WEEK 7 UNIVERSAL VALUES

PLATO

“Value” means something the individual or

community believes has a worth those merits when He talked about the values or virtues of
pursued, promoted, or privileged. It can be: temperance,
courage, and wisdom.
• a thing (money, food, art),
• a state of mind (peace, security, certainty), Temperance
• a behavior that results from those things or 1. abstinence from alcoholic drink
states of mind (protecting innocents, telling
2. self-discipline
the truth, being creative).
3. self-control
• A value arises after reflection on whether or
• Self-discipline typically involves establishing
not the thing I desire is good.
habits, setting priorities, and making sacrifices
A value is NOT the same as a desire. in the pursuit of larger objectives.
• Self-control requires exerting restraint over
• Desire - wanting a thing without much
one's emotions, urges, or cravings, particularly
reflection - might come from an instinct, urge,
in situations where there is a temptation to
or physical need
engage in impulsive or detrimental behavior.
• Morals and morality, according to most
philosophers, result from rationality, while Examples of self-discipline include:
values might arise from social contexts or
emotional dispositions.
• Sticking to a study schedule,
WHAT ARE UNIVERSAL VALUES? • Maintaining a healthy lifestyle through regular
exercise and balanced nutrition,
• Resisting temptations that may disrupt progress
A collection of fundamental ideas or ideals that
toward personal or professional goals.
people from many countries, societies, and eras of
history have in common is known as universal Examples of self-control include:
values.
These values often serve as the foundation for • Resisting the urge to eat unhealthy foods,
moral and ethical judgments, helping individuals • Refraining from impulsive spending,
differentiate between right and wrong, good and • Controlling anger in conflict situations, and
bad. avoiding procrastination.
Universal values surpass cultural, religious, and ARISTOTLE
geographical boundaries, reflecting a common
understanding of human rights, dignity, and the
inherent worth of all individuals. He believed that people need to be knowledgeable
in the virtues.
The specific interpretations and applications of
universal values may vary among different cultural Virtues are specific qualities that reflect an
contexts, the underlying principles tend to remain individual's moral character.
consistent.
Values are general principles that guide an
individual's actions and decisions.
EXAMPLE: It involves enduring difficulties, waiting without
complaint, and showing tolerance towards others.
VALUE: INTEGRITY
It is an expression of love's willingness to bear with
VIRTUE: HONEST
imperfections and shortcomings, both in oneself
VALUE: SUCCESS & ACHIEVEMENT and in others.
VIRTUE: PERSEVERANT & HARDWORKING KINDNESS
Individuals might desire many things that will make
them happy, such as:
Love manifests in acts of kindness, compassion, and
• Sex generosity towards others.
• Wealth
Expressions of kindness, such as helping others in
• Drink
need, showing consideration and respect, and
• Power demonstrating empathy.
According to Aristotle, each of these is important,
GOODWILL
but all of them, on reflection, need to be enjoyed in
moderation to become significantly valued.
It motivates individuals to
Only by using our rationality for thinking and
creating a community in which • Seek the best interests of others,
thinking is encouraged, and in which • To promote peace and harmony, and
education is valued, can universal values flourish. - • To work towards the common good.
(Shields, 2016)
COMPASSION
JESUS CHRIST

Love compels individuals to show compassion

He preached the value of love from which springs towards those who suffer or in need.
patience, kindness, goodwill, forgiveness, and
compassion. Jesus demonstrated compassion through his
ministry, showing mercy to the sick, the poor, and
LOVE the marginalized, and teaching his followers to do
likewise (Matthew 9:36, Matthew 25:31-46).
Jesus Christ taught that love is the greatest FORGIVENESS
commandment and the essence of God's character.
It is characterized by selflessness, sacrificial giving, Love leads to forgiveness, the willingness to
and genuine concern for the well-being of others. release resentment, and extend mercy towards
Yes, people love differently; But respect, those who have wronged us.
faithfulness, and honesty aren't matters of ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
preference and personality.
PATIENCE
According to Aquinas, universal values are
grounded in the natural order established by God
and are discernible through human reason.
 GOODNESS COMMON GROUND

