BCA-503 Computer Network

UNIT-I Basic Concepts:

Components of data communication, distributed processing, standards and organizations.

Line configuration, topology, Transmission mode, and categories of networks. OSI and
TCP/IP Models: Layers and their functions, comparison of models. Digital Transmission:
Interfaces and Modems: DTE-DCE Interface, Modems, Cable modems.

UNIT-II Transmission Media:

Guided and unguided, Attenuation, distortion, noise, throughput, propagation speed and
time, wavelength, Shannon capacity, comparison of media

UNIT-III Telephony:

Multiplexing, error detection and correction: Many to one, One to many, WDM, TDM, FDM,
Circuit switching, packet switching and message switching. Data link control protocols: Line
discipline, flow control, error control, synchronous and asynchronous protocols, character
and bit oriented protocols, Link access procedures. Point to point controls: Transmission
states, PPP layers, LCP, Authentication, NCP. ISDN: Services, Historical outline,
subscriber’s access, ISDN Layers and broadcast ISDN.

UNIT-IV Devices:

Repeaters, bridges, gateways, routers, The Network Layer; Design issues, Routing
algorithms, Congestion control Algorithms, Quality of service, Internetworking,
Network-Layer in the internet.

UNIT-V Transport and upper layers in OSI Model:

Transport layer functions, connection management, functions of session layers,

presentation layer and application layer.
 UNIT-I: Basic Concepts

1. Components of Data Communication

Definition

Data Communication refers to the process of transferring data between two or more devices
(computers, smartphones, sensors, etc.) through a transmission medium. The devices must
be part of a communication system, and the data can be in various forms such as text,
numbers, images, audio, or video.

Key Components of Data Communication

A successful data communication system involves the following five essential

components:

1. Message:
○ The information to be communicated.
○ Example: Text, an image file, or a video stream.
2. Sender:
○ The device or system that generates and sends the message.
○ Example: A computer, smartphone, or IoT sensor.
3. Receiver:
○ The device that receives and interprets the message.
○ Example: Another computer, a server, or a smartphone.
4. Transmission Medium:
○ The physical path through which the message travels.
○ Types:
■ Guided Media: Wires, cables (e.g., Ethernet, fiber optic).
■ Unguided Media: Wireless communication (e.g., radio waves,
microwaves).
5. Protocol:
○ A set of rules that govern data communication.
○ Example: HTTP for web communication, TCP/IP for network communication.

Characteristics of Effective Data Communication

 1. Delivery:
○ Data must reach the correct destination.
○ Example: Sending an email to the intended recipient.
2. Accuracy:
○ Data must be delivered without errors.
○ Example: Using error-detection methods like checksum.
3. Timeliness:
○ Data must be delivered in a timely manner, especially in real-time systems.
○ Example: Live video streaming or online gaming.
4. Jitter:
○ Refers to variation in packet arrival times.
○ Important for real-time data like audio or video.

Types of Data Communication

1. Simplex Communication:
○ Data flows in one direction only.
○ Example: A keyboard sends input to a monitor.
2. Half-Duplex Communication:
○ Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
○ Example: Walkie-talkies.
3. Full-Duplex Communication:
○ Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
○ Example: Telephone conversations.

Modes of Transmission

1. Serial Transmission:
○ Data is transmitted one bit at a time over a single channel.
○ Example: USB communication.
2. Parallel Transmission:
○ Multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously over multiple channels.
○ Example: Internal data transfer in a computer.

Data Communication System: Real-Life Example

Let’s take the example of browsing a website:

1. Message: A user requests a webpage by typing a URL.

2. Sender: The user's computer sends the request to the server.
3. Receiver: The web server receives the request and sends back the webpage.
4. Transmission Medium:
 ○ Guided Media: Ethernet cable connecting the computer to a router.
○ Unguided Media: Wi-Fi connecting the router to the server.
5. Protocol: HTTP or HTTPS governs the communication.

Importance of Data Communication

1. Global Connectivity:
○ Enables devices worldwide to communicate (e.g., Internet).
2. Information Sharing:
○ Facilitates sharing of information and resources between users and devices.
3. Real-Time Communication:
○ Essential for applications like video conferencing, online gaming, and
telemedicine.
4. Automation:
○ Integral for IoT, where devices communicate to automate tasks (e.g., smart
home systems).

Challenges in Data Communication

1. Noise and Interference:

○ Can lead to data corruption.
2. Bandwidth Limitations:
○ Insufficient bandwidth can delay data transfer.
3. Security Threats:
○ Data can be intercepted or altered during transmission.
4. Compatibility Issues:
○ Different devices or protocols may not always be compatible.

Future of Data Communication

With advancements in technologies like 5G, IoT, and quantum computing, data
communication is becoming faster, more secure, and capable of handling vast amounts of
data in real time.

2. Distributed Processing
Definition

Distributed processing refers to a system in which multiple computers or devices work

together to perform tasks or process data.
Unlike centralized processing, where a single computer handles all computations, distributed
processing divides the workload among multiple devices connected via a network.

