The text discusses the balance between Teacher Talking Time (TTT) and Student Talking Time

(STT) in the classroom, and the debate surrounding the ideal amount of each. Here's a summary
of the key points:

1. Overuse of TTT: Too much teacher talking is considered inefficient because it reduces
the time students have to practice speaking, which is crucial for their language
development. In addition, excessive TTT limits students' opportunities for other activities
like reading and writing.
2. Value of TTT: While overuse of TTT is discouraged, there is value in using TTT
effectively. If a teacher can adjust their language to the students' level, students are
exposed to comprehensible input that can help with language acquisition. This kind of
input allows students to hear language slightly above their own productive level, which
supports learning.
3. TTQ (Teacher Talking Quality): Instead of focusing only on the amount of TTT versus
STT, it's important to consider the quality of the teacher's speech. Effective teacher talk
engages students and provides meaningful input. Poor-quality TTT, such as unnecessary
or inappropriate language, does not benefit students.
4. Balancing STT and TTT: The best lessons strike a balance where student talking time is
maximized, but teachers still contribute through summarization, storytelling, or
discussions at appropriate moments. Good teachers use their experience and common
sense to determine the right balance between TTT and STT.

In summary, while it’s important for students to have ample speaking opportunities, teachers'
contributions are valuable when done with consideration for students' comprehension and
learning needs.

Using the LI (Mother Tongue) in the Classroom

The text discusses the role of students' first language (LI) in language learning, specifically in
English as a second language (L2) classrooms. Here are the key points:

1. Natural Translation Process:

o All learners come with at least one other language, their LI, and it is natural for
them to translate what is happening into their LI, especially at beginner levels.
o However, the goal is for English to dominate the classroom environment, with as
much English used as possible to immerse students in the language.
2. When to Use LI:
o Teachers should primarily use English, but there are occasions where using the LI
can be beneficial:
 After giving instructions, teachers may ask students to repeat them in the
LI to check understanding.
 If instructions are complex, the LI can help clarify meaning.
 Individual help or encouragement in the LI can be helpful for student
comprehension.
 3. Using the LI for Translation Activities:
o Since students are already translating in their minds, it is beneficial to make this
process active. For example, teachers can ask students to translate words or
sentences into their LI, then back into English, helping them understand meaning
and structure.
o At higher levels, students might read in their LI and then summarize or answer
questions in English.
4. Pronunciation and LI:
o When teaching pronunciation, it can help students find equivalent sounds in their
LI, especially when English has sounds that do not exist in their native language.
5. Using Media in the LI:
o Some teachers use films in the LI with English subtitles to help students connect
language and meaning. Students can also create their own English subtitles before
comparing them to the original.
6. Not a Return to Grammar-Translation Method:
o Using the LI occasionally is not a return to traditional grammar-translation
methods, but rather a tool to help students understand the language better and see
connections between their LI and the L2.
7. Challenges in Multilingual Classes:
o In classrooms with students speaking different Lis, using the LI becomes more
complicated. In such cases, students can still be encouraged to compare their LI
and L2, but they must explain these differences in English.
8. Maintaining an English Environment:
o Despite the use of the LI, the focus should remain on creating an English-
speaking environment. English should predominate in the classroom, especially
with the teacher providing comprehensible input, which is crucial for learning.

In summary, while using the LI can be a helpful tool in certain situations, it is essential that
English remains the primary language in the classroom to ensure effective learning of the second
language.

Creating Lesson Stages

The text discusses the importance of structuring lessons with different stages to maintain variety
and engagement in the classroom. Here are the key points:

1. Starting the Lesson:

o To engage students, the lesson should start in a way that grabs their attention. It’s
important to arouse their interest and make them curious about what’s coming.
o In some cases, it’s beneficial to tell students what they will be doing or to discuss
what they can achieve by the end of the lesson. However, sometimes it’s better to
maintain an element of surprise.
o Regardless, a clear beginning to the lesson is essential, much like the start of a
play or a visit to the doctor, where the direction of the activity is introduced.
2. Transitioning Between Activities:
o When one activity ends and another begins, it’s important to signal these
transitions clearly. This helps students understand when something is finishing
and when something new is starting.
o Teachers should re-focus students’ attention, especially when the direction of the
lesson changes. This ensures that students are prepared for what’s next.
3. Getting Students’ Attention:
o To manage transitions, especially in speaking activities or group work, teachers
need to regain students’ attention. This can be challenging but is crucial for
effective learning.
o Some strategies for getting attention include clapping hands, speaking loudly, or
using a quiet voice to force students to listen. Another method is raising the
teacher's hand, which signals students to quiet down and prepare for the next
stage.
4. Providing Closure:
o When finishing an activity or lesson, it’s helpful to provide closure. This could
involve summarizing what was done, making predictions about the next lesson, or
creating enthusiasm for future lessons.
o It’s important to avoid abrupt endings, such as when the bell rings in the middle
of an activity, leaving students with a sense of incompleteness.
o Ideally, teachers should provide a clear and positive closure so that students are
motivated and look forward to their next lesson.
5. Lesson Planning:
o These lesson stages are crucial when planning lessons (discussed further in
Chapter 12). Structuring lessons with clear beginnings, transitions, and closures
helps ensure they run smoothly and that students remain engaged.

In summary, creating clear stages in a lesson, managing transitions effectively, and providing
closure are all essential for maintaining students' attention and engagement, and for ensuring that
lessons are completed successfully.
Different Seating Arrangements in Classrooms

The text explores the various seating arrangements found in classrooms around the world,
highlighting how the physical setup can reflect different teaching approaches. Here are the key
points:

1. Traditional Seating Arrangement:

o In many classrooms, students sit in orderly rows with chairs and sometimes have
wooden palettes attached to the arms for writing. This is a common setup in
schools with a teacher at the front, often on a raised platform to ensure visibility
for all students.
o This arrangement is traditional and is often associated with more teacher-
centered, lecture-based instruction.
2. Alternative Seating Arrangements:
o Some classrooms feature students sitting in large circles around the room, which
encourages more interactive and group-focused learning.
o Another arrangement is when students are placed in small groups, working
together in different parts of the room, promoting collaboration and peer learning.
o In some cases, seating is in a horseshoe shape around the teacher, providing a
more open and conversational classroom setup.
o In adult classes, the teacher may not be immediately obvious, as the seating could
be more fluid and less hierarchical, indicating a more egalitarian approach to
learning.
3. Impact of Seating Arrangements:
o Different seating arrangements signal different teaching philosophies and
methods. The traditional row seating often implies a more structured, teacher-led
class, while circular or group seating suggests a focus on student interaction and
collaboration.
o The arrangement can also influence the way lessons are conducted and the level
of student engagement.
4. Questions Raised by Seating Arrangements:
o The text raises important questions about the value and implications of different
seating plans. For example:
 Are schools that use a variety of seating arrangements progressive or just
following trends?
 Is there something inherently better about rigid seating arrangements, or
are they the result of a specific teaching methodology?
 Is one type of seating arrangement superior to another, and what are the
advantages and disadvantages of each setup?
5. Advantages and Disadvantages:
o Each seating arrangement has its pros and cons. For example:
 Traditional row seating can provide structure and focus, especially for
lectures, but it may limit interaction and student engagement.
 Circular or group seating encourages discussion and teamwork, but may
lead to distractions or less focus for some students.
  Horseshoe seating can promote teacher-student interaction and facilitate
discussion, but may not be as effective for large groups or certain
activities.

In conclusion, seating arrangements in classrooms are not just about comfort but also about the
teaching approach and the level of student interaction. Each setup has its benefits, and the best
arrangement depends on the teaching goals, the subject being taught, and the needs of the
students.