Aquinas believed that all beings possess intrinsic It provides a common ground for diverse societies
goodness as they participate in the divine order and cultures. They offer a framework within which
established by God. people from different backgrounds can understand
each other and cooperate effectively. These
It is the fulfillment of a thing's nature or purpose,
understanding fosters unity, social cohesion, and
and it is objectively determined by its conformity to
peaceful coexistence.
God's plan.
ETHICAL GUIDANCE
TRUTH

It helps individuals distinguish right from wrong.

He considered truth to be the correspondence
They provide a moral compass that informs
between what is in the mind and what exists in
decision-making and behavior, promoting fairness,
reality.
justice, and compassion in
This aligns reality with our mental concepts, interpersonal relationships and societal
suggesting that a statement is true if it accurately interactions.
reflects the external world.
HUMAN RIGHTS
Truth is essential for understanding the natural
world, moral principles, and divine revelation.
It upholds the inherent dignity and worth of an
JUSTICE individual, regardless of factors such as race,
ethnicity, gender, religion, or socioeconomic status.
Recognizing and respecting these values is crucial
It involves giving each person their due, whether in
for upholding fundamental human rights and
terms of rights, obligations, or rewards. Aquinas
freedoms.
distinguished between:

• Commutative justice (fair exchange RESILIENCE AND ADAPTABILITY

between individuals),
• Distributive justice (fair distribution of
goods and resources in society) It enables societies to navigate periods of change,
• Legal justice (adherence to laws and adversity, and uncertainty with resilience and
institutions). adaptability.

PRUDENCE Values such as resilience, cooperation,

and solidarity empower individuals and
communities to respond effectively to challenges
It is the virtue of practical wisdom, enabling and crises, fostering collective strength and
individuals to make sound decisions and choose resilience.
the right means to achieve good ends.
Why are Universal Values essential to human
It involves careful deliberation, foresight, and survival?
consideration of consequences in moral actions.
SOCIAL COHESION AND COOPERATION
Why are Universal Values essential to humans?
Compassion, Empathy, and Cooperation - Essential ARISTOTLE
for building strong bonds
In Book II of Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, he
When social cohesion is strong, people feel a sense describes the two kinds of human excellence:
of belonging and trust toward one another, leading
1. Excellence of thought
to stability and resilience in the face of challenges.
2. Excellence of character
CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND PEACEKEEPING ➢ Excellence of Character is a choice determined by
reason
Tolerance, forgiveness, and justice - Preventing and EXCELLENCE OF CHARACTER
resolving conflicts
It involves identifying the underlying causes of the ēthikē aretē >> Moral virtue or moral excellence
conflict, facilitating communication between the
parties involved, and finding mutually acceptable ➢ Moral character is NOT about the
solutions. uniqueness or individuality
➢ Moral character is the combination of
CULTURAL RESILIENCE AND IDENTITY
qualities that make an individual ethically
good.
It is the capacity of cultures to withstand and ➢ MORAL CHARACTER is an evaluation of an
recover from adverse events or changes while individual’s stable moral qualities.
maintaining their core identity and values.
Aristotle believes that excellence of character or
By preserving and transmitting shared values across good moral character is a state concerned with
generations, communities can maintain a sense of choice that is determined by reason.
belonging, continuity, and purpose.
By calling good moral character a state, Aristotle
ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP means that:

➢ Not a feeling,
➢ interconnectedness of all living beings and ➢ Not a capacity, or
ecosystems ➢ Not a mere tendency to act in specific ways
Stewardship, responsibility, and sustainability - The firm condition that one is in an ideal state of
Crucial for the survival of the planet their beliefs and values.
** Stewardship is the job of supervising or taking care of
If, on the other hand, one does not have good
something, such as an organization or property.
It refers to the responsible management and care moral character, they are in a state that makes
of natural resources and ecosystems to ensure them vulnerable to vices
their sustainability and preservation for present
and future generations. ** Vices - Addicted to a feeling because you do not
get punished.
WEEK 8
NOTES:
What is moral character?