Key Features of Distributed Processing

1. Resource Sharing:
○ Resources like hardware, software, and data are shared across multiple
systems.
○ Example: Cloud computing platforms.
2. Scalability:
○ Systems can be expanded by adding more devices to handle increased
workloads.
○ Example: Adding servers to a distributed database system.
3. Fault Tolerance:
○ If one system fails, others can take over its tasks, ensuring reliability.
○ Example: Distributed file systems like Hadoop.
4. Concurrency:
○ Multiple processes are executed simultaneously, improving efficiency.
○ Example: Parallel computing in scientific research.
5. Transparency:
○ Users see the distributed system as a single entity, even though tasks are
processed on different devices.
○ Example: Accessing a cloud-based application.

Components of a Distributed Processing System

1. Nodes:
○ Individual computers or devices participating in the system.
○ Example: Servers, desktops, IoT devices.
2. Network:
○ The communication medium connecting nodes.
○ Example: Local Area Network (LAN) or the Internet.
3. Software/Protocols:
○ Governs the communication and resource sharing between nodes.
○ Example: Message Passing Interface (MPI).
4. Data:
○ Information that is processed and shared among nodes.
 ○ Example: Shared files, databases, or real-time analytics data.

Types of Distributed Processing

1. Client-Server Model:
○ Clients request services, and servers provide them.
○ Example: A web browser (client) requesting data from a web server.
2. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model:
○ All nodes are equal and share resources without a centralized server.
○ Example: File-sharing systems like BitTorrent.
3. Cluster Computing:
○ A group of tightly connected computers works as a single system.
○ Example: High-performance computing (HPC) clusters.
4. Grid Computing:
○ Combines the resources of multiple computers to work on a single large task.
○ Example: Scientific research simulations.
5. Cloud Computing:
○ Resources and services are delivered over the Internet on demand.
○ Example: Amazon Web Services (AWS), Google Cloud.

Advantages of Distributed Processing

1. Increased Performance:
○ Tasks are divided among multiple systems, reducing processing time.
○ Example: Real-time processing in stock trading.
2. Reliability:
○ Redundant systems ensure continuity even if some nodes fail.
○ Example: Content Delivery Networks (CDNs).
3. Flexibility:
○ Easy to add or remove devices based on workload.
○ Example: Elastic scaling in cloud computing.
4. Cost-Effective:
○ Reduces the need for a single, powerful machine by using multiple,
cost-effective systems.
○ Example: Distributed databases for large-scale businesses.
5. Geographical Distribution:
○ Systems can operate from different locations, enhancing accessibility.
○ Example: Global cloud infrastructure.

Disadvantages of Distributed Processing

 1. Complexity:
○ Designing, managing, and troubleshooting a distributed system is more
challenging.
2. Security Risks:
○ Data transfer over networks can be vulnerable to cyber-attacks.
○ Example: Man-in-the-middle attacks.
3. Synchronization Issues:
○ Ensuring consistency across distributed nodes can be difficult.
○ Example: Maintaining data integrity in distributed databases.
4. Communication Delays:
○ Network latency can affect performance, especially in real-time systems.
○ Example: Video conferencing systems.

Examples of Distributed Processing in Real Life

1. Banking Systems:
○ ATM networks use distributed processing to handle transactions across
branches.
2. E-commerce Platforms:
○ Websites like Amazon use distributed systems to manage orders, inventory,
and customer data.
3. Scientific Research:
○ Supercomputers use distributed processing to simulate weather forecasts or
biological models.
4. Social Media Platforms:
○ Facebook and Twitter use distributed systems to manage billions of users
and their data.
5. Streaming Services:
○ Netflix uses distributed systems for streaming and content delivery across the
globe.

Future of Distributed Processing

1. Edge Computing:
○ Processing data closer to the source (e.g., IoT devices) to reduce latency.
○ Example: Self-driving cars.
2. Blockchain:
○ A decentralized, distributed ledger system for secure transactions.
○ Example: Cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin.
3. AI and Machine Learning:
 ○ Distributed systems enable training large-scale AI models using parallel
processing.
4. Quantum Computing:
○ The future may involve quantum-based distributed systems for solving
complex problems.

3. Standards and Organizations

Definition of Standards

Standards in data communication are agreed-upon rules, protocols, and guidelines that
ensure interoperability, compatibility, and seamless communication between devices and
networks. These standards are essential for designing, manufacturing, and deploying
devices and services that can communicate effectively.

Importance of Standards in Communication

1. Interoperability:
○ Ensures devices and systems from different manufacturers can
communicate.
○ Example: Wi-Fi standards allow laptops and phones from different brands to
connect to the same network.
2. Uniformity:
○ Provides a consistent framework for technology development.
○ Example: TCP/IP is a standard for communication over the Internet.
3. Efficiency:
○ Reduces development time by providing pre-defined guidelines.
○ Example: Using Ethernet standards for wired communication.
4. Global Connectivity:
○ Enables global networks and cross-border communication.
○ Example: GSM standards for mobile communication.
5. Backward Compatibility:
○ Allows newer systems to work with older devices or protocols.
○ Example: USB standards supporting legacy versions.

Types of Standards

1. De Facto Standards:
○ Standards adopted due to widespread use, without formal approval.
 ○ Example: Microsoft Word's .doc format for documents.
2. De Jure Standards:
○ Officially recognized standards established by formal organizations.
○ Example: The ISO/OSI model.
3. Proprietary Standards:
○ Developed by a single company, not universally accepted.
○ Example: Apple's Lightning cable.
4. Industry Standards:
○ Established by industry-specific organizations.
○ Example: IEEE standards for Ethernet.

