Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 1

Module-2
1 Mathematical Representation of Vectors
A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. When working with
vectors, they can be represented in different forms for ease of calculation and application
in electrical engineering.

2 Forms of Vectors
2.1 Rectangular Form (Cartesian Form)
In the rectangular form, a vector is represented by its components along the x and y axes
(real and imaginary axes in the case of complex numbers).

Rectangular form: A vector in 2D can be written as:

V = Vx + jVy

where:

• Vx is the component along the x-axis (real part),

• Vy is the component along the y-axis (imaginary part),

√
• j is the imaginary unit, j = −1.

2.2 Polar Form

In the polar form, a vector is represented by its magnitude and angle with respect to a
reference axis (typically the positive x-axis).

Polar form:
V = |V |6 θ
where:

• |V | is the magnitude of the vector,

• θ is the angle between the vector and the positive x-axis.

2.3 Trigonometric Form

The trigonometric form of a vector is derived from its polar form but explicitly shows the
vector’s projection onto the x- and y-axes using cosine and sine functions.

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 2

Trigonometric form:
V = |V |(cos θ + j sin θ)
where:
• |V | is the magnitude,
• θ is the angle.

Figure 1: Trignometric form

3 Conversion Between Forms

3.1 Polar Form to Rectangular Form
To convert from polar form to rectangular form, use the following relations:
Vx = |V | cos θ
Vy = |V | sin θ
So the rectangular form becomes:
V = Vx + jVy = |V |(cos θ + j sin θ)

3.2 Rectangular Form to Polar Form

To convert from rectangular form to polar form:
1. Calculate the magnitude: q
|V | = Vx2 + Vy2

2. Calculate the angle (in radians or degrees):

 
−1 Vy
θ = tan
Vx
The resulting polar form is:
V = |V |6 θ

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 3

4 Operations on Vectors
4.1 Addition and Subtraction
In Rectangular Form:
V1 + V2 = (V1x + V2x ) + j(V1y + V2y )
V1 − V2 = (V1x − V2x ) + j(V1y − V2y )

In Polar Form: To add or subtract vectors in polar form, first convert them to rect-
angular form, perform the operation, and then convert back to polar form.

4.2 Multiplication and Division

In Rectangular Form: Multiplication:
V1 × V2 = (V1x + jV1y ) × (V2x + jV2y )

In Polar Form: Multiplication:

V1 × V2 = |V1 ||V2 |6 (θ1 + θ2 )
Division:
V1 |V1 |
= 6 (θ1 − θ2 )
V2 |V2 |

5 Examples and Problems

5.1 Problem 1: Conversion from Polar to Rectangular Form
Convert V = 106 30◦ to rectangular form.

Solution: Rectangular form:

Vx = 10 cos 30◦ = 10 × 0.866 = 8.66
Vy = 10 sin 30◦ = 10 × 0.5 = 5
So, the rectangular form is:
V = 8.66 + j5

5.2 Problem 2: Conversion from Rectangular to Polar Form

Convert V = 3 + j4 to polar form.

Solution: Calculate the magnitude:

√ √
|V | = 32 + 42 = 9 + 16 = 5
Calculate the angle:  
−1 4
θ = tan = 53.13◦
3
So, the polar form is:
V = 56 53.13◦

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 4

5.3 Problem 3: Addition of Two Vectors in Rectangular Form

Add V1 = 3 + j4 and V2 = 1 + j2.

Solution:
V1 + V2 = (3 + 1) + j(4 + 2) = 4 + j6

Conclusion
Rectangular form is useful for addition and subtraction. Polar form is more convenient
for multiplication, division, and dealing with phase angles.

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 5

6 AC Through Pure Resistive (R) Circuit

In a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are in phase with each other, meaning
they reach their maximum and minimum values at the same time.

6.1 Phasor Diagram for Pure Resistor

Figure 2: AC through capcitor

The voltage and current are represented by phasors that are aligned (i.e., their phase
difference is zero).
V (t) = Vm sin(ωt), I(t) = Im sin(ωt)
where:

• Vm and Im are the peak values of voltage and current,

• ω is the angular frequency.

