the product of current and voltage (P = I V), we can
infer that:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑋𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑃 = = = 𝑋 = 𝐴𝐼𝑋𝐴𝑉
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑋𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Example: An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for an input of 50
mV. If the input and output currents in this condition are, respectively, 4
mA and 200 mA, determine:(a) the voltage gain; (b) the current gain;(c) the
power gain.
Soln:
(a) The voltage gain is calculated from:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2𝑉
𝐴𝑉 = = = 40
𝑉𝑖𝑛 50𝑚𝑉
(b) The current gain is calculated from:
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 200𝑚𝐴
𝐴𝐼 = = = 50
𝐼𝑖𝑛 4𝑚𝐴
(c) The power gain is calculated from:
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑋𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 200𝑚𝐴 𝑋 2𝑉
𝐴𝑃 = = = 2,000
𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑋𝑉𝑖𝑛 4𝑚𝐴 𝑋 50𝑚𝑉
Note that the same result is obtained from:
𝐴𝑃 = 𝐴𝐼𝑋𝐴𝑉 = 50𝑋40 = 2,000
1.8 Input and output resistance
• Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is
expressed in ohms.
• The input of an amplifier is normally purely resistive (i.e. any reactive
component is negligible) in the middle of its working frequency range (i.e.
the mid-band).
• Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-
circuit output current and is measured in ohms.
• The output of an amplifier is normally purely resistive.
• Fig. 1.20 shows how the input and output resistances are ‘seen’ looking
into the input and output terminals, respectively.

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Figure 1.20 The Input & output resistance, with the input & output
terminals
1.9 Frequency response
• The frequency response characteristics for various types of amplifier are
shown in Fig. 1.21.

Figure 1.21 Frequency response and bandwidth

• The frequency response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the
upper and lower cut-off frequencies of the amplifier.
• These frequencies are those at which the output power has dropped to 50%
(otherwise known as the −3 dB points) or where the voltage gain has dropped
to 70.7% of its mid-band value.
• Figs 1.22 and 1.23, respectively, show how the bandwidth can be expressed
in terms of either power or voltage (the cut- off frequencies, f1 and f2, and
bandwidth are identical).

Figure 1.22 Frequency response and bandwidth (output power

plotted against frequency)

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Figure 1.23 Frequency response and bandwidth (output voltage plotted

against frequency)
1.10 Bandwidth
• The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as the difference between the
upper and lower cut-off frequencies
𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝑓2 – 𝑓1
• The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the
range of frequencies present within the signals that it is to be presented
with.
• Many signals contain harmonic components (i.e. signals 𝑎𝑡 2𝑓, 3𝑓, 4𝑓,
etc. where f is the frequency of the fundamental signal).
• To reproduce a square wave, for example, requires an amplifier with a very
wide bandwidth (note that a square wave comprises an infinite series of
harmonics).
1.11 Phase Shift
• Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal
voltages measured in degrees.
• The measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band where, for most
amplifiers, the phase shift remains relatively constant.
• The conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts of
either 180° or 360°.
1.20 Negative feedback
• Feedback is a system in which a portion of the amplified output is feeding
back to the input.

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• Many practical amplifiers use negative feedback in order to attain the

following advantages:
i) precisely control the gain.
ii) reduce distortion.
iii) improve bandwidth.
iv) Improve input/output impedances.
• The amount of feedback determines the overall (or closed- loop) gain.
• In Negative Feedback amplifier systems portion of the amplified output
is feeding to the input but in opposite phase, so that negative feedback
opposes the original signal. i.e, input and outputs are out of phase (180 o).
This causes increase in the stability but reducing the overall gain of the
amplifier.
• An alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a
way as to reinforce the input (rather than to subtract from it) is known as
positive feedback. This form of feedback is used in oscillator circuits. Fig.
1.24 shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative feedback
applied.
• In this circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input
is given by β and the overall voltage gain will be given by:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛

Figure 1.24 Amplifier with negative feedback applied

From circuit, 𝑉𝑖𝑛′ = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Wkt,
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴= 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑉𝑖𝑛

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𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴(𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡)

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑜 + 𝐴𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡(1 + 𝐴𝛽)
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴 = 𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉 1 + 𝐴𝛽

• Hence, the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be less than
the gain without feedback.
• Furthermore, if Av is very large (as is the case with an operational
amplifier) the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be given by:
𝐺 = 1/𝛽 (when Av is very large)

• The loop gain of a feedback amplifier is defined as the product of β and

Av.

Example An amplifier with negative feedback applied has an open-loop

voltage gain of 50, and one-tenth of its output is fed back to the input (i.e. β
= 0.1). Determine the overall voltage gain with negative feedback applied.

Solution: With negative feedback applied, the overall voltage gain is:

𝐴 50 50
𝐺= = = = 8.33
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 1 + (0.1𝑋50) 6

Example If, in Example 7.3, the amplifier’s open-loop voltage gains increases
by 20%, determine the percentage increase in overall voltage gain.

