Frameworks and Principles Behind our that is based on conceptions of moral

Moral Dispositions excellence. Virtue ethics eschews or

minimizes talk of rules, principles,
If ethics means right living and good obligation, duty, or consequences.
moral character; and it is in good moral
Instead, it focuses primarily on the notion
character that man finds his true worth and
perfection. All the great ethicists maintain
of the good or virtuous person: It seeks
that the supreme purpose of human living to develop a concrete and nuanced
lies not in the attainment of bodily understanding of what such a person is
perfections such as health and strength; nor like, and then to use that theoretical
even in the development of intellectual skills exemplar to guide actual behavior.
but in the development of the moral qualities
which lift man far above brute creation. Aristotle: Ethics as the Art of Living
Therefore, it is only suitable to seek Well
understanding so that individuals are able to
base their actions (Schneewind, 2010) Born in Stagira, Greece in the year
Some individuals who study moral 384 B.C. and died of stomach illness on 322
philosophy perhaps do so in the hope that B.C. Aristotle’s father was the physician to
they will acquire an understanding of what the king of Macedonia. He was educated and
being moral is all about. Just as those who was greatly influenced with the thoughts of
attend and who hope to increase Plato. Aristotle founded his own school in
understanding of those who appreciate being which he was invited by the king of
critical and judge art rather than to become Macedonia, Philip to educate his son
artists themselves, so students of moral Alexander, who would be later known as
philosophy want to get inside the business of Alexander the Great. Aside from teaching, he
moral thinking and to grasp what makes a was also able to invent and write treatises to
sound moral argument (Barrow, 2007). various topics such as logic, physics, biology,
Therefore students are taught to discern the ethics, meteorology, metaphysics, political
particular features of situations that call for science and poetics (Price, 2008).
this rule rather than that one. Ethical Aristotle’s inquiry into the study of
theories are utilized to assess and elucidate moral philosophy along with some figures in
what is to be said for and against particular the field of moral philosophy—Kant, Mill,
ways of behaving in respect to particular Ricoeur and other historical figures—is
moral problems (Wassertrom, 1975). regarded relevant and must be learned. The
Here we are going to discuss three of result of his study into the “rightness and
the prominent ethical theory that has not wrongness of an action” is highly valuable
only been widely discussed but at the same and though quondam in its origin—Aristotle
time influential in every aspect of existence: responded by writing and passing three
Virtue Ethics, Deontological, Ethics and treatise’s, Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian
Utilitarian Ethics. Ethics and Magna Moralia—but the ideas
remain vibrant that echoes a message that
Virtue Ethics: Aristotle could be incorporated or transformed into
contemporary trivialities that would bring
Most often we are remembered by further understanding into the heart of moral
people for our character, of how we have philosophy (Kraut, 2006).
reacted and acted upon situations,
specially those that demands moral Eudaimonia
decisions, handling of day-to-day tasks,
we develop a certain way of being a In Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle
pointed out that “every art and inquiry”
unique style as a person. For example,
(theoretical) and “action and pursuit”
our attitude towards a friend tell about (practical), it is aimed towards an end (telos).
his/her secret, when someone left their For example, we exercise because we want
wallets, when we witness a crime or to be physically fit, as student we study the
when we commit a crime, when our basic principles of our chosen discipline for
parents told us to be good and respect us to criminologist, accountant, or to be
others, when we make a promise or effective public servant. It is necessary
broke a promise. That is why, when a according to Aristotle, for it is the mark for
person is asked about: a friend, a an educated man to look for precision.
neighbor, a classmate, we often hear or Moreover, Aristotle is not only interested in
identifying that people must pursue their
we say positively such he/she is patient,
telos but rather he is pointing that all of
diligent, honest, friendly, good temper, these activities are geared towards wether
modest, etc., and we also say or hear practical or theortical, is aimed towards
negative comments such as envious, eudaimonia (human flourishing) or happiness
boastful, vulgar, coward, etc., (Aristotle, 1998; Pasco, et.al., 2018; Reyes,
One ethical perspective that 2009).
focuses on the importance of cultivating
good characteristic traits is the virtue Aristotle identify that there three
ethics. It is a practical approach to both prominent ways of life that associate people
understanding and living the good life with happiness: “life of enjoyment, preferring
a life suitable to beasts, but they get some For Aristotle, rational soul is composed
ground for their view from the fact that many of speculative intellect and practical reason.
of those in high places share the tastes of Speculative intellect is responsible for
Sardanapallus, the political, and thirdly the knowledge. It is concerned with pure thought
contemplative life.” Aristotle clarifies what and is essentially the base of contemplation,
he meant by happiness by saying that, While the practical reason is responsible for
“which is in itself worthy of pursuit more final choice and action. It is in charge of action
than that which is worthy of pursuit for the and the practical determinition of the proper
sake of something else, and that which is means to attain a specific end (Aristotle,
never desirable for the sake of something 1998; Pasco, et.al., 2018; Reyes, 2009).
else more final than the things that are The irrational soul is composed of two
desirable both in themselves and for the parts. Vegetative and appetitive. The
sake of that other thing, and therefore we vegetative is characterized by the activities
call final without qualification that which is of nutrition, growth and reproduction. It
always desirable in itself and never for the takes care of the involuntary functions of the
sake of something else (Aristotle, 1998). body, from breathing to digestion and can be
found also in any other living being.
Furthermore, Aristotle, identified three However, appetitive soul or the desiring part,
reasons, why happiness is the ultimate end. although it does not itself reason but it
First, it is self-sufficient. For example, a influences the rational soul or the decision
student who remains happy despite of we make for ourselves. For example, sexual
difficulties he/she faces in pursuit of urges, passions, desire for wealth and
attaining the degree. Second, happiness is recognition are desires that are difficult to
