Chapter 6:

Introduction to SQL

Chapter 6 6-1
Database Applications

Database is a collection of corelated data for a business purpose

• Database = {Tables, Foreign Keys}
• Create, Drop, Alter à Database
• Create, Delete, Update, SELECT à Table/View

Chapter 6 6-2
 Objectives
• Define terms
• Interpret history and role of SQL
• Define a database using SQL data definition language
• Write single table queries using SQL
• Establish referential integrity using SQL

Chapter 6 6-3
 SQL Overview
• Structured Query Language – often pronounced
“Sequel”
• The standard for relational database management
systems (RDBMS)
• RDBMS: A relational database management system
that manages data as a collection of tables in
which all relationships are represented by common
values in related tables

Chapter 6 6-4
 History of SQL
• 1970–E. F. Codd develops relational database concept
• 1974-1979–System R with Sequel (later SQL) created at IBM
Research Lab
• 1979–Oracle markets first relational DB with SQL
• 1981 – SQL/DS first available RDBMS system on DOS/VSE
• Others followed: INGRES (1981), IDM (1982), DG/SGL (1984),
Sybase (1986)
• 1986–ANSI SQL standard released
• 1989, 1992, 1999, 2003, 2006, 2008, 2011–Major ANSI
standard updates
• Current–SQL is supported by most major database vendors

Chapter 6 6-5
 Purpose of SQL Standard
• Specify syntax/semantics for data definition and
manipulation
• Define data structures and basic operations
• Enable portability of database definition and
application modules
• Specify minimal (level 1) and complete (level 2)
standards
• Allow for later growth/enhancement to standard
(referential integrity, transaction management,
user-defined functions, extended join operations,
national character sets)

Chapter 6 6-6
Benefits of a Standardized Relational
Language
• Reduced training costs
• Productivity
• Application portability
• Application longevity
• Reduced dependence on a single vendor
• Cross-system communication

Chapter 6 6-7
 SQL Environment
• Catalog
• A set of schemas that constitute the description of a database
• Schema
• The structure that contains descriptions of objects created by a
user (base tables, views, constraints)
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Commands that define a database, including creating, altering,
and dropping tables and establishing constraints
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• Commands that maintain and query a database
• Data Control Language (DCL)
• Commands that control a database, including administering
privileges and committing data

Chapter 6 6-8
 Figure 6-1
A simplified schematic of a typical SQL environment, as
described by the SQL: 2011 standard

Chapter 6 6-9
 Figure 6-4
DDL, DML, DCL, and the database development process

Chapter 6 6-10
 SQL Database Definition
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Major CREATE statements:
• CREATE SCHEMA–defines a portion of the database owned by a
particular user
• CREATE TABLE–defines a new table and its columns
• CREATE VIEW–defines a logical table from one or more tables
or views
• Other CREATE statements: CHARACTER SET, COLLATION,
TRANSLATION, ASSERTION, DOMAIN

Chapter 6 6-11
 SQL Data Types

Chapter 6 6-12
 Steps in Table Creation
1. Identify data types for attributes
2. Identify columns that can and cannot be null
3. Identify columns that must be unique (candidate keys)
4. Identify primary key–foreign key mates
5. Determine default values
6. Identify constraints on columns (domain specifications)
7. Create the table and associated indexes

Chapter 6 6-13
 Figure 6-5 General syntax for CREATE TABLE
statement used in data definition language

Chapter 6 6-14
The following slides create tables for this
enterprise data model

(from Chapter 1, Figure 1-3)

Chapter 6 6-15
Relational Database Tables

CUSTOMER(CustomerID, Name, Address, City, State)

ORDER(OrderID, OrderDate, CustomerID)

ORDER_LINE(OrderID, ProductID, Quantity)

PRODUCT(ProductID, Description, Finish, Price)

Chapter 6 6-16
 Figure 6-6 SQL database definition commands for PVF Company

(Oracle 12c)

Overall table
definitions

Chapter 6 6-17
 Defining attributes and their data types

Chapter 6 6-18
 Non-nullable specification

Primary keys
can never have
NULL values
Identifying primary key
Chapter 6 6-19
 Non-nullable specifications