➢ If you feel like doing (Feeling)

➢ Stability of Moral qualities
➢ When you do something because you will gain Example:
something in is not a good moral character.
Feeling empathy towards a peer who is upset can
➢ Virtue - Quality of human that are guided by
motivate a child to offer comfort and support,
values.
demonstrating an early sense of moral concern for
LAWRENCE PERVIN others
2. KNOWLEDGE
He defines moral character as “a disposition to It refers to learning the moral code of one’s
express behavior in consistent patterns of community and making judgments about whether
functions across a range of situations”. (Timpe, something is good or bad, right or wrong
2008)
Children learn about moral values, beliefs, and
Moral character is not just about internal values or rules through various sources, including parents,
beliefs. It is about how those values translate into caregivers, peers, teachers, religious teachings, and
actions and conduct in the real world cultural norms
Individuals with STRONG moral character As children grow and develop cognitively, they
demonstrate consistency in their ethical choices become increasingly capable of understanding
and actions across different situations and contexts. abstract moral concepts, such as fairness, justice,
Personal dilemmas social interactions professional and honesty, and applying them to real-life
settings moral challenges >> individuals with strong situations.
moral character exhibit similar patterns of ethical 3. ACTION
behavior.
It is how one decides on the appropriate actions to
- Consistency is the key take in controlling negative impulses, responding
DEVELOPMENT OF MORAL CHARACTER based on rules and requests, obeying parents and
other authorities, or behaving in a caring, helpful
manner, depending on the situation. (Newman,
Development of moral character >> Crucial to Newman 2009)
distinguish good and bad | Right or wrong.
How children behave in different situations reflects
To be a moral person is to think morally and act their moral reasoning, emotional responses, and
accordingly (Myers, 1995). internalized moral values
THREE ASPECT to understand moral development Example:
in children
A child who shares toys with a friend, apologizes
after making a mistake, or stands up against
1. Emotions bullying demonstrates moral actions that reflect a
growing understanding of right and wrong
These are the feelings and values that shape and or
develop the moral standards of an individual.

From an early age, children experience various TIPS TO DEVELOP MORAL CHARACTER
emotions like empathy, guilt, shame, and
compassion, which contribute to their A. DEFINE YOUR CORE VALUES
understanding of right and wrong.
Know what is most important to you by determining Level 1: Pre-conventional
your values for your professional and personal life.
Follows rules to avoid punishment. Acts in own
These principles are the foundation for your interest. Blind obedience to authority for its own
priorities, choices, actions, and behaviors. sake.
B. PRACTICE THE HABITS Level 2: Conventional
Choose one or two traits of good character to Lives up to expectations of others. Fulfills duties and
practice for several weeks. obligations of social system. Upholds laws.
WRITE the actions or behaviors that reflect this Level 3: Post-conventional (Principled)
trait, and implement those in daily life.
Follows internalized universal principles of justice
C. FIND PEOPLE WITH CHARACTER and right. Balances concern for self with concern for
others and the common good. Acts in an
Surround yourself with people who reflect the
independent and ethical manner regardless of
character traits you want to embrace.
expectations of others
They will inspire and motivate you to build these
Kohlberge Theory: Stages of Moral development
traits in yourself
D. TAKE SOME RISKS
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
Start taking small actions toward a goal or value 2. Individual and exchange
that involve some risk. When you face the
3. Interpersonal relationship
possibility of failure and challenge yourself toward
4. Maintaining social order
success, you become mentally and emotionally
5. Social contract and individual rights
better and more committed to your principles.
6. Universal principles
E. COMMIT TO SELF-IMPROVEMENT
LEVEL 1 – PRE-CONVENTIONAL
Realize that building your character is a life-long
endeavor. There will be times you step up to the
character traits you embrace, but other times you o This is the lowest level of moral development.
hesitate o Children don't have a personal code of
morality.
By remaining committed to personal growth and
learning about yourself, your character will • Instead, their moral code is controlled
naturally improve, even if there are failures by the standards of adults and the
consequences of following or
WEEK 9 breaking adults' rules
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT o Authority is outside the individual.
o The child’s reasoning is based on the physical
MORAL DEVELOPMENT
consequences of actions.
It refers to the PROCESS through which a human
MORALITY IS EXTERNALLY CONTROLLED.
person, gains their beliefs, skills and dispositions
that makes them a morally mature person. NOTES:
Three Levels of Personal Moral Development • Lowest
• No morality
• Consequence of flowing or breaking adult’s rewards, such as approval, recognition, or
rules potential future opportunities
LEVEL 2 – CONVENTIONAL
STAGE 1 – Obedience and Punishment Orientation

