SECTION 2: BLOCK DIAGRAMS

& SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

ESE 430 – Feedback Control Systems
2 Block Diagrams

K. Webb ESE 430

 Block
3

 In the introductory section we saw examples of block diagrams

to represent systems, e.g.:

 Block diagrams consist of

 Blocks – these represent subsystems – typically modeled by, and labeled
with, a transfer function
 Signals – inputs and outputs of blocks – signal direction indicated by
arrows – could be voltage, velocity, force, etc.
 Summing junctions – points were signals are algebraically summed –
subtraction indicated by a negative sign near where the signal joins the
summing junction

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 Standard Block Diagram Forms
4

 The basic input/output relationship for a single block is:

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈
𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

 Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:

 Cascade
 Parallel
 Feedback

 We’ll next look at each of these forms and derive a single-

block equivalent for each
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 Cascade
5

 Blocks connected in cascade:

𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠

⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠
⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠

 The equivalent transfer function of cascaded blocks is the

product of the individual transfer functions
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 Cascade
5

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 Parallel
6

 Blocks connected in parallel:

𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠
𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠
𝑋𝑋3 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠
± 𝑋𝑋3 𝑠𝑠

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠
⋅ 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈
𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠

𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 ± 𝐺𝐺3 𝑠𝑠

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 Parallel
7

 The equivalent transfer function is the sum of the individual

transfer functions:

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 Feedback
7

 Of obvious interest to us, is the feedback form:

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑋𝑋 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 − 𝑌𝑌
𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺
𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠
= 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
⋅

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 Feedback
The closed-loop transfer function, 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 , is
8

𝑌𝑌 𝐺𝐺


𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
=
𝑅 1 + 𝐺𝐺
𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻
𝑅 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠

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 Feedback
𝐺𝐺
9

𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠
1 + 𝐺𝐺
𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻
𝑠𝑠

Note that this is negative feedback, for positive feedback:

𝐺𝐺


𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
 The 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 factor in the denominator is the loop gain
or open-loop transfer function

forward path gain – here, 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

 The gain from input to output with the feedback path broken is the

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 Feedback
1

forward path
 In general:
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = gain
1 − loop
gain

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 Closed-Loop Transfer Function - Example
9

 Calculate the closed-loop transfer function

𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 and 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 are in cascade

𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 is in cascade with the feedback system consisting of


𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 ,


𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 , and 𝐻𝐻2 𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 ⋅
1 2 𝑠𝑠
+ 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
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 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻2

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 Unity-Feedback Systems
10

 We’re often interested in unity-feedback systems

 Feedback path gain is unity

 Can always reconfigure a system to unity-feedback form
 Closed-loop transfer function is:
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
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11 Block Diagram Manipulation

K. Webb ESE 430

 Block Diagram Algebra
12

 Often want to simplify block diagrams into simpler,

recognizable forms
 To determine the equivalent transfer function

 Simplify to instances of the three standard forms,

then simplify those forms
 Move blocks around relative to summing junctions
and pickoff points – simplify to a standard form
 Move blocks forward/backward past summing junctions
 Move blocks forward/backward past pickoff points

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 Moving Blocks Back Past a Summing
1

 The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1

𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

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 Moving Blocks Forward Past a Summing
1

 The following two block diagrams are equivalent:

1
𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈𝑈1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑈𝑈2 𝑠𝑠

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 Moving Blocks Relative to Pickoff
1

 We can move blocks backward past pickoff points:

 And, we can move them forward past pickoff points:

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 1

 Rearrange the following into a unity-feedback system

 Move the feedback block, 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 ,

forward, past the summing junction
Add an inverse block on 𝑅𝑅
𝑠𝑠 to compensate for the


move

1
 Closed-loop transfer function:

𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2

𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = =
1

1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 1 + 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠
𝐻𝐻 𝑠𝑠

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2

 Find the closed-loop transfer function of the following

system through block-diagram simplification

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠 and 𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠 are in feedback form
1

𝐺𝐺1 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 = 1 − 𝐺𝐺1

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻1 𝑠𝑠
1

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
Move 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 backward past the pickoff point
2

Block from previous step, 𝐺𝐺2 𝑠𝑠 , and 𝐻𝐻2

𝑠𝑠 become a feedback system that can be


simplified
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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
2

Note that we’ve dropped the function of 𝑠𝑠 notation, 𝑠𝑠 , for clarity

 Simplify the feedback subsystem


𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2
1− 𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2
𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻1 1−
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝐺 𝐻
1+ 𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻1
𝑠𝑠 =
𝐺𝐺1𝐺 2 𝐻2
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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
=
1 − 𝐺𝐺1 𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺 𝐻
2