Key Organizations for Communication Standards

1. ISO (International Organization for Standardization):

○ Develops global standards across various industries, including networking.
○ Example: ISO/OSI reference model for networking.
2. ITU (International Telecommunication Union):
○ A UN agency responsible for global telecommunications and radio
regulations.
○ Example: Standards for 5G communication.
3. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers):
○ Sets standards for electrical and electronics technologies, including
networking.
○ Example: IEEE 802.11 standards for Wi-Fi.
4. IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force):
○ Focuses on the development of Internet standards and protocols.
○ Example: HTTP/1.1 protocol.
5. ANSI (American National Standards Institute):
○ Oversees standards in the United States and coordinates with global
organizations.
○ Example: ANSI character encoding.
6. W3C (World Wide Web Consortium):
○ Develops standards for the World Wide Web.
○ Example: HTML, CSS, and XML standards.
7. ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute):
○ Develops standards for telecommunication technologies in Europe.
○ Example: Standards for mobile networks like GSM.
8. FCC (Federal Communications Commission):
○ Regulates communication channels in the United States, including spectrum
allocation.
 ○ Example: Licensing for radio and television.
9. TIA (Telecommunications Industry Association):
○ Focuses on telecommunications infrastructure and standards.
○ Example: Standards for cabling and fiber optics.
10. ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers):
○ Manages domain names and IP address allocation.
○ Example: Domain Name System (DNS) standards.

Examples of Communication Standards

1. Physical Layer Standards:

○ Example: Ethernet (IEEE 802.3), USB standards.
2. Data Link Layer Standards:
○ Example: Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Bluetooth.
3. Network Layer Standards:
○ Example: IPv4, IPv6.
4. Transport Layer Standards:
○ Example: TCP, UDP.
5. Application Layer Standards:
○ Example: HTTP, SMTP.

How Standards Work in Practice

● Example 1:
A mobile phone from Samsung communicates seamlessly with a mobile tower
operated by Airtel because they adhere to GSM or LTE standards developed by ITU.
● Example 2:
A laptop connects to a printer using a USB cable because both devices comply with
USB standards set by the USB Implementers Forum.

Challenges in Standardization

1. Time-Consuming Development:
○ Creating and adopting a standard involves extensive discussions and
iterations.
2. Resistance to Adoption:
○ Companies may hesitate to adopt standards that conflict with proprietary
technologies.
3. Compatibility Issues:
○ Newer standards may not always align with legacy systems.

Future Trends in Standards and Organizations

 1. 5G and Beyond:
○ ITU and ETSI are leading efforts to define 5G and 6G standards.
2. IoT (Internet of Things):
○ Standardization efforts by IEEE and IETF for IoT communication protocols.
3. Cybersecurity Standards:
○ Enhanced focus on secure communication standards by ISO and ITU.
4. Quantum Communication:
○ Development of standards for quantum encryption and networks.

4. Line Configuration

Definition of Line Configuration

Line configuration refers to the physical arrangement of devices on a network and the
methods used to transfer data between those devices. It describes how communication links
connect devices and how data flows through these connections.

Types of Line Configurations

1. Point-to-Point Configuration
○ Definition: A direct connection between two devices, where only these two
devices share the communication link.
○ Example: A computer connected to a printer using a USB cable.
○ Advantages:
■ High-speed communication since the link is not shared.
■ Simple setup and troubleshooting.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Not scalable for large networks.
■ More cables required as the number of devices increases.
○ Use Case: Telephony systems, modem-to-computer connections.

Diagram:
Device A ----------- Device B

2. Multipoint Configuration
○ Definition: A single communication link shared by multiple devices. Also
known as "shared line configuration."
 ○ Example: Multiple computers connected to a single Wi-Fi router.
○ Advantages:
■ Cost-efficient as fewer communication links are required.
■ Easier to expand the network.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Slower communication due to shared bandwidth.
■ Risk of data collisions if devices try to communicate simultaneously.
○ Use Case: LANs (Local Area Networks), shared printers in an office.

Diagram:
Device A
|
|
Shared Link
|
|
Device B --------- Device C

Communication Modes in Line Configurations

1. Simplex Mode:
○ Data flows in only one direction.
○ Example: Television broadcasting.

Diagram:
Sender ---> Receiver

○
2. Half-Duplex Mode:
○ Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
○ Example: Walkie-talkies.

Diagram:
Sender ---> Receiver
Receiver ---> Sender

3. Full-Duplex Mode:
○ Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
○ Example: Telephone conversations.
Diagram:
Sender <--> Receiver

Comparison of Point-to-Point and Multipoint Configurations

Feature Point-to-Point Multipoint

Connection Single dedicated link Shared link

Cost Expensive for large Cost-efficient

setups

Scalability Poor Excellent

Data Collision None Possible

Speed High Varies with

usage

Applications of Line Configurations

1. Point-to-Point:
○ Secure communication between two devices.
○ Used in high-speed links like leased lines in banking systems.
2. Multipoint:
○ Shared resources in office environments, such as file servers or printers.
○ Used in cable television networks to distribute signals.