Since V (t) and I(t) are in phase, the phasor diagram shows both vectors at the same
angle.

6.2 Power in Pure Resistive Circuit

Instantaneous power:
p(t) = V (t) × I(t)
Substituting the voltage and current:

p(t) = Vm sin(ωt) × Im sin(ωt)

p(t) = Vm Im sin2 (ωt)

Average power: The average value of sin2 (ωt) over a full cycle is 21 . Therefore, the average
power is:
1
Pavg = Vm Im
2

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 6

V Im
Using the RMS values of voltage and current, Vrms = √m , Irms
2
= √
2
, the average power
can also be written as:
Pavg = Vrms Irms
Key Points:
• Voltage and current are in phase.
• Power is always positive, meaning power is continuously consumed in a resistor.

7 AC Through Pure Inductive (L) Circuit

In a purely inductive circuit, the current lags behind the voltage by 90 degrees. This is
because inductors resist changes in current.

Figure 3: AC through inductor

7.1 Phasor Diagram for Pure Inductor

The voltage phasor leads the current phasor by 90◦ .
 π
V (t) = Vm sin(ωt), I(t) = Im sin ωt −
2
Here, the current lags the voltage by 90◦ .

7.2 Power in Pure Inductive Circuit

Instantaneous power:
p(t) = V (t) × I(t)
Substituting the voltage and current:
 π
p(t) = Vm sin(ωt) × Im sin ωt −
2
π


Since sin ωt − 2
= − cos(ωt), we get:

p(t) = −Vm Im sin(ωt) cos(ωt)

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 7

Using the trigonometric identity sin(2θ) = 2 sin(θ) cos(θ), we get:

1
p(t) = − Vm Im sin(2ωt)
2
Average power: Since sin(2ωt) has an average value of zero over a complete cycle, the
average power in a pure inductive circuit is:

Pavg = 0

Key Points:

• Current lag voltage by 90◦ .

• Average power is zero. This means energy is stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor and returned to the source, rather than being consumed.

8 AC Through Pure Capacitive (C) Circuit

Figure 4: AC through capacitor

In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees. Capacitors
resist changes in voltage by storing and releasing energy in their electric field.

8.1 Phasor Diagram for Pure Capacitor

The current phasor leads the voltage phasor by 90◦ .
 π
V (t) = Vm sin(ωt), I(t) = Im sin ωt +
2
Here, the current leads the voltage by 90◦ .

8.2 Power in Pure Capacitive Circuit

The instantaneous power in a pure capacitive circuit is given by:

p(t) = V (t) × I(t)

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 8

For a capacitor:
V (t) = Vm sin(ωt), I(t) = Im cos(ωt)
Thus, the instantaneous power becomes:

p(t) = Vm sin(ωt) × Im cos(ωt)

Using the identity sin(θ) cos(θ) = 21 sin(2θ), we simplify this expression to:

1
p(t) = Vm Im sin(2ωt)
2
Average power: Since sin(2ωt) has an average value of zero over a complete cycle, the
average power in a pure inductive circuit is:

Pavg = 0
Thus, the average power in a pure capacitive circuit is zero.
Key Points:

• Current leads voltage by 90◦ .

• Average power is zero. This means energy is stored in the electric field of the
capacitor and returned to the source.

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 9

9 Summary of Phasor Diagrams and Power

Table 1: Phasor Relationships and Power in AC Circuits

Component Phasor Relationship Power

Resistor Voltage and current are in phase Average power is non-zero: P = Vrms Irms

Inductor Current lags voltage by 90◦ Average power is zero

Capacitor Current leads voltage by 90◦ Average power is zero

Table 2: AC Voltage-Current Relationships and Representations

Component AC Voltage-Current Relationship Voltage Representation Current Representation

Resistor (R) V and I are in phase (i.e., no phase shift). v(t) = Vm sin(ωt) i(t) = Im sin(ωt)

Inductor (L) I lags behind V by 90◦ . (lagging current) v(t) = Vm sin(ωt) i(t) = Im sin(ωt − 90◦ )

Capacitor (C) I leads V by 90◦ . (leading current) v(t) = Vm sin(ωt) i(t) = Im sin(ωt + 90◦ )

Table 3: Formulas for Inductive Reactance, Capacitive Reactance, and Resistance

Parameter Symbol Formula Voltage-Current Relationship

Inductive Reactance XL XL = 2πf L VL = XL I = 2πf LI

1 I
Capacitive Reactance XC XC = 2πf C
V C = XC I = 2πf C

V
Resistance R R= I
VR = RI

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 10

10 AC Through R-L Circuit (Resistor and Inductor)

In a series R-L circuit, the voltage across the resistor and inductor is not in phase with
the current. The total voltage leads the current due to the inductive component.