𝐺 𝐻2
2

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
2

 Simplify the two parallel subsystems

𝐺𝐺4
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺2
= 𝐺𝐺3 +
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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
2

 Now left with two cascaded subsystems

 Transfer functions multiply

𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺4
𝐺𝐺𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − 𝐻 + 𝐺 𝐻𝐻2
𝐺𝐺1 𝐻 𝐺𝐺 𝐺
1 1 2

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 Block Diagram Simplification – Example
2

 The equivalent, close-loop transfer function is

𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺4
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
1 − 𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻2

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24 Multiple-Input Systems

K. Webb ESE 430

 Multiple Input Systems
2

E.g., reference, 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 , and disturbance, 𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠

 Systems often have more than one input


 Two transfer functions:

From reference to output
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌𝑌 ⁄𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠


 From disturbance to output

𝑠𝑠

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 Multiple Input Systems
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 =
2

𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠 /𝑊𝑊
𝑠𝑠

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 Transfer Function –
Find transfer function from 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠
2

to 𝑌𝑌 𝑠𝑠


 Set 𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠 = 0
 A linear system – superposition applies

𝑌𝑌 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠

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 Transfer Function –
� 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺
� 𝑠𝑠
2

�
� �
�
� �
=
1
�
+
�
�
� �
�
� �
�
�
�
�
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 Transfer Function –
Next, find transfer function from 𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠 to 𝑌𝑌
2

𝑠𝑠


 Set 𝑅𝑅 𝑠𝑠 = 0
 System now becomes:

𝑌𝑌 𝑊𝑊 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 = =

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 Transfer Function –
𝐺𝐺𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
2

1 + 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺
𝑠𝑠

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 Multiple Input Systems
2

 Two inputs, two transfer functions

𝐷𝐷 𝐺𝐺𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = and 𝑠𝑠 1+𝐷𝐷
= 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤
𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠
1+𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠

 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 is the controller transfer function

 We have control over both 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 and 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠

 Ultimately, we’ll determine this

What do we want these to be?

Design 𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 for desired performance


 Design 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 𝑠𝑠 for disturbance rejection



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29 Signal Flow Graphs

K. Webb ESE 430

 Signal Flow
3

 An alternative to block diagrams for graphically describing systems

 Signal flow graphs consist of:

 Nodes –represent signals
 Branches –represent system blocks

 Branches labeled with system transfer functions

 Nodes (sometimes) labeled with signal names
 Arrows indicate signal flow direction
 Implicit summation at nodes
 Always a positive sum
 Negative signs associated with branch transfer functions

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 Block Diagram → Signal Flow
3

 To convert from a block diagram to a signal flow

graph:
1. Identify and label all signals on the block diagram
2. Place a node for each signal
3. Connect nodes with branches in place of the blocks
 Maintain correct direction
 Label branches with corresponding transfer functions
 Negate transfer functions as necessary to provide negative
feedback
4. If desired, simplify where possible

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
3

 Convert to a signal flow graph

 Label any unlabeled signals

 Place a node for each signal

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
3

 Connect nodes with branches, each representing a system block

 Note the -1 to provide negative feedback of 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
3

 Nodes with a single input and single output can be

eliminated, if desired
This makes sense for 𝑋𝑋1 𝑠𝑠 and 𝑋𝑋2 𝑠𝑠
 Leave 𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠 to indicate separation between controller and plant


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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
3

 Revisit the block diagram from earlier

 Convert to a signal flow graph

 Label all signals, then place a node for each

K. Webb ESE 430

 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
3

 Connect nodes with branches

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 Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
3

 Simplify – eliminate 𝑋𝑋5 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑋𝑋6 𝑠𝑠 , 𝑋𝑋7 𝑠𝑠 , and 𝑋𝑋8 𝑠𝑠

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 Signal Flow Graphs vs. Block Diagrams
3

 Signal flow graphs and block diagrams are

alternative, though equivalent, tools for graphical
representation of interconnected systems
 A generalization (not a rule)
 Signal flow graphs – more often used when dealing
with state-space system models
 Block diagrams – more often used when dealing with
transfer function system models

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39 Mason’s Rule

K. Webb ESE 430

 Mason’s
4

 We’ve seen how to reduce a complicated block

diagram to a single input-to-output transfer
function
 Many successive simplifications

 Mason’s rule provides a formula to calculate the

same overall transfer function
 Single application of the formula
 Can get complicated

 Before presenting the Mason’s rule formula, we

need to define some terminology
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 Loop Gain
4

 Loop gain – total gain (product of individual gains) around

any path in the signal flow graph
 Beginning and ending at the same node
 Not passing through any node more than once

−𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3
 Here, there are three loops with the following gains:

𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1
1.

−𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2
2.
3.