final. For it is pursued not for the sake of control. But Aristotle pointed out that
something else. Third, attainable goal of although there is the tendency for appetitive
human life. These three reasons meant that soul to influence our behavior but we can
eudaimonia/happiness is sought, we have to also control our desire for it is unfit for a
strive, struggle and face and learn from life proper human being. Moreover, appetitive
challenges for us to be happy. For soul is divided into three parts. a) epithumia-
eudaimonia is an activity of the soul in unruly and irrational sense desires and
accordance with virtue, something that we covetousness. b) thumos- spontaneous
continually actualize. It is a lifelong activitiy impulses and c) boulesis- desires and
where one cannot be complacent in times of wishes(Aristotle, 1998; Pasco, et.al., 2018;
good fortune because happiness is more Reyes, 2009).
than one’s fate, it is something we decide for We must recognize these tendecies
ourselves (Reyes, 1989; Pasco, et.al., 2018). and if unchecked it would led us to commit
immortal acts. Therefore, moral virtue is
Artistotle recognizes that we are born necessary in making sure that desires do not
differently, some are with favorable control the behavior.
circumstances. For example in terms of
education, where some need not to travel far Virtue, the Mean, and Practical Wisdom
just to educate themselves. In terms of
access in healthcare, people living in urban The Greek word for virtue is aréte
areas have more access compared to people which means excellence. By excellence, the
who are living in rural areas. Some Greek thoughts of how a thing fulfills its
individuals sorrounded with good friends and function. Thus, to be virtuous, is to exhibit
endowed with beauty and other desirable one’s capacity to fulfill one’s essence or
physical traits. However, Aristotle purpose in such a way that one’s potentiality
emphasized that some people may have an may be actualized in the most excellent way.
advantage but it does not guarantee of For Aristotle, there are two kinds of virute:
happiness or eudaimonia. For happiness is moral and intellectual. Moral virtue has to do
an activity, it is something of how people with excellence in the performance of
behave or respond. Hence, people maybe decisions relating to moral and practical
beautiful but have a lots of enemies or activity, while intellectual virtues have to do
coward. A certain person maybe rich but with one’s capacity to harness reason’s
he/she is aware that he/she is in company of contemplative capacity for arriving at
friends who are not sincere only after of knowledge. Intellectual virute owes its
his/her wealth (Aristotle, 1998; Pasco, et.al., existence and development to teaching,
2018; Reyes, 2009). while moral virtue arises from habitual
practice (Aristotle, 1998; Pasco, et.al., 2018;
The Soul Reyes, 2009).
In addition, Aristotle pointed out that
Aristotle recognizes that a human virtue, first of all, implies that actions are
being is composed of body and soul, which under the control of reason. It has the control
are inseparable. However, Aristotle puts of the individual’s desires and passions,
emphasis on the importance of rational soul following the rule of the “just middle”,
in the attainment of eudaimonia or neither excessive nor deficient. For example,
happiness. The soul for Aristitotle is divided the virtue of moderation would consist of an
into two parts: rational soul and irrational activity that is neither self-indulgent
soul (Aristotle, 1998; Pasco, et.al., 2018; (excessive) or insensibility (deficient), but if
Reyes, 2009). we remain steadfast to the temptation, we
exhibits the nobility and excellence of human
spirit (Aristotle, 1998; Pasco, et.al., 2018; to go with them and celebrate, their will be a
Reyes, 2009). lot of free liquor and food. So what will be
Therefore, virtue is a state of your decision? (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al.,
character which makes a person good and 2018).
capable of fulfilling his/her end (telos) as a So, phronésis is the intellectual virtue
human person. It is the person’s capacity to responsible for bringing the human person
read situations that make him/her virtuous. closer to his/her chief good in the realm of
In reading, the virtuous person is able to morality, it aids one in being happy. It is
arrive at a decision or perform an action that comprised both of knowledge and action.
maybe considered as an intermediate One’s capacity for choice and action must be
between deficiency and excess, which he guided by the intellectual virtue of practical
calls the mean or mesotes. A mean that is wisdome in pursuit of the mean or mesotes
relative to the person facing a moral choice. for one to be able to call himself/herself
By relative, it means, the choice or decision virtuous. Practical wisdom guides the human
depends on the particular circumstance of a person in choosing the mean between the
person, the mean would correspond to the extremess of excess and deficiency. It
most appropriate response given the constantly adjusts reckoning based on the
demands of the situation. To be morally shifting conditions that permeate a specific
virtuous, one must be able to respond to situation, relative to oneself. Henece, the
situations not just with the correct feeling or mean is a moving target, phronésis is
action but in the proper degree, at the right necessary in skillfully making the right
time, towards the right people, and for the decision when we are confronted with moral
rights reasons (Aristotle, 1998; Pasco, et.al., problem that demands a decision. Moreover,
2018; Reyes, 2009). it should be noted that certain actions does
Next, no person is born morally not require for a mean/mesotes for they are
virtuous. But how does a person develop the simply bad, and so there is no “virtuous” way
capacity to bring these virtues out of the of performing them. Acts like adultery, theft,
realm of possibility to the realm of actuality? and murder are bad in themselves and
According to Aristotle, it is only in practice cannot be deemed virtuous in any situation
that we come to know that we truly know (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
how to do something. It is through constant
practice and repetition that we are able to The Principal Virtues and Vices
form a moral virtue. For example, it is only in
running that we come to know how fast we Excess (vice) Mean Deficiency
can actually run and gain the right to call (virtue) (vice)
ourselves runners. Analogously, we become rashness courage cowardice
morally virtuous by doing morally virtuous Self- moderation insensibility
acts. We become a just person by doing just indulgence
acts. We become temperate by doing
Prodigality liberality meanness
temperate acts. We become courageous in
Vulgarity magnificenc paltriness
doing courageous acts. For example, it is
e
only in running that we come to know how
Vanity Proper pride Smallness of
fast we can actually run and gain the right to
soul