Key Considerations for Line Configuration

1. Network Size:
○ Choose point-to-point for small networks or critical connections.
○ Use multipoint for cost-effective large networks.
2. Bandwidth Requirements:
○ Point-to-point provides dedicated bandwidth, while multipoint shares it among
devices.
3. Security:
○ Point-to-point is more secure since no other devices can intercept the
communication.

5. Topology
Definition of Topology

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices (nodes) in a

network. It determines how devices are connected and how data flows between them.

Types of Network Topologies

1. Physical Topology
○ Refers to the physical layout of devices and cables in a network.
2. Logical Topology
○ Describes the flow of data within the network, regardless of its physical
design.

Common Types of Physical Topologies

1. Bus Topology

● Description:
All devices are connected to a single central cable (bus). Each device communicates
through the shared bus.
● Advantages:
○ Easy to install and set up.
○ Cost-effective due to minimal cabling.
● Disadvantages:
○ Failure of the central bus halts the entire network.
○ Limited number of devices can be added.
○ Slower communication due to shared bandwidth.
● Use Case:
Small networks with limited devices, such as home or small office networks.

Diagram: Device A --- Bus --- Device B --- Device C

2. Star Topology

● Description:
All devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The hub acts as the
communication point for the devices.

● Advantages:
○ Easy to troubleshoot and isolate faults.
○ Adding or removing devices does not affect the entire network.
 ○ High performance as each device has a dedicated connection to the hub.
● Disadvantages:
○ Failure of the central hub brings down the network.
○ More cabling is required compared to bus topology.
● Use Case:
Corporate offices, LANs (Local Area Networks).

Diagram: Device A

Device B --- Hub --- Device C

Device D

3. Ring Topology

● Description:
Devices are connected in a circular loop, and data travels in one direction (or both
directions in a dual-ring).
● Advantages:
○ Easy to set up and manage for small networks.
○ Data travels predictably, avoiding collisions.
● Disadvantages:
○ A single node or cable failure can disrupt the entire network.
○ Troubleshooting is challenging.
● Use Case:
Networks with predictable data flow requirements, like in industrial systems.

Diagram:

Device A --- Device B --- Device C

| |
-----------------------------

4. Mesh Topology
 ● Description:
Every device is connected to every other device, either fully or partially.
● Advantages:
○ Highly reliable as multiple paths exist between devices.
○ Faults in one link do not disrupt the network.
● Disadvantages:
○ Expensive and complex to set up.
○ Requires significant cabling and ports.
● Use Case:
High-reliability networks like banking or military systems.

Diagram: Device A ----- Device B

| \ / |

| \ / |

Device C ----- Device D

5. Tree Topology

● Description:
A hierarchical arrangement where devices are connected in the shape of a tree, with
a central root node and branches extending out.
● Advantages:
○ Scalable and supports future network expansions.
○ Fault isolation is easier due to hierarchical structure.
● Disadvantages:
○ Failure of the root node affects the entire network.
○ Requires a lot of cabling.
● Use Case:
Large networks, like university campuses or enterprise setups.

Diagram: mathematica

Root Node

/ | \

Node1 Node2 Node3

/ \ / \
 A B C D

6. Hybrid Topology

● Description:
A combination of two or more basic topologies, such as star-bus or star-ring.
● Advantages:
○ Flexible and scalable to meet different needs.
○ Offers the benefits of multiple topologies.
● Disadvantages:
○ Expensive and complex to design and implement.
● Use Case:
Large enterprise networks with diverse requirements.

Diagram:
Combines parts of other topologies, such as a mix of star and ring.

Comparison of Topologies

Logical Topologies

Logical topologies focus on the flow of data, independent of physical layout.

1. Logical Bus: All nodes receive data simultaneously.

2. Logical Ring: Data flows in a circular manner.

Key Considerations When Choosing a Topology

1. Cost: Budget constraints may limit choices.

2. Scalability: Future expansion needs.
3. Reliability: Fault tolerance and redundancy.
4. Performance: Speed and efficiency requirements.
6. Transmission Modes

Transmission modes define the direction in which data flows between two connected
devices in a network. It specifies how data is sent and received.

Types of Transmission Modes

1. Simplex Mode
2. Half-Duplex Mode
3. Full-Duplex Mode

1. Simplex Mode

● Definition:
Data flows in only one direction. One device acts as the sender, and the other acts
as the receiver, with no role reversal.
● Key Features:
○ Unidirectional communication.
○ The sender cannot receive data, and the receiver cannot send data.
● Advantages:
○ Simple to implement.
○ Effective for tasks requiring one-way communication, like broadcasting.
● Disadvantages:
○ No feedback mechanism for error correction.
○ Inefficient for interactive communication.
● Examples:
○ Television broadcasting.
○ Radio transmission.
○ Keyboard to monitor communication.