Primary key

Some primary keys are composite–

composed of multiple attributes

Chapter 6 6-20
 Controlling the values in attributes

Default value

Domain constraint

Chapter 6 6-21
Identifying foreign keys and establishing relationships

Primary key of
parent table

Foreign key of dependent table

Chapter 6 6-22
 Data Integrity Controls
• Referential integrity–constraint that ensures that
foreign key values of a table must match primary
key values of a related table in 1:M relationships
• Restricting:
• Deletes of primary records
• Updates of primary records
• Inserts of dependent records

Chapter 6 6-23
Figure 6-7 Ensuring data integrity through updates

Relational
integrity is
enforced via
the primary-
key to foreign-
key match

Chapter 6 6-24
Changing Tables
• ALTER TABLE statement allows you to change column specifications:
• Table Actions:
• Example (adding a new column with a default value):

Chapter 6 6-25
 SID Name Address CGPA

SID F.Name L.Name Address CGPA

1. Create a new table

2. Insert into the new table

Chapter 6 6-26
 Schema Definition
• Control processing/storage efficiency:
• Choice of indexes
• File organizations for base tables
• File organizations for indexes
• Data clustering
• Statistics maintenance
• Creating indexes
• Speed up random/sequential access to base table data
• Example
• CREATE INDEX NAME_IDX ON CUSTOMER_T(CUSTOMERNAME)
• This makes an index for the CUSTOMERNAME field of the
CUSTOMER_T table

Chapter 6 6-27
 Removing Tables

•DROP TABLE statement allows you to remove

tables from your schema:

• DROP TABLE CUSTOMER_T

Chapter 6 6-28
 Insert Statement
• Adds one or more rows to a table
• Inserting into a table

• Inserting a record that has some null attributes requires

identifying the fields that actually get data

• Inserting from another table

Chapter 6 6-29
Creating Tables with Identity Columns

Introduced with SQL:2008

Inserting into a table does not require explicit customer ID entry or

field list

INSERT INTO CUSTOMER_T VALUES ( 'Contemporary Casuals',

'1355 S. Himes Blvd.', 'Gainesville', 'FL', 32601);

Chapter 6 6-30
Delete Statement

•Removes rows from a table

•Delete certain rows
• DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T WHERE
CUSTOMERSTATE = 'HI';
•Delete all rows
• DELETE FROM CUSTOMER_T;

Chapter 6 6-31
Update Statement

•Modifies data in existing rows

Chapter 6 6-32
Merge Statement

Makes it easier to update a table…allows combination of Insert

and Update in one statement

Useful for updating master tables with new data

Chapter 6 6-33
 SELECT Statement
• Used for queries on single or multiple tables
• Clauses of the SELECT statement:
• SELECT
• List the columns (and expressions) to be returned from the query
• FROM
• Indicate the table(s) or view(s) from which data will be obtained
• WHERE
• Indicate the conditions under which a row will be included in the result
• GROUP BY
• Indicate categorization of results
• HAVING
• Indicate the conditions under which a category (group) will be included
• ORDER BY
• Sorts the result according to specified criteria

Chapter 6 6-34
Figure 6-2
General syntax of the SELECT
statement used in DML

Figure 6-10
SQL statement
processing order
(based on van der
Lans, 2006 p.100)

Chapter 6 6-35
 SELECT Example
• Find products with standard price less than $275

Table 6-3: Comparison Operators in SQL

Chapter 6 6-36
Relational Database Tables

CUSTOMER(CustomerID, Name, Address, City, State)

ORDER(OrderID, OrderDate, CustomerID)

ORDER_LINE(OrderID, ProductID, Quantity)

PRODUCT(ProductID, Description, Finish, Price)

Chapter 6 6-37
Find products with standard price less than $275

SELECT *
FROM Product
WHERE Price <275

PRODUCT(ProductID, Description, Finish, Price)

Chapter 6 6-38
 SELECT Example Using Alias
•Alias is an alternative column or table name

Find John Hiller’s Address

SELECT CUST.CUSTOMERNAME AS NAME,

CUST.CUSTOMERADDRESS
FROM CUSTOMER_V CUST
WHERE NAME = ‘John Hiller’;

Chapter 6 6-39
 Use of Alias
Department Employee

DNo Name Address …. ENo Name Address DNo

IS

Find employees in Department of Information Systems (IS)

SELECT E.Eno, E.Name, E.Address

FROM Department D, Employee E
WHERE D.Dno = E.Dno and D.Name = “IS”

Chapter 6 6-40
 SELECT Example Using a Function

• Using the COUNT aggregate function

find total no of products in Order 1004

SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM ORDERLINE_T
WHERE ORDERID = 1004;

Note: With aggregate functions you can’t have single-valued

columns included in the SELECT clause, unless they are included
in the GROUP BY clause.