• The child/individual does good in order to avoid

• A child's sense of morality is tied to personal
being punished.
and societal relationships.
• Children obey because adults tell them to obey.
• Children continue to accept the rules of
• It is a matter of obey or you get punished.
authority figures, but this is now due to their
MORAL DECISIONS ARE BASED ON FEAR OF belief that this is necessary to ensure positive
PUNISHMENT. relationships and societal order.

NOTES: NOTES:

• Moral decisions are based o fear of punishment • There is a socialization

• At home – No means of acquiring/ learning • They want to maintain
knowledge positive social relationship
• People pleaser
EXAMPLE:
STAGE 3 – “Good boy or Nice Girl” Orientation
• Situation: A parent tells a child not to touch a
particular item in the house. • Children want the approval of others and act in
• Response: The child refrains from touching the ways to avoid disapproval.
item not because they understand why it's • Emphasis is placed on good behavior and
wrong but because they fear being punished by people being "nice" to others.
the parent. STAGE 2 – Instrumental Orientation The individual is good in order to be seen as being
• Right behavior is defined by whatever the a good person by others.
individual believes to be in his/her best interest. NOTES:
• The child is focused on receiving rewards or
satisfying personal needs. • Seek approval from others
• Moral phrases to get validation
It is a matter of "you scratch my back, and I'll • Do good to get approval from others
scratch yours" mentality
• They do not want any disapproval
NOTES:
EXAMPLE
• Will do good things – because there is a reward
• Situation: A child follows their family's
• Focus on receiving rewards or satisfying
traditions and values to maintain harmony and
personal need
approval within the family.
EXAMPLE • Response: The child’s adherence to family
norms is driven by the desire to be viewed as a
• Situation: A student studies hard to get good
"good son" or "nice daughter" and to avoid
grades and receive praise from parents or
disappointing or upsetting family members.
teachers.
• Response: The student's ethical behavior
(studying) is driven by the desire for external
STAGE 4 – Law and Order Orientation greatest number, there are times when they
will work against the interest of particular
• The child/individual becomes aware of the
individuals.
wider rules of society, so judgments concern
• Laws are regarded as social contracts rather
obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and
than rigid orders. Those that do not promote
to avoid guilt.
the general welfare should be changed when
• "It is the right thing to do; "school rules say so"
necessary to meet the greatest good for the
as reasons for going to school.
greatest number of people
It is a matter of "I have to do this because the law
says so.“
NOTES:

• Aware of wider rules of society (Basic rules)

• Judgement is based on law
• Aware about law and does now focus on
punishment
• Do good/obey to avoid feeling of guilt
EXAMPLE