call ourselves runners (Aristotle, 1998;
Ambitiousness Proper Lack of
Pasco, et.al., 2018; Reyes, 2009).
ambition ambition
Lastly, a virtuous act is one which
proceeds from the right intention, meaning Irascibility Good Lack of spirit
to say that the action is done for its own temper
sake and not for some extraneous motive boastfulness truthfulness Self-
outside of the action itself. For example in depreciation
the case of friendship, according to Aristotle, obsequiousnes friendliness surliness
the intended goal should be the human s
relationship itself; the mutual good will bashfulness modesty shamelessne
binding two or more people, each s
appreciating and affirming the other for his envy Proper malice
own sake, and not for some extraneous indignation
purpose such as to curry favor, or to acquire buffoonery wittiness boorishness
some gain or advantage from the other
(Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). A truly virtuous action, according to
Furthermore, Aristotle, pointed that Aristotle, is performed by someone who is
virtue, is a state of one’s character that is not compelled to do so. A person does a
the result of choice. This choice is governed virtuous act and chooses to act in such a way
by practical wisdom (phronésis). Phronésis is for the sake of being virtuous. This choice
the human person’s instrument in dealing comes from a certain firmness of character
with moral choices. It is a kind of knowledge that is not easily swayed by one’s passions
that deals with practical matters not just with or influenced by certain factors in a given
ideas or concepts. It participates in the situation (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al.,
capacity of the rational part of the soul to 2018).
anticipate situations without easily following
to the desires from the appetitive part of the
soul. For example, during midterm or final Contemplation and Philosophical
weeks, your friends and classmates ask you Knowledge
 reality. One who can reach the wisdom at the
For Aristotle, the main functions of the very heart of all things is obliged to act in
intellectual virtues, namely Phronésis and accordance with his/her dignity. It is deemed
Sophia, are to aid human persons in matters that human being is gifted with the ability to
concerning moral choice and the attainment know the highest good that engages him/her
of knowledge of first principles or eternal in freedom in choosing to act on the good
truths, respectively. If practical wisdom serve that he/she ought to do. Thus, freedom is
as a guide for action in everyday life, the act knowing the best goal and being able to
of contemplation is a pursuit of philosophical reach for it through decisive action. It is in
wisdom (sophia), which according to the very heart, of every human person as the
Aristotle, the highest form of knowledge. dictate of doing good and avoiding evil
Philosophizing, according to him, is the most (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
pleasant of virtuous activities because it doe For Aquinas, God reveals his Goodwill
not rely on anything else for its fulfillment as the Eternal Law reflected in the order of
other than the desire to do it. It is the mist reality. Relating with the Law as governing
self-sufficient act. Unlike, practical virtues all is relating with God himself whose will
such as courage and temperance need emanates to govern all that is.The reality
specific conditions to be attained, while then of life as growth, nutrition, and
philosophy is something a person can do by reproduction is founded on the will that is
himself/herself anytime (Reyes, 2009; eternal. Even the animals governed by
Pasco et. al., 2018). instincts behave in such and such a way is
Moreover, contemplation is an act that also recognized by the human person as
can be loved for its own sake becayse it has following the dictate of a law that guides all
no other aim than to reveal the most creation. That plants persist to carry
fundamental truths of existence. However, it themselves out to the fullness of being
must be remembered that human life is not plants is an imprint of the governing will that
exclusively devoted to thought; it is most of comes to human understanding as law
the time engaged in action and practical (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
matters. Thus, practical wisdom still plays a The reality of the human person who
crucial role in the attainment of one’s is able through his/her intellect, to decide in
eudaimonia or happiness. The contemplative freedom, and through his/her will, to move
knowledge of the good does not himself/herself voluntarily in accordance with
automatically translate to its performance. the good that she/he know follows the very
Being virtuous in the practical sense is still will of God who has created man in His own
cultivated through practice and habit. Living image (Genesis 1, 27). In addition, human
well means having the complementary freedom for St. Thomas Aquinas, is an
disposition of intelligent and conduct and a imprint of the divine will in the very being of
thirst for philosophical wisdom (Reyes, the human person. This sharing of human
2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). reason in the eternal will or divine law is for
hime/her the natural law (Reyes, 2009;
Pasco et. al., 2018).
The Natural Law: Thomas of Aquinas The human person then, who is able to
draw up specific laws that govern
Thomas Aquinas is a Catholic priest himself/herself, his/her society, and his/her
who belongs to tge religious Order of relationship with all creation, is also the
Preachers or Dominicans. St. Thomas of author of positive laws. It is important to
Aquinas was born in 1225. The title Aquinas note that not all that is legal in human
identifies his place of origin, Aquino which society reflects the law that dictates on the
belonged to the kingdom of Naples and human person as ethical in accordance with
about 120km south of Rome. He was born to natural law - what is legal then is not always
an affluent and influential family; his father necessarily moral.
was recognized as the count of Aquino. Etsi Deus non daretur (as if there is no
Thomas died on March 7, 1274 leaving God) is an expression that highlights the
behind him notable works like Summa Contra validity of this ethical system with or without
Gentiles, Summa Thelogiae, and De Veritate. faith in the Creator God. This implies that the
wisdom of the ethical system that is natural
law is valid and binding for the human
person even if we bracket belief in God. It do
not advocate athemism or protest against
Etsi Deus non daretur the faith. They simply mean that the deposit
of knowledge or divine wisdom that comes to
Thomas Aquinas begins from the us as a natural law is valid in itslef and it,
standpoint of faith. His perspective therefore, the reasonable code of conduct
presupposes the existence of a God who is even for a man of goodwill who may be
the author (source) and the goal (end) of all without faith. Even the Sacred Scriptures of
reality. For Thomas, this Creator, however, Christians reflect this, for when non-believers