Figure 5: AC through RL circuit

Phasor Diagram for R-L Circuit

The total voltage is the vector sum of VR and VL .
q
V = VR2 + VL2

Figure 6: RL V and I phasor

Impedance in R-L Circuit

The impedance of an R-L circuit is the combination of the resistance R and the inductive
reactance XL .

XL = ωL = 2πf L
q
Z = R2 + XL2

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 11

Figure 7: RL impedance triangle

Power Factor
The power factor is the cosine of the phase angle θ between the voltage and current. In
an R-L circuit:
R
cos θ =
Z
 
−1 XL
θ = tan
R

Powers- single phase

Active Power (P):
P = V I cos θ
Reactive Power (Q):
Q = V I sin θ
Apparent Power (S):
S =VI
The relationship between the powers is:
S 2 = P 2 + Q2

11 AC Through R-C Circuit (Resistor and Capaci-

tor)
In a series R-C circuit, the voltage across the resistor is in phase with the current, while
the voltage across the capacitor lags the current by 90◦ .

Phasor Diagram for R-C Circuit

The total voltage is the vector sum of VR and VC .
q
V = VR2 + VC2

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 12

Figure 8: RC circuit

Impedance in R-C Circuit

The impedance of an R-C circuit is the combination of the resistance R and the capacitive
reactance XC .
1 1
XC = =
ωC 2πf C
q
Z = R2 + XC2

Figure 9: RC V and I phasor

Power Factor
The power factor is the cosine of the phase angle θ between the voltage and current. In
an R-C circuit:
R
cos θ =
Z
 
−1 XC
θ = tan
R

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 13

Figure 10: RC impedance triangle

Powers
Active Power (P):
P = V I cos θ
Reactive Power (Q):
Q = V I sin θ
Apparent Power (S):
S =VI

12 AC Through R-L-C Circuit (Resistor, Inductor,

and Capacitor)
In a series R-L-C circuit, both the inductor and capacitor affect the phase relationship
between voltage and current, but they oppose each other. The overall impedance and
power factor depend on the balance between the inductive and capacitive reactances.

Figure 11: AC through RLC circuit

Phasor Diagram for R-L-C Circuit

The total voltage is the vector sum of VR , VL , and VC .
q
V = VR2 + (VL − VC )2

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 14

Figure 12: RLC V and I phasor

Impedance in R-L-C Circuit

The impedance is the combination of R, XL , and XC .
p
Z= R2 + (XL − XC )2

Power Factor

Figure 13: RLC impedance triangle

The power factor is the cosine of the phase angle θ.

R
cos θ =
Z
 
−1 XL − XC
θ = tan
R

Powers
Active Power (P):
P = V I cos θ

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 15

Reactive Power (Q):

Q = V I sin θ
Apparent Power (S):
S =VI

13 Power and Units

The relationship between Active Power, Reactive Power, and Apparent Power forms a
power triangle, which can be represented in the following table:

Power Type Unit Formula

Active Power (P) Watts (W) P = V I cos θ

Reactive Power (Q) Volt-Amperes Reactive (VAR) Q = V I sin θ

Apparent Power (S) Volt-Amperes (VA) S =VI

Table 4: Power types, units, and formulas

The relationship between these powers is given by the power triangle:

Figure 14: Power Triangle

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 16

Power Types and Descriptions

Power Type Unit Formula Description

Active Power (P) (W) P = V I cos θ Power consumed by the resistor
Reactive Power (Q) (VAR) Q = V I sin θ Power stored by the capacitor or
inductor
p
Apparent Power (S) (VA) S= P 2 + Q2 Total power supplied to the cir-
cuit, combining both active and
reactive power.