• Situation: A child shares toys and takes turns

during playtime, understanding that not doing
so may result in conflicts or being told off by
parents or caregivers.
• Response: The child's behavior is motivated by
a desire to maintain order in social interactions
and avoid negative consequences
LEVEL 3 – POST-CONVENTIONAL

• Morality is completely internalized and not

based on external standards.
• Individual judgment is based on self-chosen
(because of freedom) principles and moral
reasoning is based on individual rights and
justice.
• According to Kohlberg this level of moral
reasoning is as far as most people get.
Freedom – you have the capacity to choose
because you have the capacity to think
STAGE 5 – Social Contract Orientation

• The child/individual becomes aware that while

rules/laws might exist for the good of the
 Stages Examples
NOTES:
Stage 1: Heinz shouldn't steal
• Focus on other people; selfless Obedience and the medicine because
• Laws are social contract Punishment stealing is against the
• Rally and protest law, and he will get
• MEET THE GREATEST GOOD punished. Breaking the
rules is always wrong.
EXAMPLE
Stage 2: Instrumental Heinz should steal the
• Situation: An individual protests against an unjust law Orientation medicine because it's
or policy because it goes against the principles of for his wife, and he
fairness and equality. might get caught, but if
• Reasoning: The person believes in challenging unjust he doesn't, it's worth
laws to contribute to societal progress and uphold the risk for her sake
shared principles of justice. Stage 3: “Good boy or Heinz should steal the
Nice Girl” Orientation medicine because he
STAGE 6 – Universal, Ethical, Principle Orientation wants to maintain a
• Individuals have developed their own set of moral good relationship with
guidelines which may or may not fit the law. They his wife, and saving her
have developed moral judgments that are based on life is more important
universal human rights. than following the law.
• The person will be prepared to act to defend these Stage 4: Law and Order Heinz should not steal
principles even if it means going against the rest of Orientation the medicine because
society in the process and having to pay the it would undermine
consequences of disapproval and/or imprisonment. the social order and
the importance of
NOTES: respecting laws. We
can't have people
• It is ok if your developed moral guidelines does not fit
deciding which laws to
in to the law, al long as it is aligned to universal
follow
human rights.
Stage 5: Social Contract Heinz should consider
• It’s me against the world
Orientation the societal contract
EXAMPLE and work towards
changing the law.
• Situation: Someone actively supports LGBTQIA+
Stealing the medicine
rights, working to eliminate discrimination and
may be a temporary
promote inclusivity.
solution, but
• Reasoning: The person's advocacy is grounded in a advocating for a fairer
universal ethical principle of equality, recognizing the healthcare system is
rights and dignity of individuals regardless of their the long-term goal
sexual orientation or gender identity
Stage 6: Universal, Heinz should steal the
Ethical, Principle medicine because
Orientation preserving life and the
inherent right to live
are universal ethical
principles that override
any societal laws. The
right to life is absolute.
 WEEK 10 THE MEANING OF HUMAN ACT
EXAMPLES: HUMAN ACTS

What is the difference between human act and act • Donating money or resources to a charitable
of human? organization to help those in need.
• Explanation: The act is deliberate, intentional,
Acts of man are actions which merely happen in the
and involves a conscious choice to contribute to
body or through the body
a cause.
WITHOUT THE AWARENESS OF THE MIND OR
THE CONTROL OF THE WILL. OTHER EXAMPLES: HUMAN ACTS
ACTIONS COMMITTED BY: • Apologizing involves recognizing it is your fault
and taking responsibility for your actions.
• Insane
• unconscious • Engaging in environmentally friendly practices
involves a cautious choice to contribute to the
• Infant
well-being of the planet.
• Physically forced
• Acts of kindness are intentional actions that
ARE ALL CONSIDERED AS ACTS OF MAN reflect a conscious decision to make a positive
EXAMPLE: ACTS OF MAN impact on others.
• Making lifestyle choices that contribute to
COUGH is an involuntary, reflexive response to an
personal health involves conscious decision
irritation in the throat.
making.
The person did not consciously choose to cough at
The Determinants of the Morality of Human Acts
that specific moment or in that particular location
OTHER EXAMPLES: ACTS OF MAN
- Object (Means) - End
• Goosebumps (Intention)
• Sneezing - Circumstances
• Blushing
OBJECT
• Hiccups
• Blinking of eyes
• Shivering • The object of an act is the thing done.
• What was performed by the person?
Laughing or crying in response to a sudden
stimulus, like a joke or sad news. The specific action or behavior being performed