relates in freedom to recognize through who do not have the law by nature observe
reason, the very principle foundations of all the prescriptions of the law, they are a law
things. In accordance with this foundational for themselves even though they do not
knowledge, the human person can choose to have the law. They show that the demands
act in such a way that is worthy of one’s very
of the law are written in their hearts science, felt confident of himself and of his
(Romans 2, 14-15). reason, and with all the capabilities to
harness the forces of nature brought about
by further developments and discoveries of
Conscience and Natural Law this new experimental, mathematized
science, man believed he would soon
For Aquinas, Conscience, or establish a whole new rational and
synderesis, is man’s practical reason prosperous world under the full control of
oriented ultimately to his telos, God. Hence, man.
if we follow St. Thomas’ discussion on
conscience, one is inclined to conclude that it However, Kant, had some doubts.
is the proper functioning of reason in moving Examining this new experimental science
the human person towards an end goal that more closely, he wondered if it did not
is fitting of his/her dignity. One cannot do the perhaps contain within it something that
right thing if one does not know what it is. could pose a serious problem for the age.
The famous dictate then to follow the Specifically, this new science seemed to view
conscience absolutely is tied to an obligation the whole world as being governed by laws
to educate it. If one acts badly out of of nature which operate necessarily, such
ignorance and does not act to reform the that given the initial conditions, a set of
situation by bothering to learn, that person is consequences necessarily follow. The
to be held accountable. scientist, to the extent that he has mastered
While the conscience binds us in doing the laws of nature, given the starting
the good and avoiding evil, conscience as conditions. Or, presented with the
reason is also absolutely tasked to given symptoms, as in the case of a disease, the
formation. The conscience, therefore, can be scientist is able to diagnose what the root
mistaken, and being so does not exempt the cause of the problem is (Reyes, 2009;
human person from guilt. If a person is able Pasco et. al., 2018).
to know but fails to act in his/her obligation
to do so, then he/she is not free from blame In other words, this new experimental
and responsibility for what was done. science would seem to have as a
In addition, Aquinas pointed out that fundamental underlying assumption a form
there are different kinds of conscience that of determinism, in the sense that all world
may lead a person to wrongdoing: callous, events, natural and human, would then be
perplexed, scrupulous and ignorant. The bound and determined to happen in
uninformed conscience simply lacks accordance with the laws of nature. If such
education, while the perplexed one needs should be the case, then Kant says the crisis
guidance in sorting out one’s confusion. or dilemma facing the Modern word would
Callousness of the conscience results in the be, whether to opt for this new deterministic
long-time persistence in doing evil that the science, together with all the benefits its has
self is no longer concerned whether what already brought and promise still to bring
he/she does is good or bad. Scrupulousness, forth for mankind, or to choose human
fails to trust one’s ability to do good and, freedom, as presumed all this time by the
hence, overly concerns itself with avoiding humanist, the moralist, and by the common
what is bad to the point of seeing wrong man (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
where there really is none. These different
consciences that lead to badness in action Kant asked, is there not perhaps the
can readily be corrected by education. possibility of reconciling the claims of the
Putting effort in forming one’s own two sides? Could it not be possible that both
conscience helps a person to exist from such sides are correct, given certain distinctions?
malformations. These questions becomes his guide where he
Given the idea that human conscience proposed that if he could show that the
is possible for error, can we disobey the scientist is really talking on one level or
dictates of our conscience? St. Thomas dimension when he speaks of the
Aquinas insisits, despite of the error, deterministic laws of nature, while the
conscience remains to be our immediate moralist is talking on a different plane when
norm that bids us to do good and avoid evil. he speaks of human freedom, then it could
These occassions or invites the person the be shown that there really is no conflict
importance of the commitment to educate (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
one’s conscience, basically because one
cannot do good if one does not know it and What Ought I To Do?
since one’s norm for acting is the obligation
that is set by one’s conscience. Acquisition of Ethics for Kant is not matter for
knowledge as what ought to be done through theoretical but for practical reason. Hence,
education is critical for ethical living. he begins by consulting not another
Education, therefore, according to Thomas philosopher or academician, but the common
Aquinas for moral living. man, the common man on the street, asking
him what he might understand by the notion
Deontological Ethics: Immanuel Kant of “good.” And the answer he got is that the
“good” is primarily a matter of good will.
Immanuel Kant lived during the Age of Nothing could be considered good without
Enlightenment, when Western man, flush any further qualification except the good will.
with the success of modern experimental
What then does this good will signify? Next
Kant proceeded to unpack the implications of According to Kant, categorical
this common sense notion. imperative could be formulated more
explicitly in three different ways, signifying
It would seem that the man of good three basic aspect of the moral law.
will is one who acts not as one pleases but in First, this internal rule that the
conformity to some sort of internal rule. This man of good will feel he has to conform
internal rule comes from man’s own rational stems from man’s rational will itself. And the
will. This simply means what is morally one necessary demand of reason, according
binding is rooted in reason as “doable for the to Kant, is universality or the capability of
human person.” Kant then tell us that reason being validated in all cases. In short, what
in itself can only be the sensible foundation complies with reason, what is true, is that
of what is ethical for man. The internal rule which is confirmed not only for a few trivial
imposes itself upon the concrete man in the cases, but for all cases, thus, universal
form of “duty” or “imperative.” (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). Therefore,
Kant said that one way to formulate the
Hypothetical Imperative vs Categorical categorical imperative is by the law of
Imperative universality:

There is need, however, to distinguish ACT ONLY ON THAT MAXIM THROUGH WHICH
this duty that the man of good will feel he YOU CAN AT THE SAME TIME WILL THAT IT
has to conform to, from the other so called SHOULD BECOME A UNIVERSAL LAW.
duties, such as the duties or imperatives of
skill and the duties or imperatives of Morality, therefore, is the
prudence. imperative for action that, in principle, any
The duties or imperatives of skill are other, in particular, any of those to be
those necessary requirements any man must affected by the act, could agree to the
fulfill in order to achieve any end or goal he action. In other words, my action is moral if
has chosen to pursue. For example, someone any man of good will affected by my act
who has decided to be an accountant, he/she should be able to agree with my action
must necessarily have to go through (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
accountancy school for his studies, same
with criminology and other endeavors. Second, man as embodied or as
On the other hand, the duties or empirical being, as Kant would say it, is
imperatives of prudence refer to those tasks subject to the laws of nature and to the
and obligations that any man living together forces and pressures of the social
with others in society finds he/she must environment. On the other hand, man is a
assume if he/she wants to continue to be in rational being and realizes that, as such,
smooth and happy relationship with the rest he/she should act, over and above the blind
of society. Therefore, one is expect to be operations of nature and the blandishments
tactful, to have good manners. The rules of of instincts and mere inclinations, in
“social graces” must be respected. accordance with his own reason, thus, in
Compared to the imperatives of skill fidelity to himself as rational being. Morality
and prudence, the internal duty of the man then would demand that man should seek to
of good will or moral duty is different. The realize himself/herself fully as rational being,
imperatives of skull and of prudence are the only necessary ed in this world (Reyes,
conditional or hypothetical, depending upon 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). Hence, another
whether one wants to pursue a goal, or way of formulating the categorical
whether one would like to remain in good imperative is in the form of the law of man
terms with society. On the other hand, the as end-in-himself/herself:
internal duty of morality seems to be
unconditional, incumbent upon man, ACT IN SUCH A WAY THAT YOU
independent of any external end or possible ALWAYS TREAT HUMANITY, WHETHER IN
benefit consequent upon the act. Hence, for YOUR OWN PERSON OR IN THE PERSON OF
example, the moral imperative, “Thou shall THE OTHER, NEVER SIMPLY AS MEANS BUT
not kill,” imposes itself upon man ALWAYS AT THE SAME TIME AS AN END.
unconditionally. It does not say that if you
want to project a good image of yourself, it More concretely then, an act would be
would not be to your advantage to kill. Nor immoral if I were to treat myself or the other
does it say that if you want to remain in good as mere object or instrument as, for
terms with your neighbor, then it would be example, in treating others as mere stepping
best that you do not go around killing others stone for personal goals (Reyes, 2009; Pasco
(Reyes, 2009). et. al., 2018).
We see then that the moral imperative
is the only imperative, according to Kant, Third, as already been seen, this inner
that is the only unconditional imperative. law of moral duty that the man of good will
Kant calls it, categorical imperative, as feel he has to conform to proceeds from
opposed to hypothetical imperative, referred man’s own rational will, requiring him to be
to by Kant as rules of skill and counsels of true to himself as reason, and to fully realize
prudence. himself as end, in his dignity as free, rational
being. In other words, the moral law is not
Categorical Imperative some kind of command imposed upon man
by some external force or authority. Morality The kingdom of ends may seem like a
is man himself as rational will or practical dream world. Yet Kant pointed out, this is,
reason, acting in conformity to the immanent what man’s practical reason or rational will
demands of his own reason. A third way in truly demands, namely, the full realization of
formulating the is by way of the law of man as free rational being. This is the telos
autonomy(Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). toward which the practical reason
necessarily tends. Hence, what we have to
“ACT ALWAYS ON THE MAXIM OF do is to try to comprehend how this telos
SUCH A WILL IN US AS CAN AT THE demanded by morality could possibly came
SAME TIME LOOK UPON ITSELF AS to be (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
MAKING UNIVERSAL LAW.”
UTILITARIANISM: JOHN STUART MILL
In other words, a moral act is one that & JEREMY BENTHAM
is done not because of fear of some external
force or power, or perhaps because I need to
please someone, or because I need to
Origin and Nature of Utilitarianism
provide to the desires of someone, but
because I know within me that I have to do Human decisions are always
it, in fidelity to my own self as reason, coupled with consequences. Whenever
otherwise I would be going against my own one decides to do something, one’s
self (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). action affect other people in ways
Toward the last part of his moral beyond how one thought it would.
theory, Kant asked, what then is the ultimate Decisions continually affect the
ground of morality, the ultimate reason why configuration and integrity of various
you and I should be moral, why you and I forms of human relationships because in
should follow the categorical imperative? deciding to do something, for instance,
Kant answered, that we owe it to our own
one actually brings something new into
humanity, to our own dignity, and that of our
fellowman as freedom. Freedom for Kant the world that has never existed before.
means two things: first, the capacity of man Decisions bring forth new ideas, objects,
to go beyond his instincts and inclinations and relationships into play in the real of
and act in accordance with the higher law of action and thought. In short, particular
morality; second, that this higher law of decisions have particular consequences
morality is, in truth, our own law, the law of that correspond to how one’s motives
our very being as rational will. Man as reason translated into action through a decision
is a self-governing being. He/she is (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018).
free(Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). In making decisions, one either
What out I to do? Kant’s advice’s us to looks to one’s motives and to the
follow the categorical imperative in its three
foreseeable consequences of one’s
aspects: the law of universality, the law of
humanity as end-in-itself, and the law of action. Oftentimes, decisions are judged
autonomy(Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., 2018). as good if they are brought about by