Diagram: Sender --------> Receiver

2. Half-Duplex Mode

● Definition:
Data flows in both directions, but only one direction at a time. The devices take turns
to send and receive data.
● Key Features:
○ Bidirectional communication (alternating).
 ○ Devices cannot send and receive data simultaneously.
● Advantages:
○ Utilizes the channel more effectively than simplex mode.
○ Suitable for environments where data flow alternates between devices.
● Disadvantages:
○ Slower than full-duplex as devices must wait their turn.
○ Inefficient for applications requiring continuous communication.
● Examples:
○ Walkie-talkies.
○ Two-way radio communication.

Diagram: Sender -----> Receiver

<-----

3. Full-Duplex Mode

● Definition:
Data flows simultaneously in both directions. Both devices can send and receive
data at the same time.

● Key Features:
○ True bidirectional communication.
○ Requires separate channels for transmitting and receiving, or efficient sharing
of the same channel.
● Advantages:
○ Fast and efficient communication.
○ Ideal for real-time applications.
● Disadvantages:
○ More complex and expensive to implement due to separate channels.
● Examples:
○ Telephone communication (you can talk and listen simultaneously).
○ Video conferencing.
○ Modern network connections like Ethernet.

Diagram: Sender <----> Receiver

Comparison of Transmission Modes

Use Cases for Each Mode

1. Simplex:
○ Broadcasting systems, such as TVs and radios.
○ Devices like keyboards and monitors.
2. Half-Duplex:
○ Communication systems where turn-taking is essential, like walkie-talkies.
○ Some legacy network systems.
3. Full-Duplex:
○ High-speed networks, such as Ethernet and fiber optics.
○ Real-time communication systems like VoIP and video conferencing

Example Scenario

1. Simplex Example: A TV broadcast transmits video signals to a receiver, which only

displays the content and cannot send data back.
2. Half-Duplex Example: Two people using walkie-talkies must say "over" to signal the
end of their transmission.
3. Full-Duplex Example: During a phone call, both participants can talk and listen
simultaneously without interruption.

7. Categories of Networks
Networks are classified based on their geographical size, purpose, and scope.
Understanding these categories helps in choosing the appropriate network type for a
specific use case.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

● Definition:
A network designed for personal devices located within a small area, such as a room
or workspace.
● Key Features:
○ Very small range (up to 10 meters).
○ Devices like smartphones, laptops, tablets, and wearables are
interconnected.
○ Often uses technologies like Bluetooth, Infrared, or USB.
● Advantages:
○ Easy to set up.
○ Secure and personal.
● Disadvantages:
○ Limited range.
○ Low data transmission speed compared to larger networks.
● Examples:
○ Bluetooth connections between a phone and headphones.
○ Tethering a phone to a laptop.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

● Definition:
A network used to connect computers and devices within a localized area, such as
an office, school, or home.
● Key Features:
○ Range: Typically up to a few kilometers.
○ High-speed data transfer.
○ Wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connections.
● Advantages:
○ High-speed communication.
○ Cost-effective for small areas.
○ Centralized management of resources (e.g., printers, servers).
● Disadvantages:
○ Limited to a small geographical area.
○ Maintenance can become complex as the network grows.
 ● Examples:
○ A network in a school computer lab.
○ Office networks connecting employee workstations.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

● Definition:
A network that spans a city or metropolitan area, connecting multiple LANs together.
● Key Features:
○ Range: Covers a city or campus (10-50 km).
○ Often managed by service providers.
○ Combines high-speed fiber-optic cables and wireless links.
● Advantages:
○ Covers larger areas compared to LANs.
○ Enables resource sharing between organizations.
● Disadvantages:
○ Expensive to set up and maintain.
○ Requires skilled management.
● Examples:
○ University campuses.
○ City-wide Wi-Fi networks.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

● Definition:
A network that spans large geographical areas, connecting multiple LANs and MANs
together.
● Key Features:
○ Range: Covers regions, countries, or continents.
○ Relies on public communication links like satellite, telephone lines, or fiber
optics.
○ Typically slower than LAN or MAN due to larger distances.
● Advantages:
○ Facilitates global communication.
○ Allows businesses to connect offices in different locations.
● Disadvantages:
○ High setup and maintenance costs.
○ Prone to latency and slower speeds.
● Examples:
○ The internet.
 ○ Corporate networks spanning multiple countries.

5. Campus Area Network (CAN)

● Definition:
A network that connects multiple LANs within a limited geographical area, such as a
university, school, or business campus.
● Key Features:
○ Intermediate size between LAN and MAN.
○ Usually confined to a single institution.
● Advantages:
○ Efficient resource sharing.
○ Easier to maintain compared to MANs.
● Disadvantages:
○ Limited to specific areas like campuses.
● Examples:
○ Networks connecting different buildings of a university.

6. Storage Area Network (SAN)

● Definition:
A high-speed network that connects storage devices to servers, ensuring fast access
to large volumes of data.
● Key Features:
○ Dedicated network for storage.
○ Used in data centers or enterprise environments.
● Advantages:
○ High performance and reliability.
○ Enables centralized data storage.
● Disadvantages:
○ Expensive to set up and maintain.
○ Complex management.
● Examples:
○ Enterprise-level storage solutions for banks or IT firms.

Comparison of Network Categories

Conclusion

Each category of network serves a specific purpose depending on its range, speed, and
cost. For example, PANs are ideal for personal use, while WANs power global
communication like the internet. Understanding these categories helps in designing effective
communication systems for varying needs.