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 Forward Path
4

 Forward path gain – gain along any path from the input
to the output
 Not passing through any node more than once
 Here, there are two forward paths with the following
gains:
𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐺𝐺4
𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺5
1.
2.

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 Non-Touching
4

 Non-touching loops – loops that do not have any

nodes in common
 Here,

−𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3 does not touch 𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1

−𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3 does not touch −𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2
1.

2.

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 Non-Touching Loop
4

 Non-touching loop gains – the product of loop gains

from non-touching loops, taken two, three, four, or
more at a time
 Here, there are only two pairs of non-touching loops

−𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3 ⋅ 𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1
−𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3 ⋅ −𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2
1.

2.

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 Mason’s
𝑃
𝑌𝑌
4

𝑃
𝑇𝑇 1
𝑠𝑠 = �
𝑠𝑠 = Δ
𝑅 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘Δ𝑘𝑘
𝑅 𝑘𝑘=
where
𝑠𝑠 1

𝑃𝑃 = # of forward paths
𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘 = gain of the 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡 forward path
Δ = 1 − Σ(loop gains)
+Σ(non-touching loop gains taken two-at-a-time)
−Σ(non-touching loop gains taken three-at-a-time)
+Σ(non-touching loop gains taken four-at-a-time)
−Σ …
Δ𝑘𝑘 = Δ − Σ(loop gain terms in Δ that touch the 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡 forward path)
K. ESE
 Mason’s Rule -
4

# of forward paths: −𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3 + 𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1 −

𝑃𝑃 = 2 𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2


Forward path gains:

𝑇𝑇1 =


𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐺𝐺4
𝑇𝑇2 = 𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺5
 Σ(loop gains):

K. ESE
 Mason’s Rule -
Σ(NTLGs taken two-at-a- + −𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1 +
4

𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2


time):
−𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2
𝐻𝐻1 +
𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2𝐺
𝐺3𝐻𝐻2

Δ:
Δ = 1 − −𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3


+ 𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1 −
𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2

K. ESE
 Mason’s Rule – Example -
Simplest way to find Δ𝑘𝑘 terms is to calculate Δ with the 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡𝑡
4

path removed – must remove nodes as well

 𝑘𝑘 = 1:

With forward path 1 removed, there are no loops, so

Δ1 = 1 − 0


Δ1 = 1

K. ESE
 Mason’s Rule – Example -

𝑘𝑘 = 2:
4

Similarly, removing forward path 2 leaves no loops, so

Δ2 = 1 − 0


Δ2 = 1

K. ESE
 Mason’s Rule -
4

𝑃𝑃
𝑌 1
For our example:
𝑃𝑃 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇𝑘𝑘Δ𝑘𝑘


=2 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑌
𝑠𝑠
�

𝑇𝑇1 =
𝑅 Δ
𝑅 𝑘𝑘=1
𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3
𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺4
𝑇𝑇2 =
𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺
5
Δ = 1 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3 − 𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2 −
𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2
Δ1 = 1
Δ2 = 1
K. ESE
 Mason’s Rule -
5

 The closed-loop transfer function:

𝑇𝑇1Δ1 + 𝑇𝑇2Δ2
𝑇𝑇
𝑠𝑠 = Δ
𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐺𝐺4 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺5
𝑇𝑇 1 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3 − 𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2 −
𝑠𝑠 = 𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2𝐻𝐻1 + 𝐺𝐺1𝐻𝐻3𝐺𝐺2𝐺𝐺3𝐻𝐻2

K. ESE
50 Preview of Controller Design

K. Webb ESE 430

 Controller Design – Preview
5

 We now have the tools necessary to determine the

transfer function of closed-loop feedback systems
 Let’s take a closer look at how feedback can help us
achieve a desired response
 Just a preview – this is the objective of the whole course

 Consider a simple first-order system

𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
 A single real pole at 𝑠𝑠 = −2

K. ESE
 Controller Design – Preview
𝑠𝑠
𝑒𝑒
5

𝑠𝑠

K. ESE
 Open-Loop Step Response
5

 This system
exhibits the
expected first-
order step
response
 No overshoot or
ringing

K. ESE
 Add
5

 Now let’s enclose the system in a feedback loop

 Add controller block with transfer function 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠

 Closed-loop transfer function becomes:

𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 1
𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 + 2 +
= 1 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
1 + 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 +
2

K. ESE
 Add
5

 Clearly the addition of feedback and the controller

Let’s consider a couple of example cases for 𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠

changes the transfer function – but how?