good and just motives and result in good
What is there to hope for? consequences. On the contrary, decisions
are considered bad if they are motivated
Kant believe that this question is by anything most of society deems as
necessary, otherwise morality would still be malicious, such as selfishness, spite or
left suspended in mid-air, as it were. What envy, and if they have destructive
then is the sense of continuing to be just and consequences (Pasco et. al., 2018).
moral in this world? What is there to hope
However, as one knows, real life is
for? As has already been explained, the
categorical imperative sets man as an end-
a lot more complicated than this. One’s
in-itself and demands of man to realize motives are not always pure, and
himself as such. More concretely, categorical consequences vary in kind and severity
imperative demands concretely is that man depending on those affected. In this case
should act toward the realization the how does one judge the morality of a
realization of the kingdom of ends which, decision or act? Does one examine the
for Kant signify three things, a human motivation behind the decision and see
community where firstly, every member whether the act is mostly motivated by
finally recognized as person, an end-in- goodness or does one look at the results
himself; secondly, where the goods of the of the act? If one judges the morality of
earth or the products of the economic
an action based on its consequences
system of the community are ordained
towards the satisfaction of the basic needs of what categories can he/she use to judge
all the members; and thirdly, where there is whether the act did produce good
a set of positive laws that would guarantee consequences? Does the end justify the
the recognition of all members of community means? Does the goodness of the
as persons and their access to the material consequences, for instance, have more
goods necessary for the fulfillment of their bearing than the way, the method, or
basic needs (Reyes, 2009; Pasco et. al., modus operandi, with such consequences
2018). are delivered? (Pasco et. al., 2018).
 Utilitarianism is a moral theory that Bentham’s principle of utility
tries to grapple with these questions. translates itself into a felicific/hedonistic
Since the late 18th century, Utilitarianism calculus. Since any and each possible act
has been one of the most prominent will have its pros and cons, the solution
moral theories. Utilitarianism has then is to find the act that, placed on the
undergone many changes and it exists in felicific balance, would show the best
many forms. The dominant version was possible combination of maximum
developed and articulated by Jeremy pleasure and minimum pain. This then is
Bentham, who applied it to the what would be a morally good act.
reformation of the legal, political, social, Bentham proposes seven elements as a
educational, penal, and economic guide/method to balance the pros and
institutions of Britain and other countries. cons of a proposed action in relation to
Later, John Stuart Mill in his major work, the balance of pleasures and pain it
Utilitarianism (1861), made some potentially produces (Reyes, 2009):
changes to Bentham’s conception and 1. Intensity: how strong is the
defended its critics who complained that pleasure?
an ethics based on the hedonism 2. Duration: how long does the
legitimized crass self-indulgence and pleasure last?
base animal pleasure (Ruth, 1994). 3. Certainty or uncertainty: how
Utilitarianism is a theory that not likely or unlikely that the pleasure will
only laws, but also actions, policies and occur?
so on, ought to be evaluated in terms of 4. Proximity or immediacy of the
which of the proposed alternatives will pleasure to be derived from the action:
have the best overall consequences. how soon does the pleasure occur?
Utilitarianism is the moral theory that 5. Fecundity or the capacity to
judges the goodness of outcomes—and engender further pleasures: what is the
therefore the rightness of actions in so probability that the action is followed by
far as they affect outcomes—by the sensations of the same kind?
degree to which they secure the greatest 6. Purity or the relative absence of
benefit to all concerned (Martin, 2007). painful side-effects: what is the
probability that it is not followed by
sensations of the opposite kind?
7. Extent or the number of other
people bound to be affected by the act:
Felicific Calculus: Jeremy Bentham How many people are affected?
Indeed, it is man’s end and goal to seek
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) could pleasure or happiness. The problem,
be considered the precursor of the whole however, is that often he seeks his goal
utilitarian movement. As a critic of law erratically/ strange/unpredictably, thus
and of the prisons systems, indeed of the coming to grief and pain instead, or that
political institutions of his time, he he does not get the most pleasure
wanted to develop a moral system that possible in life. Since pleasure and pain
would be concrete enough to be able to determines on how we value one’s
distinguish between good and bad action, so do they also constitute the
legislation (Reyes, 2009). cause of individuals behavior. If a man
For Bentham, a person is motivated violates, he eventually incurs pain and
by two main drives: to seek pleasure and unhappiness. To help remedy this
to avoid pain. Pleasure or happiness is problem, there are several social
not to be defined by way of metaphysical sanctions that have been developed to
discourse. Rather, it should be taken as keep the individual from seeking
common sense would understand it. happiness at the expense of others: (a)
Hence, pleasure is that pleasantness or political (arrest, imprisonment), (b) social
feeling of well-being which man derives (public opinion), (c) religious (after-life
from activities such as eating and punishment), and (d) physical (direct
drinking, but also from activities perhaps consequences of the action in one’s own
such as reading a book or listening to self) (Reyes, 2009).
music (Reyes, 2009).
For Bentham, therefore, utility The Greatest Happiness Principle:
would mean “that property in any object John Stuart Mill
whereby it tends to produce pleasure,
good or happiness to the party whose In Mill’s ethics, actions are
interest is considered.” The fundamental understood as right with respect to their
principle of utility then would be: “the capacity to promote happiness and
greatest happiness of the greatest wrong when they tend to promote the
number.” opposite of happiness. Happiness,
according to Mill, is pleasure and the action that pleases a lot less people, but
absence of pain, while unhappiness is please them in more human way, then
pain or the absence of pleasure. For him, the latter course of action is deemed
the Principle of Utility or the Greatest more right, in that it promotes the
Happiness Principle is the supreme greatest happiness of the greatest
measure of morality. Pleasure and the number while considering the fact that
freedom from pain are the only things some pleasures are more befitting of a