8. OSI and TCP/IP Models

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) and TCP/IP (Transmission Control

Protocol/Internet Protocol) models are conceptual frameworks used to understand and
design computer networking systems. Both models divide the communication process into
layers, each performing specific functions.

OSI Model

The OSI model has 7 layers, each with distinct functions to standardize communication.
Advantages of the OSI Model

1. Standardization: Provides a clear framework for developing interoperable

networking technologies.
2. Layered Design: Each layer performs specific functions, making it modular.
3. Flexibility: Allows for the replacement or updating of individual layers without
affecting the others.

TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model has 4 layers and is more practical, aligning closely with the internet's
architecture.

Advantages of the TCP/IP Model

1. Real-World Implementation: Directly maps to internet protocols and is widely used

in networking.
2. Simplicity: Combines some OSI layers for a less complex structure.
3. Scalability: Designed for large-scale, interconnected networks like the internet.
Comparison: OSI vs. TCP/IP Models

Functions of Each Layer

1. Physical Layer (OSI Layer 1)

● Deals with the actual transmission of raw binary data over the medium.
● Examples: Ethernet cables, radio frequencies.

2. Data Link Layer (OSI Layer 2 / Network Access in TCP/IP)

● Frames data for transmission, handles error detection and correction.

● Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi protocols.

3. Network Layer (OSI Layer 3 / Internet in TCP/IP)

● Provides logical addressing and routing of data packets between networks.

● Examples: IP, routers.

4. Transport Layer (OSI Layer 4)

● Ensures reliable data transmission with error handling, segmentation, and flow
control.
● Examples: TCP (reliable), UDP (fast but unreliable).

5. Session Layer (OSI Layer 5)

● Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications.

● Examples: Remote procedure calls (RPC).

6. Presentation Layer (OSI Layer 6)

● Handles data translation, encryption, and compression.

● Examples: SSL/TLS encryption, data format conversion.

7. Application Layer (OSI Layer 7 / TCP/IP Application Layer)

● Directly interacts with end-users through software applications.

● Examples: Browsers using HTTP, email clients using SMTP.
9. Digital Transmission

Digital Transmission

Digital transmission refers to the process of sending data in binary form (0s and 1s) over a
communication medium. It contrasts with analog transmission, which uses continuous
signals. Digital transmission is widely used in modern communication systems due to its
reliability, efficiency, and ability to handle large amounts of data.

Key Concepts in Digital Transmission

1. Digital Signals

● Represent data as a sequence of discrete voltage levels (e.g., high voltage for "1"
and low voltage for "0").
● Advantages:
○ Less susceptible to noise and distortion compared to analog signals.
○ Easy to compress, encrypt, and error-check.

2. Bit Rate

● The number of bits transmitted per second (bps).

● Higher bit rates mean faster data transfer.

3. Baud Rate

● The number of signal changes (symbols) per second.

● Relation: Bit rate = Baud rate × Number of bits per symbol.

Components of Digital Transmission

1. DTE and DCE

● DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): Devices like computers or terminals that generate
or consume data.
● DCE (Data Communication Equipment): Devices like modems that facilitate the
transmission of data between DTEs.

2. Interfaces

● DTE-DCE Interface: Defines the connection between DTE and DCE.

○ Example: RS-232 (a standard for serial communication between DTE and
DCE).
3. Modems

● Convert digital data to analog signals for transmission over traditional telephone lines
(modulation) and convert it back to digital at the receiver's end (demodulation).
○ Cable Modems: Used for broadband internet, providing higher data rates
than traditional modems.

Techniques of Digital Transmission

1. Line Coding

● Converts digital data into a digital signal suitable for transmission.

● Examples:
○ NRZ (Non-Return to Zero): High voltage = 1, low voltage = 0.
○ Manchester Encoding: Transition at the middle of each bit period represents
a 0 or 1.

2. Block Coding

● Groups bits into blocks and adds redundancy for error detection.
● Example: 4B/5B encoding.

3. Scrambling

● Prevents long sequences of 0s or 1s by replacing them with predefined patterns to

maintain synchronization.

Advantages of Digital Transmission

1. Noise Resistance: Digital signals are less affected by noise compared to analog
signals.
2. Error Detection and Correction: Techniques like parity checks and cyclic
redundancy checks (CRC) ensure data integrity.
3. Compression: Digital data can be compressed for efficient use of bandwidth.
4. Security: Encryption methods can be applied for secure communication.
5. Compatibility: Easily integrates with modern technologies like computers and digital
storage.

Comparison: Digital vs. Analog Transmission

 UNIT-II: Transmission Media

Transmission media refers to the physical pathways or channels through which data is
transmitted from one device to another.
These media play a crucial role in determining the quality, speed, and reliability of data
transmission.
They are broadly categorized into guided (wired) and unguided (wireless) media.

1. Types of Transmission Media

Transmission media can be divided into two main types:

1.1 Guided Media (Wired)

Guided media involve physical cables or wires that guide the data signals. These are
commonly used in local area networks (LANs) and other scenarios where direct connections
are required.