Solution The new value of voltage gain will be given by:

𝐴𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣 + 0.2𝐴𝑣
𝐴𝑣 = 50 + (0.2𝑋50)
𝐴𝑣 = 60
𝐴𝑉 60 60
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝐺 = = = = 7.14
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 1 + (0.1𝑋60) 7
𝐺 = 7.14
The increase in overall voltage gain, expressed as a percentage will thus be,
8.57 − 8.33
8.33 𝑋100% = 2.88%
Example: An integrated circuit that produces an open loop gain of 100 is to be
used as the basis of an amplifier stage having a precise voltage gain of 20.
Determine the amount of feedback required.
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Solution: Overall Gain is given by

𝐴𝑉
𝐺=
1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑣
Re-arranging the formula for 𝛽;
1 1
𝛽= −
𝐺 𝐴𝑉
1 1
𝛽= − = 0.05 − 0.01 = 0.04
20 100

1.21 Multi-stage amplifiers

• A Multistage Amplifier means, the output of first stage is connected to
the input of second stage though a suitable coupling device and so on.
• In order to provide sufficiently large values of gain, it is frequently
necessary to use a number of interconnected stages within an amplifier.
It is shown in Fig. 1.25.

Fig. 1.25: Block diagram of Multistage amplifier with coupling

• The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage
amplifier) is simply the product of the individual voltage gains. Hence:

AV = AV1 × AV2 × AV3, etc.

• The bandwidth of a multistage amplifier will be less than the bandwidth of
each individual stage.
• An increase in gain can only be achieved at the expense of a reduction in
bandwidth.
Types of Coupling
Coupling devices can transfer signals from one stage to another stage of
amplifiers. The most commonly used coupling types given below:
1. RC Coupling
• Resistor (R) is used as load impedance and capacitor (C) is used as the coupling
element. The capacitor connects the output of one stage to the input of the next stage
which allows the AC signal while blocking the DC voltages.

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• Since the DC resistance of R is high, the efficiency of the amplifier is decreased.

Disadvantage:
i) Causes loss for the low frequency signals.
ii) Difficult to match the impedance from stage to stage.

Fig 1.26: Block diagram of RC Coupling

2. LC Coupling
• Inductor (L) is used as load impedance and capacitance (C) used as coupling
elements. The capacitor connects the output of one stage to the input of the next
stage which allows the AC signal while blocking the DC voltages.
• The amount of signals at the output of the stage depends on the inductive reactance.
• Since the DC resistance of the coil L is low, the efficiency of the amplifier is increased.
Disadvantage: only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers.

Fig 1.27: Block diagram of LC Coupling

3. Transformer Coupling
• Transformer is used as the coupling device. The Transformer coupling
provides two functions:
i) To pass AC signal by blocking DC.
ii) Permits impedance matching.
Advantage:
i) It provides a very high gain.

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Introduction to Electronics Engineering Module-1

ii) It provides a very good impedance matching property.

iii) These amplifiers have high efficiency and low losses.
Disadvantage:
i) Coupling Transformer is expensive and bulky.
ii) Transformer tends to produce hum noise.
iii) It has poor frequency response.

Fig 1.28: Block diagram of Transformer Coupling

4. Direct Coupling
• In this method without using any coupling elements (R,L,C) one stage of
amplifier is directly connected to the input of another stage.
• So that, DC levels of all stages are obviously related to one another.

Fig 1.28: Block diagram of Direct Coupling

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Introduction to Electronics Engineering Module-1

MODULE-1
QUETSION BANK
1. What is a regulated power supply? With neat block diagram Summarize the working
of DC power supply. Also mention the principal components used in each block.
2. With circuit diagram and waveforms brief out the operation of Half wave rectifiers
with filters.
3. Discuss the need of filter circuit. With circuit diagram and waveforms brief out the
operation of smoothing filter for full wave rectifiers.
4. Explain the working of Bridge rectifier circuit without filter with neat diagram and
waveforms.
5. A 5V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is
to be used in a simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5V to a load having a
resistance of 500 Ω, determine a suitable value of series resistor for operation in
conjunction with a supply of 9V.
6. What is voltage multiplier and mention its applications? With circuit diagram brief
out the operation of voltage Tripler circuit.
7. Mention the advantages of Negative Feedback in amplifiers circuits. With relevant
equations and diagram, explain the concept of negative feedback.
8. What is an amplifier? Explain the types of amplifiers?
9. Explain the following terms
i) Gain ii) Bandwidth iii) Frequency response iv) Phase shift
v) Input & output resistance
An integrated circuit that produces an open loop gain of 50 is to be used as the
basis of an amplifier stage having a precise voltage gain of 10. Determine the
amount of feedback required.

Mrs. Monisha Uday, Dept. Of ECE, Page 25

SVIT