desirable as ends, and all desirable human being than others. Mill
things are desired either because they emphasized that pleasures of a higher
are inherently pleasurable or because quality are those that employ our
they contribute to the prevention of pain distinctively human faculties, such as the
(Pasco et. al., 2018). intellect (Pasco et. al., 2018).
One of the objections to such However, it should be noted that
doctrine is that it seems to degrade the Mill is not saying that people who have
nature of the human person by reducing experienced both the pleasures of
morality to a pleasure-driven activity, not sensation and pleasures of the intellect
unlike that of animals life that seeks only consistently prefer the latter on every
to multiply pleasure and avoid pain. occasion. He is not saying that
Objectors point to the fact that it is a competent judge of pleasures always
doctrine suited for the followers of prefer the higher forms of pleasure.
Epicurus, an ancient Greek philosopher While it is reasonable to think that
whose deemed that the purpose of someone of experience of rational
philosophy is to attain happiness and competence would sometimes prefer to
tranquility in life. He believed that go out and party with friends on some
happiness corresponds to ataraxia (lack nights, it would go against reason for
of trouble or disturbance) and aponia them to go our every night to party. In
(absence of pain). However, followers of other words, a wise man would not
the Epicurean doctrine respond that it is exchange his/her lot for that of a fool’s
actually their accusers that present even if he/she promised the pleasure’s
human person in a degrading light by befitting of a fool’s for a lifetime. This is
implying that human beings are precisely because a competently
incapable of experiencing any other form experienced human recognizes that the
of pleasure other than that comparable pleasures of wisdom, though fewer in
to animal’s. Mill added saying that there quantity, far outweigh that of a fool’s.
is no Epicurean or any such-related Mill does not assert that the exercise of
doctrine which does not assign to the distinct human faculties like the intellect
pleasures of intellect, feelings, and the has a greater intrinsic value than the
imagination a higher value than exercise of those that promote the
pleasures that derive from mere physical pleasures of sensation. What he claims is
sensations. In other words, Mill’s that the pleasures derived from uniquely
utilitarian doctrine makes a concrete human activities such as reading,
distinction between higher and lower conversing with others, and
forms of pleasure. It does not advocate a philosophizing have superior value than
life of reckless abandon and non-stop other forms of activities (Pasco et. al.,
partying (Pasco et. al., 2018). 2018).
If Bentham’s version of
utilitarianism focuses on the potential
amount or quantity of happiness that an The Ultimate Sanction
action can potentially produce for it to be
considered right, Mill’s ethics makes a Although external sanctions like
sharp and nuanced division of higher and those that emanate from social and
lower forms of pleasure in terms of supernatural source enforce the
quality. Happiness should not be utilitarian principle, they do not compel
measured solely on the basis of how long one to follow it. By themselves, they
or how intense the feeling of pleasure is cannot bind persons fully to any moral
for a person or to those affected by an principle because they are only truly
action as Bentham, for instance, had bound to a principle if they feel in
thought. Although both agree that an themselves that they have to abide by it.
action’s rightness or wrongness must Ultimately, according to Mill, it is man’s
take into account the number of those “feeling for humanity” that constitutes
that shall be affected, Mill says that even the ultimate sanction of the principle of
if more people benefit from an action’s utility. This is the internal sanction of the
consequences, but the kind of pleasure principle of utility (Pasco et. al., 2018).
they experience is considered lower or One of the external sanctions that
baser than the consequences of an provide the impetus for moral conduct is
one’s fear of displeasing God. If one
trusts in the goodness of God, then those
who think that a good act is that which
promotes the greatest happiness of the
greatest number must also believe that
this is what God approves. The other
external sanction is the fear of
disapproval from other people. If one
does what is right because one fears that Activities
she/he will be punished by society in
whatever way, be it legal (fined, 1
imprisoned) or external legal (social Directions: The following are statements
exclusion, marginalization), Mill finds that that indicates/defines virtuous traits a person
such a motive takes into account the should foster. Write the answer before the
opinion of others with respect to what is number.
advantageous or disadvantageous for
a. Generosity b. Courage
them before one act and may, therefore, c. Friendship d. Pride
be seen as coherent with the principle of e. Compassion f. Justice
utility (Pasco et. al., 2018). g. Liberality h. Friendship
Furthermore, Mill explained that i. Temperence j. Wit
although external sanctions do promote k. Truthfulness l. Patience
the welfare of the whole, it is still the
internal sanction of conscience that is ____ 1. A mean between cowardice and
considered as the ultimate sanction of foolhardiness. It is cowardly to run away
morality. This is the feeling associated from all danger; yet it is foolhardy to risk too
with one’s violation of duty towards much.
others when one selfishly looks one after ____2. The ability to say or write things that
one’s happiness exclusively. Conscience are clever and usually funny.
is the internalization of the external ____3. The giving and taking of wealth, and
sanctions of morality that feels remorse especially of giving without prejudice.
each time one acts without considering
____4. A person is pleased if he is both and
first the effect or consequence of one’s thinks himself to be worthy of great things.
action in other people’s lives. This feeling
of fellowship with other people is what ____5. It is the willingness to expend one’s
ultimately drives one to persevere to be resources to help others.
moral. As a social being, the human ____6. It is where two people equal in virtue
person has the ability to gauge the care for one another for their own sakes.
morality of his/her pleasures and the ____7. A control over excess.
pleasures of others. In the end, one can
only sleep well at night when he/she has ____8. Spending a large amount of money
with good taste or to what is fitting.
a clear conscience, that is, when one is
certain that he/she did everything to ____9. A person who speak and accord his
promote not just his/her own happiness, way of life to what is truth.
but that of everyone’s (Pasco et. al., ____10. We see other persons suffering as if
2018). it were something that could happen to us.