K. ESE
 Add
5

 First, consider a simple gain block for the controller

Error signal, 𝐸𝐸 𝑠𝑠 , amplified by a constant gain, 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶

A proportional controller, with gain 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶


 Now, the closed-loop transfer function is:
𝐾𝐾
𝐶𝐶
𝑠𝑠 + 2
𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝑠𝑠 =
𝐾𝐾 =
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑠 + 2 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
1𝑠𝑠 + 2

A single real pole at 𝑠𝑠 = − 2 +

𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶


K. ESE
 Add
5

 Pole moved to a higher frequency

 A faster response

K. ESE
 Open-Loop Step Response
5

 As feedback gain
increases:
 Pole moves to a
higher frequency
 Response gets
faster

K. ESE
 First-Order
5

 Next, allow the controller to have some dynamics of its own

Now the controller is a first-order block with gain 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 and a pole at
𝑠𝑠 = −𝑏𝑏


 This yields the following closed-loop transfer function:

𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
1
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 = 𝐾𝐾 =
𝑠𝑠2 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
1
1+
𝐶𝐶

𝑠𝑠 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2

 The closed-loop system is now second-order

 One pole from the plant
 One pole from the controller
K. ESE
 First-Order
5

𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠2 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 +
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶

 Two closed-loop poles:

𝑏𝑏 + 2 𝑏𝑏2 − 4𝑏𝑏 + 4 − 4𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶

𝑠𝑠1,2 = − ±
2 2
 Pole locations determined by 𝑏𝑏 and 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
 Controller parameters – we have control over these
 Design the controller to place the poles where we want them

 So, where do we want them?

 Design to performance specifications
 Risetime, overshoot, settling time, etc.

K. ESE
 Design to Specifications
5

The second-order closed-loop transfer function

𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶


𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠2 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
can be expressed as
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶
𝑇𝑇 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠2 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜔𝜔
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑠𝑠2 + 2𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠
� + 𝜔𝜔
2

𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔2

 Let’s say we want a closed-loop response that satisfies the

following specifications:
%𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ≤ 5%
 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 ≤ 600 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚


K. ESE
 Design to Specifications
Use %𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 and 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 specs to determine values of 𝜁𝜁 and
5

𝜎𝜎


 Then use 𝜁𝜁 and 𝜎𝜎 to determine 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 and 𝑏𝑏

K. ESE
 Determine 𝜁𝜁 from
Overshoot and damping ratio, 𝜁𝜁, are related as
5


follows:
− ln 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂
𝜁𝜁 =
𝜋𝜋2 + ln2 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂

 The requirement is %𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 ≤ 5%, so

− ln 0.05
𝜁𝜁 ≥ = 0.69
𝜋𝜋2 + ln2
0.05

 Allowing some margin, set 𝜁𝜁 = 0.75

K. ESE
 Determine 𝜎𝜎 from
Settling time (±1%) can be approximated from 𝜎𝜎 as
6

4.6


𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 ≈
𝜎𝜎
The requirement is 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 ≤ 600 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Allowing for some margin, design for 𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 = 500 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚


4. 4.6


𝑡𝑡𝑠𝑠 6
= 500 500
≈ 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 → 𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠𝑚
𝜎𝜎 =
𝜎 𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜎
which gives

𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
𝜎𝜎 = 9.2
𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
We can then calculate the natural frequency from 𝜁𝜁 and 𝜎𝜎
𝜎𝜎 9. 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟


2
K. ESE
 Determine 𝜎𝜎 from
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = = =
𝜁𝜁 12.27
6

0.75
𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

K. ESE
 Determine Controller Parameters from 𝜎𝜎 and
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛
61

The characteristic polynomial is

𝑠𝑠2 + 2 + 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑏𝑏 + 𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 2= 𝑠𝑠2 +


2𝜎𝜎𝑠𝑠 + 𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛

 Equating coefficients to solve for 𝑏𝑏:

2 + 𝑏𝑏 = 2𝜎𝜎 = 18.4
𝑏𝑏 = 16.4

𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠:
and
2𝑏𝑏 + � = 2
= 150.5
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = 12.27
𝜔𝜔2
𝐾𝐾𝐶𝐶 = 150.5 − 2 ⋅ 16.4 = 117.7 → 118
𝐾𝐾𝑠𝑠 = 118
K. ESE
 The controller transfer function is
11


8
𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠 =
𝑠𝑠 + 16.4

K. ESE
 Closed-Loop Poles
6

 Closed-loop system
is now second order
 Controller designed
to place the two
closed-loop poles at
desirable locations:
𝑠𝑠1,2 = −9.2 ±
𝑗𝑗𝑗.13
 Controller Plant
pole pole

𝜁𝜁 = 0.75
𝜔𝜔𝑛𝑛 = 12.3


K. ESE
 Closed-Loop Step Response
6

 Closed-loop step
response satisfies
the specifications
 Approximations
were used
 If requirements not
met - iterate

K. ESE