Oderly row

Orderly Rows in Classroom Seating

The text discusses the advantages and challenges of having students sit in orderly rows. Here
are the key points:

1. Advantages of Orderly Rows:

o Clear View: The teacher can see all the students, and the students can all face the
teacher, making it easier for the teacher to maintain eye contact and manage the
class.
o Lecturing: This setup is ideal for lectures or presentations where the teacher
needs to address the entire class at once. It allows for focused attention and
ensures that all students can see visual aids such as a whiteboard, projector, or
overhead transparency.
o Personal Contact: If there are aisles in the classroom, the teacher can walk up
and down, creating opportunities for more personal interaction with individual
students, helping with monitoring and support.
o Focus on Whole Class: This arrangement is especially useful for activities that
involve explaining a concept, watching a video, or using digital presentations. It
allows the teacher to direct their attention to the whole class at once, ensuring that
everyone gets the same messages and instructions.
2. Maintaining Student Engagement:
o When teaching a class seated in rows, it's essential to keep everyone involved.
Teachers should make an effort to engage with students from all parts of the
room, including those sitting at the back or those who tend to be quieter.
o To avoid monotony, teachers should ask questions in a random order rather than
going down the rows one by one. This keeps students alert and prevents them
from anticipating when they will be called on.
3. Large Classrooms:
o In large classrooms with 40-200 students, orderly rows are often the most
practical arrangement. It ensures that the teacher can manage the class and
address everyone as efficiently as possible, especially when teaching large groups.
4. Pairwork and Groupwork:
o Even though students are seated in orderly rows, they can still engage in pairwork
or groupwork. Students can work with others next to them, in front of them, or
behind them, depending on the nature of the activity.
In summary, while orderly rows may seem restrictive, they provide clear benefits, particularly in
managing large groups, maintaining focus, and facilitating activities that require teacher-directed
attention. It's crucial for teachers to keep students engaged and ensure that every student remains
actively involved, regardless of their seat location.

Circles and Horseshoes in Classroom Seating

The text explores the benefits of seating arrangements like circles and horseshoes, which are
often preferred in smaller classes. Here are the key points:

1. Horseshoe Arrangement:
o In a horseshoe arrangement, the teacher is usually at the open end of the
horseshoe, which is often where the board, projector, or computer is situated. This
setup allows the teacher to interact with the entire class while still having access
to teaching tools and visual aids.
o The horseshoe shape offers more interaction and less formality compared to
traditional rows. While the teacher still has a commanding position, the seating
allows for a more dynamic classroom environment.
2. Circle Arrangement:
o A circle arrangement makes a strong statement about the equality of all
participants in the classroom. Just like King Arthur’s Round Table, where
everyone had an equal voice, the circle symbolizes that the teacher and students
are on the same level, fostering a sense of shared responsibility and respect.
o In this arrangement, the teacher’s position is less dominant, as the teacher is not at
the front, but rather among the students, allowing for a more collaborative and
egalitarian atmosphere.
3. Advantages of Circles and Horseshoes:
o Equality: Both seating arrangements break down traditional hierarchical
structures. The circle, in particular, emphasizes equality, as everyone can see each
other and there’s no clear "front" of the room.
o Increased Interaction: Students can see each other directly without having to
turn around, making eye contact easier and encouraging non-verbal
communication (like eyebrow-raising or shoulder-shrugging). This increases the
potential for sharing thoughts, feelings, and expressions during discussions.
o Intimacy and Engagement: These seating arrangements create a more intimate
learning environment, where the focus is on dialogue and mutual exchange, rather
than simply listening to the teacher. This can promote more active participation
from students.
4. Teacher-Student Relationships:
o Teachers who aim to lower barriers between themselves and their students might
find the circle or horseshoe seating more effective. These arrangements create a
 space where students feel they are more equals with the teacher, encouraging
open communication and collaboration.

In summary, circle and horseshoe seating arrangements are particularly beneficial in smaller
classrooms, fostering a sense of equality, improving interaction, and creating a more intimate,
engaging learning environment. The circle, in particular, reinforces the idea of shared learning
responsibility, while the horseshoe allows for a balance of interaction and teacher-directed
instruction.