Chapter 6 6-41
Aggregation Functions in SQL

• AVG – calculates the average of a set of values

• COUNT – counts rows in a specified table or view
• MIN – gets the minimum value in a set of values
• MAX – gets the maximum value in a set of values
• SUM – calculates the sum of values

Chapter 6 6-42
SELECT Example–Boolean Operators
• AND, OR, and NOT Operators for customizing conditions in
WHERE clause

Note: The LIKE operator allows you to compare strings using wildcards.
For example, the % wildcard in ‘%Desk’ indicates that all strings that
have any number of characters preceding the word “Desk” will be allowed.

Chapter 6 6-43
 Figure 6-8 Boolean query A without use of parentheses

By default,
processing order
of Boolean
operators is NOT,
then AND, then
OR

Chapter 6 6-44
Operator Precedence

Operator Precedence
1. ()
2. NOT
3. AND
4. OR

• NOT p AND q = ((NOT p) AND q)

• p AND NOT q = (p AND (NOT q))
• p AND q OR r = ((p AND q) OR r)
• p OR q AND r = (p OR (q AND r))

Chapter 6 6-45
SELECT Example–Boolean Operators
• With parentheses…these override the normal precedence
of Boolean operators

With parentheses, you can override normal precedence rules. In

this case parentheses make the OR take place before the AND.

Chapter 6 6-46
 Figure 6-9 Boolean query B with use of parentheses

Chapter 6 6-47
Sorting Results with ORDER BY Clause
• Sort the results first by STATE, and within a state by the
CUSTOMER NAME

Note: The IN operator in this example allows you to include

rows whose CustomerState value is either FL, TX, CA, or HI. It
is more efficient than separate OR conditions.
Chapter 6 6-48
 Categorizing Results Using GROUP BY Clause

• For use with aggregate functions

• Scalar aggregate: single value returned from SQL query with
aggregate function
• Vector aggregate: multiple values returned from SQL query with
aggregate function (via GROUP BY)

You can use single-value fields with aggregate functions if they are
included in the GROUP BY clause
Chapter 6 6-49
Qualifying Results by Categories using the HAVING
Clause

• For use with GROUP BY

Like a WHERE clause, but it operates on groups

(categories), not on individual rows. Here, only those
groups with total numbers greater than 1 will be
included in final result.
Chapter 6 6-50
CUSTOMER_T(CustomerID, Name, Address, City, CustomerState)

CustomerState No of Customers
Arizona 10
New Jersey 2
Hawai 1

CustomerState No of Customers
Arizona 10
New Jersey 2

Chapter 6 6-51
A Query with both WHERE and HAVING

Chapter 6 6-52
Using and Defining Views
• Views provide users controlled access to tables
• Base Table–table containing the raw data
• Dynamic View
• A “virtual table” created dynamically upon request by a user
• No data actually stored; instead data from base table made
available to user
• Based on SQL SELECT statement on base tables or other views
• Materialized View
• Copy or replication of data
• Data actually stored
• Must be refreshed periodically to match corresponding base tables

Chapter 6 6-53
 Sample CREATE VIEW

§ View has a name.

§ View is based on a SELECT statement.
§ CHECK_OPTION works only for updateable views and
prevents updates that would create rows not included in
the view.

Chapter 6 6-54
Advantages of Views
• Simplify query commands
• Assist with data security (but don't rely on views for
security, there are more important security measures)
• Enhance programming productivity
• Contain most current base table data
• Use little storage space
• Provide customized view for user
• Establish physical data independence

Chapter 6 6-55
Disadvantages of Views
•Use processing time each time view is
referenced
•May or may not be directly updateable

Chapter 6 6-56
Summary
• SQL is used to define and query relational DBMS. It
includes:
• Data definition language (DDL)
• Data manipulation language (DML)
• Data control language (DCL)
• The basic syntax of SQL statement includes:
SELECT
FROM
WHERE
ORDERBY
GROUP BY
HAVING

Chapter 6 6-5757