Table 5: Power types, units, formulas, and descriptions

14 Power Factor and Its Importance

The power factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of active power to apparent power:
P
PF =
S
A high power factor indicates efficient use of electrical power, while a low power factor
suggests that a significant portion of the power is reactive, not doing useful work.

Example Problem: R-L Circuit

Given R = 10 Ω, L = 0.1 H, f = 50 Hz, and V = 220 V, find the impedance, power
factor, and active power.

Solution
1. Inductive Reactance:

XL = 2πf L = 2π × 50 × 0.1 = 31.42 Ω

2. Impedance:
q √
Z= R2 + XL2 = 102 + 31.422 = 32.98 Ω

3. Power Factor:
R 10
cos θ = = = 0.303
Z 32.98
4. Active Power:
220 × 220
P = V I cos θ = × 0.303 = 442 W
32.98

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 17

15 Resonance Condition in R-L-C Series Circuit

In a series R-L-C circuit, the total impedance is given by:
1
Z = R + j(ωL − )
ωC
Where:

• XL = ωL is the inductive reactance,

1
• XC = ωC
is the capacitive reactance,

• ω = 2πf is the angular frequency of the AC supply.

At resonance, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal (XL = XC ), i.e.,
1
ωL =
ωC
Solving for the resonant frequency f0 :
1
f0 = √
2π LC
Where:

• L is the inductance in henries,

• C is the capacitance in farads,

• f0 is the resonant frequency in hertz (Hz).

Impedance at Resonance
1
At resonance, since ωL = ωC
, the total impedance becomes purely resistive and equals
the resistance R:

Z0 = R
At this point, the current in the circuit is maximum, and the phase angle between the
voltage and current is zero, meaning the power factor is unity (1).

Q-Factor (Quality Factor)

The Q-factor of a resonant circuit is a measure of how ”sharp” or ”selective” the resonance
is. It is defined as the ratio of the reactive power stored in the circuit to the active power
dissipated in the resistor. For a series R-L-C circuit, the Q-factor is given by:
ω0 L 1
Q= =
R ω0 RC
Where:

• Q is the quality factor,

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 18

Figure 15: RLC impedance triangle

Figure 16: RLC impedance triangle

• L is the inductance in henries,

• C is the capacitance in farads,

• R is the resistance in ohms,

• ω0 = 2πf0 is the angular resonant frequency.

Bandwidth
The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is the range of frequencies over which the circuit can
operate effectively.
f0
∆f =
Q
Where f0 is the resonant frequency and Q is the quality factor.

Power at Resonance
At resonance, the circuit behaves purely resistively, and the power delivered to the load
is entirely active power (P ), which is given by:

P = I 2R
Where:

• I is the RMS current,

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 19

Figure 17: Bandwidth of series RLC circuit

• R is the resistance.

There is no reactive power (Q) at resonance, as the inductive and capacitive reactances
cancel out.

Example Problems
Problem 1: Calculating Resonant Frequency
Given an R-L-C series circuit with L = 50 mH and C = 100 µF, calculate the resonant
frequency.
Solution:
Using the formula for resonant frequency:
1
f0 = √
2π LC
Substituting the given values:
1
f0 = √
2π 50 × 10−3 × 100 × 10−6
1
f0 = ≈ 2.25 kHz
2π × 0.00707
Thus, the resonant frequency is 2.25 kHz.

Q-Factor and Bandwidth

For the same R-L-C circuit with R = 20 Ω, calculate the Q-factor and bandwidth.
Solution:
1. Q-factor:

ω0 L 2π × 2.25 × 103 × 50 × 10−3

Q= = = 1.12
R 20
2. Bandwidth:
f0 2250
∆f = = ≈ 2008 Hz
Q 1.12
Thus, the bandwidth is approximately 2008 Hz.

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Module-2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits(Rev-21) 20

Summary of Key Equations

1. Resonant Frequency:
1
f0 = √
2π LC
2. Impedance at Resonance:
Z0 = R

3. Q-Factor:
ω0 L
Q=
R
4. Bandwidth:
f0
∆f =
Q

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