Direction: Discuss your thoughts on the

following situations.

a. Much of the fraught politics of apology

involves historic wrongs committed during
World War II. Japan has been more reluctant
to apologize for its wartime atrocities.
During the 1930s and ‘40s, tens of
thousands of Korean and other Asian
women and girls were forced into brothels
and abused as sex slaves by the Japanese
soldiers. Since the 1990s, Japan has faced
growing international pressures and a
private fund offered payments to the
victims, and Japanese leaders made limited
apologies. In 2007, Japanese Prime Minister
Shinzo Abe insisted that the Japanese
military was not responsible for coercing
 women into sexual slavery. The U.S. a. Persistent insomnia and nervousness send
Congress responded by passing a resolution you to your doctor seeking tranquilizer.
urging the Japanese government to formally Your doctor discerns that the problem is
acknowledge and apologize for its military’s psychosomatic, caused by temporary
role in enslaving the comfort women. problems at home. When she cannot
convince you of this, she says she will give
you only one month’s supply of
tranquilizers. Unbeknownst to you, she
b. German court rules student can't wear writes a prescription for a placebo—a sugar
religious headgear in class. A Muslim pill—that actually calms you down because
student has been banned from wearing a you believe it is a tranquilizer.
full-face veil in class after her school said
the headgear made it difficult to teach her. b. You are invited to a party that you do not
The 18-year-old was forbidden from wish to attend. So as not to hurt the host’s
wearing the niqab, which covers the entire feelings, you lie, saying you have to go
body and face apart from the eyes, by a somewhere else that night.
judge and her school. The teenager, who has
not been named, was excluded from night c. Suppose Mary Jane causes five thousand
classes at Osnabrück Evening School when pesos worth of damage to Edimar’s car. She
she attended wearing a niqab in April. She is about to pay Policarpio the five thousand
sued the school but lost her case on appeal pesos when Tom appears on the scene. She
when it was escalated to an administrative finds out that Policarpio is more in need of
court in Osnabrück, Germany. Suppose you money than Edimar is and that the balance
were the judge. How would you rule? To of happiness over unhappiness in the world
simplify things, put aside the question of law will be greater if she gives the money to
rather consider the moral permissibility of Policarpio instead of Edimar.
the issue.

Direction: Read and carefully understand. d. Many pet owners spend more time on their
pets than they do on world hunger, even
though their money for pet food and
On August 6 and 9 of 1945 occurs the
supplies could help save human lives.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings which costs a
thousand of lives that includes infants, children and
aged citizens of Japan. In short, Japanese who are
e. Imagine you have a sexual transmitted
non-combatant died and becomes a victim of the
disease, a bacterial infection acquired from
war atrocities.
your past unprotected sexual activities. You
According to the supporters of the bombings
have been celibate for five months when the
argues saying that Americans could have died
person you are dating offers you to change
invading Japan, and were presumably spared
it. In a half-joking tone the person asks,
because of the bombing, it was considered
“You don’t have any medical problems?
necessary to end the war and that according to their
And you shake your head no
information gathered civilians take part in the war
by working in factories and infrastructures attached
f. In similar situation above, your potential
to war effort.
partner this time lied to you about the fact
Critics present their arguments saying that it
that she/he has AIDS, the deadly, sexually
was immoral, a form of state terrorism, believing
transmitted disease.
that it was military unnecessary and that other
measures would lead to Japans surrender.
Given the various versions of arguments
from supporters and critics of the bombing, what is
your thought with Japan bombing? Do you agree or
disagree the position taken by the supporter or by
the critics? Explain your point.

Exercise
Name
Schedule/Date
Direction: In the light of Utilitarian principle,
decide whether it is acceptable, obligatory, or
impermissible to deceive. Place your answer after
the paragraph and provide a brief reason for your
decision.
References

Aristotle. (1998). Nicomachean Ethics.

New York: Dover Publications.

Bentham, Jeremy (1781). An Introduction

to the Principle of Morals and
Legislation. London: Batoche
Books.

Martin, M. (2007). Every Morality: An

Introduction to Applied Ethics.
California: Thomson Wadsworth.

Pasco, Marc Oliver, Suarez, V. Fullente

and Rodriguez, Agustine Martin.
Ethics. Manila: C & E Publishing,
2018.

Reyes, Ramon Castillo. Ground and Norm

of Morality: Ethics for College
Students. Philippines: Ateneo De
Manila University Press, 2009.

Stumpf, Samuel and Fieser, James.

(2008). Socrates to Sartre and
Beyond: A History of Philosophy.
New York: McGraw-Hill.

Van Wyk, R. (1990). Introduction to

Ethics. New York: St. Martin’s Press.