Types of Guided Media

1. Twisted Pair Cable

○ Consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
electromagnetic interference.
○ Types:
■ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Used in LANs and telephone lines.
■ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Has a metallic shield to prevent
external interference.
○ Advantages:
■ Low cost.
■ Easy to install.
○ Disadvantages:
 ■ Limited bandwidth.
■ Susceptible to noise over long distances.
○ Applications: Ethernet cables (e.g., Cat5, Cat6).
2. Coaxial Cable
○ Composed of a core conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, metallic
shield, and outer sheath.
○ Advantages:
■ Higher bandwidth than twisted pair.
■ Better resistance to electromagnetic interference.
○ Disadvantages:
■ More expensive.
■ Bulky and less flexible.
○ Applications: Cable TV, broadband internet.
3. Fiber Optic Cable
○ Uses light signals to transmit data through glass or plastic fibers.
○ Advantages:
■ Extremely high bandwidth.
■ Immune to electromagnetic interference.
■ Suitable for long-distance communication.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Expensive to install and maintain.
■ Fragile compared to metal cables.
○ Applications: High-speed internet, telecommunication.

1.2 Unguided Media (Wireless)

Unguided media use electromagnetic waves to transmit data through the air or space,
without requiring a physical connection.

Types of Unguided Media

1. Radio Waves
○ Use frequencies from 3 kHz to 1 GHz.
○ Can travel long distances and penetrate walls.
○ Advantages:
■ Suitable for both indoor and outdoor communication.
■ Easy to install.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Prone to interference.
■ Limited security.
 ○ Applications: AM/FM radio, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth.
2. Microwaves
○ Use frequencies from 1 GHz to 300 GHz.
○ Travel in a straight line and require line-of-sight.
○ Advantages:
■ High bandwidth.
■ Suitable for long-distance communication.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Affected by obstacles and weather.
■ Requires precise alignment.
○ Applications: Satellite communication, cellular networks.
3. Infrared
○ Uses light waves just below the visible spectrum.
○ Limited to short distances and requires line-of-sight.
○ Advantages:
■ No interference with radio frequencies.
■ Secure within a confined area.
○ Disadvantages:
■ Blocked by obstacles.
■ Limited range.
○ Applications: Remote controls, short-range data transfer.
4. Satellite Communication
○ Signals are sent from the earth to a satellite and back to a receiver on earth.
○ Advantages:
■ Coverage over a wide area.
■ Useful for broadcasting and remote locations.
○ Disadvantages:
■ High cost.
■ Signal latency due to distance.
○ Applications: TV broadcasting, GPS, internet in remote areas.

2. Attenuation, Distortion, and Noise

Attenuation, Distortion, and Noise

These three phenomena—attenuation, distortion, and noise—are crucial in understanding

the quality of signals transmitted over communication channels. They affect how well data
can be received and interpreted by the receiver. Here’s a detailed explanation of each:
1. Attenuation

Attenuation refers to the reduction in the strength (amplitude) of a signal as it travels through
a transmission medium.

Cause of Attenuation:

● As a signal travels through any medium (e.g., copper wires, fiber optics, or air), its
power decreases due to the resistance and impedance of the medium, as well as the
energy dissipated in various forms.

Factors Influencing Attenuation:

● Distance: The longer the transmission distance, the higher the attenuation.
● Type of medium: Different media have different levels of attenuation. For example,
fiber optic cables experience much lower attenuation than copper cables.
● Signal Frequency: Higher-frequency signals tend to suffer more attenuation than
lower-frequency signals.
● Temperature: Higher temperatures can increase resistance and cause more
attenuation.

Effects of Attenuation:

● Loss of Signal Strength: The signal becomes weaker as it travels, leading to

potential loss of information.
● Signal Degradation: The signal may become too weak to be distinguished from
noise, resulting in poor reception or complete signal loss.

Mitigation:

● Amplifiers and Repeaters: To overcome attenuation, amplifiers or repeaters are

placed at intervals along the transmission path to boost the signal strength.

2. Distortion

Distortion refers to any alteration in the waveform of the signal during transmission, causing
the signal to become different from its original form.

Cause of Distortion:
 ● Signal Speed Variations: Different frequencies of a signal may travel at different
speeds through the transmission medium, leading to a distortion in the shape of the
signal.
● Non-linearities in the medium: If the medium doesn’t propagate signals in a linear
fashion, high-frequency components may be affected more than low-frequency
components, causing changes in the signal.

Types of Distortion:

1. Amplitude Distortion: Occurs when different frequencies are attenuated differently,

changing the signal's amplitude.
2. Phase Distortion: Occurs when different frequency components of the signal are
delayed by different amounts, causing phase shifts.
3. Frequency Distortion: Happens when the medium causes different frequencies to
propagate at different speeds.

Effects of Distortion:

● Signal Quality Degradation: Distortion leads to a mismatch between the original

and received signals, which may cause data errors and misinterpretations.
● Loss of Information: If the distortion is severe, it can cause the receiver to lose or
misinterpret the data.

Mitigation:

● Equalizers: Equalization is used to adjust the amplitude of different frequencies to

counteract distortion and restore the signal to its original form.

3. Noise

Noise refers to unwanted signals or disturbances that interfere with the transmission of the
intended signal. It can originate from both external and internal sources.