HUMAN ACTS The object is important because certain actions are

basically good or bad regardless of the intention or
Human acts are those of which a man is master, circumstances surrounding them
which he has the power of doing or not doing as he
pleases. END/PURPOSE

Human acts are those acts which proceed from man

as a rational being. • “What specifically does the agent want to
accomplish?”
• It also refers to purpose or intention behind the These may influence how actions are perceived and
action, the desired goal. evaluated. These characteristics can shape moral
perceptions
Two individuals performing the same object may
have different intentions. AGE:

• A teenager caught shoplifting might be

perceived as reckless and irresponsible
EXAMPLES: • Older adult committing a similar act might
be viewed with more sympathy, possibly as
• Object: Sharing notes a desperate response to financial hardship
• End (Intention): Helping a classmate catch up GENDER:
on missed material and succeed in the course •
Object: Buying a gift for a friend • A woman who is assertive in a business
• End (Intention): Celebrating their birthday meeting may be labeled as "bossy" or
"aggressive"
• Object: Studying for an exam
• A man who is assertive in a business
• End (Intention): Achieving a good grade
meeting may be seen as a "strong leader.
While outcomes are important, the motivations
SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS:
behind actions can REVEAL much about a person's
character and ethical standing. A person from a wealthy background who donates
a large sum to charity may be praised for their
GIVING A GIFT (OBJECT)
generosity
• Sign of good will
A person from a lower socioeconomic status who
• Interpreted as bribery
gives a small amount might be viewed as less
DONATES MONEY TO A CHARITY impactful

• helping those in need EXAMPLES

• for public recognition
CIRCUMSTANCE EXAMPLE: (PERSON)
Influence of peers can strongly sway an individual's
• It makes the act increase or diminish its decisions >>> act against their personal moral
goodness or its evilness beliefs to fit in or gain acceptance
• Time EXAMPLE: (TIME)
• Place
• Person A paramedic is responding to a call where a patient
is in cardiac arrest. The paramedic encounters a
PERSON: roadblock that prevents access to the hospital.
INDIVIDUAL TRAITS: To save the patient’s life, the paramedic may
choose to drive through a red light or break traffic
• Age laws. In this case, the urgency of the life-or-death
situation justifies breaking the law for a greater
• Gender
moral good.
• Socioeconomic status
 EXAMPLE: Experts think it is impossible to make any
important moral judgments without emotions.

BREAKING A PROMISE One sticker in a truck says:

Circumstances such as unforeseen situations "If it feels good, do it.”

beyond one's control may justify breaking a
- What does this mean?
promise.
- Is this always right?
CANCELLED PLANS >>The person is sick (possible
Feelings are instinctive and trained response to
reason)
moral dilemma.
OTHER EXAMPLES:
• They can be obstacles to making right decisions
• Object: Patient Taking medication but they can also help in making the right
• End (Intention): Recover from an illness decisions.
• Circumstances: The medication is prescribed Moral emotions are the feelings and intuitions –
by a healthcare professional (person), and including shame, disgust, and empathy – that play
you follow the recommended dosage and a major role in most of the ethical judgments and
when (time) to take it. decisions people make.