Separate Tables in Classroom Seating

The text explores the use of separate tables for seating students in small groups and discusses
the benefits and challenges of this arrangement. Here are the main points:

1. Advantages of Separate Tables:

o Teacher Mobility: When students are seated at separate tables, the teacher can
easily move around the classroom to monitor progress, assist with individual or
group work, and provide personalized support. The teacher can check on students
at different tables and address specific needs, making the teaching more
individualized.
o Mixed-Ability Classes: This seating arrangement is particularly useful in mixed-
ability classes. Different groups can work on tasks tailored to their ability levels,
allowing for differentiated instruction. Students can be given tasks that suit their
individual learning needs, whether they need more challenge or support.
o Collaboration and Technology: Separate tables work well in situations where
students are engaged in collaborative activities, such as group work or tasks
around a computer. For example, students may work on a collaborative writing
task or listen to different audio tracks in a jigsaw listening activity, where working
in smaller, separated groups is necessary.
2. Challenges of Separate Tables:
o Student Preferences: Students may not always want to work with the same group
of colleagues. Their preferences for group members can change over time, which
may create issues with group dynamics or motivation.
o Difficult Whole-Class Teaching: When students are scattered around the
classroom in separate groups, it becomes more challenging to engage the entire
class in a whole-class activity. The teacher may find it harder to keep everyone
focused and involved, as the students are more dispersed and may become less
attentive.

In summary, separate tables allow for more personalized attention, differentiated tasks, and
collaborative work, but they also create challenges in terms of student preferences and
maintaining whole-class engagement. This arrangement is particularly useful for activities that
require smaller groups to work independently, but it may not be as effective for teacher-led
instruction or large group discussions.

Different Student Groupings in the Classroom

The text outlines the different ways in which students can be organized in the classroom: whole
class, groupwork, pairwork, solo work, and class-to-class interactions. Each of these
arrangements has its advantages and challenges.

1. Whole Class

 Advantages:
o Whole-class teaching is ideal for presenting information or controlled practice,
such as drills and repetition, especially at lower levels.
o It promotes a sense of belonging and teamwork, helping students feel they are part
of a group.
o It's useful for introducing new concepts or activities where everyone needs to be
on the same page.
 Challenges:
o Individual students have fewer opportunities to speak or reflect, as only one
student can talk at a time.
o Whole-class teaching can be inhibiting for some students, especially when it
comes to encouraging individual contributions or discussions.

2. Groupwork and Pairwork

 Advantages:
o These arrangements foster cooperation as students work together to complete
tasks, which could include discussions, role-plays, or group projects.
o More students can actively participate compared to whole-class teaching, and they
have more opportunities to experiment with language.
o These activities promote independence since students make decisions about the
language they use without constant teacher supervision.
o Teachers can focus on particular students or groups who may need additional
help, providing more personalized attention.
 Challenges:
o Students may not always be comfortable with the group they are assigned, leading
to tension or reluctance.
o Some students may feel uneasy working without the teacher's constant presence
or supervision.
o In groupwork, there’s a risk that one student may dominate, while others remain
passive or "social loaf."
 o Groupwork can sometimes lead to disruptions, particularly in classes where
students revert to speaking their first language instead of English.
o Teachers can address this by structuring tasks in ways that ensure everyone
participates, such as using "numbered heads" or random calls.

3. Solo (Individual) Work

 Advantages:
o Allows students to work at their own pace, giving them time to think and reflect
on their individual learning needs.
o Provides a break from the more collaborative nature of group activities, offering
students time to focus on their personal progress.
 Challenges:
o Although it can be beneficial for students' individual learning, it may not always
foster collaborative skills or active communication.

4. Class-to-Class Interactions

 Advantages:
o Involves bringing two classes together to interact, which can be motivating for
both higher- and lower-level students. Higher-level students can help lower-level
students, and vice versa, fostering peer learning.
o It can be especially beneficial for activities like surveys, discussions, and
presentations.
 Challenges:
o Organizing class-to-class activities can be time-consuming and requires careful
planning.

Flexibility and Teacher Role

The choice of grouping depends on the teacher's style, the students' preferences, and the type of
activity. Good teachers are flexible in switching between groupings based on the task at hand,
ensuring that the most effective arrangement is used for the specific activity. This flexibility
helps to create an engaging and dynamic learning environment.