OTHER EXAMPLES: ADVANTAGES OF EMOTIONAL DECISION MAKING

• Object: Sharing a secret with a friend

• End (Intention): Strengthening trust in the 1. A totally emotional decision is very fast in
friendship comparison to a rational decision.
• Circumstances: The secret is shared in a RATIONAL DECION >> REACTIVE >> (largely
closed room (place) to avoid being heard by subconscious and can be useful when faced with
other people. immediate danger, or in decisions of minimal
A morally good act requires the goodness of the significance)
object, of the end, and of the circumstances 2. Emotions may provide a way for coding and
together. compacting experience, enabling fast response
An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object selection.
is good in itself CODING >> It helps us interpret and make sense of
HOW DO FEELINGS AFFECT OUR DECISION? complex experiences (Positive experience or
Potential threats)
FEELINGS AS A MODIFIER OF MORAL DECISION
MAKING • Emotions may provide a way for coding and
compacting experience, enabling fast response
• Several studies conclude that up to 90 percent selection
of the decisions we made are based on
emotion. We use logic to justify our actions to It compresses a wealth of information, instead of
ourselves and to others. analyzing every detail of an experience consciously
>>> allows for a more efficient mental
• Researches also show that "actual emotional
representation of the experience.
states can influence the process of moral
reasoning and determine moral judgment."
• Emotions often trigger rapid physiological and DISADVANTAGES OF EMOTIONAL DECISION
behavioral responses MAKING
FEAR >> quickened heart rate and the instinct to
flee 1. We make quick decisions without knowing
3. Decisions that start with logic may need why, and then create rational reasons to
emotions to enable the final selection, particularly justify a poor emotional decision.
when confronted with near equal options Some decisions are made rapidly and without a
Rational analysis of available options: conscious understanding the underlying reasons.
>>> Some decisions are made rapidly and without
• Pros and cons a conscious understanding the underlying reasons.
• Data
FACTORS INFLUENCING QUICK DECISION-MAKING
• Objective criteria
Logical decision-making provides a structured and
• Time constraints
systematic approach to assess the merits of each
• Environmental factors, and
option based on reason and evidence.
• Situational pressures
Structured means that it is organized in a specific
“Poor emotional decision" implies that the decision
way, often with a clear hierarchy or order. >>>
may not align with rational or objective criteria
Coherence, stability, and sense of order.
EMOTIONS (subjective and sometimes impulsive)
Systematic means that something is done according
>>> choices that are not best in terms of long-term
to a system or set of rules >>> Efficiency, accuracy,
goals or well-founded reasoning
and completeness.
Decisions that start with logic may need emotions
2. Intensity of emotions can override rational
to enable the final selection, particularly when
decision-making in cases where it is clearly
confronted with near equal options
needed
• While logic provides a rational foundation, • When emotions are particularly strong, they
emotions contribute a subjective and intuitive can have a powerful and convincing influence
dimension to the process. on an individual's thoughts, feelings, and
• While logic provides a rational foundation, actions.
emotions contribute a subjective and intuitive • Intense emotions may take precedence over
dimension to the process. logical analysis, leading individuals to prioritize
the emotional aspect of a situation over a
• Effective decision-making often involves a
more measured and calculated response.
balanced integration of both logical reasoning
and emotional considerations.
3. Immediate and unrelated emotions can
• Emotions contribute to the decision-making create mistakes by distorting and creating
process by adding a human touch, bias in judgments. In some cases this can
considering individual values and personal lead to unexpected and reckless action.
significance • "Immediate emotions" imply emotions that
arise quickly and without much
contemplation.
• “Unrelated emotions" are those emotional ➢ People often engage in mental
responses that may not be directly relevant to simulations, imagining how they would
the decisions at hand. They could be triggered react emotionally to potential future
by external factors or previous experiences. scenarios.
Projected emotions can lead to errors because
• Immediate and unrelated emotions can create people are subject to systemic inaccuracy future
mistakes by distorting and creating bias in about how they will feel in the
judgments. In some cases this can lead to
unexpected and reckless action. • It suggests that there is a consistent and
• Distortion can lead to errors in judgment as widespread tendency for individuals to make
emotions influence the evaluation of errors in predicting their future emotional
situations. states.
• Emotions can contribute to the activation of FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO INACCURACY
cognitive biases, leading individuals to rely
on mental shortcuts or make decisions
based on emotional reactions rather than • If someone is currently in a positive mood,
objective analysis they may overestimate their ability to handle
future negative events optimally.
• Focusing too narrowly on specific aspects of a
future event and neglecting other contextual
factors can contribute to inaccuracies in
projected emotions
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS MINIMUN
REQUIMENTS

REASON is the capacity for:

• Consciously making sense of things,

• Establishing and verifying facts,
• Applying logic, and
• Changing or justifying practices, institutions,
and beliefs based on new or existing
information
3. Projected emotions can lead to errors REASON is sometimes referred to as rationality.
because people are subject to systemic
• It is also associated with thinking, cognition,
inaccuracy about how they will feel in the
and intellect. Reason is a declaration to
future.
explain or justify an action, decision, or
➢ Projected emotions refer to the
conviction.
expectations or predictions individuals
make about how they will feel in the IMPARTIALITY refers to being fair, unbiased, and
future in response to certain events, neutral in one's judgments or actions.
situations, or decisions.
 • An impartial person does not favor one side >>> in arriving at a sound moral judgment, you
or party over another and strives to treat all must listen to everyone trying to speak.
individuals or groups fairly without showing
Moral judgments must be backed up by good
favoritism or prejudice
reason and impartiality.
Impartiality involves making decisions or forming
• Moral judgments refer to the subjective
opinions based on objective criteria rather than
assessments or evaluations individuals
personal feelings, opinions, or external influences
make about what is right or wrong, good or
Reason and impartiality refer to a mental activity bad, in terms of ethical principles or moral
following the basic principle of consistency, the values.
lack of contradiction between one idea and
Moral judgments must be backed up by good
another.
reason and impartiality.
IMPATIAL >> able to judge or consider something
fairly without allowing your own interest to • Good reason requires to provide sound and
influence you. logical reasons to support moral
judgments.
Reason and impartiality refer to a mental activity
following the basic principle of consistency, the Good reason involves:
lack • Thoughtful consideration,
of contradiction between one idea and another.
• Critical thinking, and
• The ability to articulate the underlying
principles or values that inform one's
ethical stance.

CONSISTENCY:
Good reason involves the ability to articulate the
• requires coherence in how different underlying principles or values that inform one's
thoughts and ideas fit together ethical stance.
• extends to the alignment of beliefs with • They can communicate their ethical beliefs
actions in a clear and coherent manner.
• contributes to reliable decision-making • They can use language effectively clear to
• implies stability in one's values convey the principles that underlie their
Consistency involves aligning ideas, beliefs, and moral judgments.
judgments to create a cohesive and reliable • This may extend to explaining why certain
framework for thinking and decision-making. values are prioritize or how they interact in
specific situations.
Morality requires the impartial consideration of
• Reason avoids ad misericordiam, appeal to
each individual's interests.
pity, since appearing miserable does not
Commitment to: improve an argument.
• Reason does not resort to ad verecundiam,
➢ Fairness
appeal to authority, one's power and
➢ And the avoidance of favoritism or bias in
influence cannot make a wrong right.
assessing moral situations
 AD MISERICORDIAM EXAMPLE
"Yes, I exceeded the speed limit, but I was rushing
to the hospital because my wife was in labor. I'm
sure you can understand and show some mercy."
The situation is indeed sympathetic, it doesn't
change the fact that the person broke the law.
AD VERECUNDIAM EXAMPLE
"This diet plan is the best because it was
recommended by Dr. Dela Cruz, a renowned
nutrition expert."
It doesn't provide specific reasons or evidence
regarding the effectiveness or scientific basis of
the diet plan