Cause of Noise:

● External Sources: Environmental factors like electromagnetic interference (EMI),

radio frequency interference (RFI), and crosstalk from other cables.
● Internal Sources: Noise can also be generated within the communication system
itself, such as in the transmitter, receiver, or any electronic components in the
system.
Types of Noise:

1. Thermal Noise (Johnson-Nyquist Noise): Generated by the random motion of

electrons within the conductor. It is present in all conductors and is proportional to
temperature.
○ Characteristics: Random, affects all frequencies equally.
2. Intermodulation Noise: Occurs when two or more signals mix together in non-linear
devices, creating additional unwanted frequencies.
3. Crosstalk: Occurs when a signal from one transmission channel interferes with
another due to proximity.
4. Impulse Noise: Sudden, short bursts of high-intensity interference, often from
electrical equipment or power lines.
5. Atmospheric Noise: Caused by natural phenomena like thunderstorms, lightning, or
solar flares.

Effects of Noise:

● Signal Corruption: Noise can distort or corrupt the transmitted signal, leading to
errors in the data received.
● Reduced Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): The quality of the signal is measured by the
ratio of the signal power to the noise power. High noise levels reduce the clarity of
the signal.

Mitigation:

● Shielding and Grounding: Shielding the cables and using proper grounding
techniques help reduce the effect of external noise sources.
● Error Detection and Correction: Techniques like parity checking, cyclic redundancy
check (CRC), and forward error correction (FEC) are used to detect and correct
errors caused by noise.
● Signal Processing: Filtering techniques can be used to remove or reduce noise
from the signal.

Summary of Attenuation, Distortion, and Noise

3. Throughput, Propagation Speed, and Time

1. Throughput:

Definition:

Throughput refers to the actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted from the
sender to the receiver over a communication channel.

Factors Affecting Throughput:

1. Bandwidth: The maximum capacity of the communication channel.

2. Latency: The time it takes for data to travel from the source to the destination.
3. Network Congestion: High traffic in the network can reduce throughput.
4. Signal Quality: Noise and attenuation can lead to retransmissions, reducing
throughput.
5. Protocol Overhead: Some part of the bandwidth is consumed by control
information, reducing the effective throughput.

Formula for Throughput: Throughput = Total Data Transferred​/ Total Time Taken

Example:

If 100 MB of data is transferred over a network in 20 seconds, the throughput is:

Throughput =100 MB / 20 s = 5 MBps

2. Propagation Speed:

Definition:

Propagation speed is the rate at which a signal travels through a transmission medium.

Factors Affecting Propagation Speed:

1. Medium Type: Signals travel faster in fiber optics than in copper cables.
2. Physical Characteristics: The density and composition of the medium affect the
speed.
3. Signal Type: Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in vacuum but
slower in other media.

Typical Propagation Speeds:

● Fiber Optics: Around 2×108 m/s

● Copper Cable: Around 1.96×108 m/s
 ● Air (Wireless): Around 3×108 m/s

3. Propagation Time:

Definition:

Propagation time is the time taken for a signal to travel from the sender to the receiver.

Formula for Propagation Time:

Propagation Time = Distance / Propagation Speed​

4. Wavelength and Shannon Capacity

1. Wavelength:
○ Wavelength is the physical distance between consecutive peaks of a wave. It
is inversely proportional to the frequency of the signal.
○ Wavelength and frequency are inversely related: (Formula)

Wavelength = Speed of Light / Frequency​

2. Shannon Capacity:
○ Shannon capacity defines the theoretical maximum data rate (in bits per
second) that can be transmitted over a communication channel without
errors, given the channel bandwidth and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
○ Formula:
C = B . log⁡2 (1 + S / N)
■ C: Channel capacity (bps).
■ B: Bandwidth (Hz).
■ S/N: Signal-to-noise ratio.
○ Example: If bandwidth is 1 MHz and signal-to-noise ratio is 10, the channel
capacity can be calculated.
5. Comparison of Media

Key Characteristics of Transmission Media

1. Attenuation
○ Reduction in signal strength as it travels through the medium.
○ Higher attenuation requires repeaters to boost the signal.
2. Distortion
○ Signal changes shape during transmission, causing errors.
○ More common in wireless media.
3. Noise
○ Unwanted signals that interfere with the data signal.
○ Sources include electromagnetic interference and thermal noise.
4. Throughput
○ The amount of data successfully transmitted per second.
○ Depends on the bandwidth of the medium.
5. Propagation Speed
○ Speed at which the signal travels through the medium.
○ Varies for different media (e.g., faster in fiber optics than copper cables).
6. Shannon Capacity
○ Maximum data rate of a channel, calculated based on bandwidth and
signal-to-noise ratio.
UNIT-III: Telephony, Multiplexing, Error Detection,
Switching, and Protocols

Telephony

Definition:
Telephony refers to the transmission of voice, data, and video signals over a distance using
wired or wireless communication systems.

Key Concepts:

1. Analog Telephony: Traditional phone systems that transmit analog signals through
copper wires.
2. Digital Telephony: Modern systems that convert analog signals into digital data for
transmission.
3. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): Technology that allows voice calls over the
internet.

1.Multiplexing

Multiplexing is the process of combining multiple signals into one channel for transmission.
It maximizes the use of bandwidth.

Types of Multiplexing:

1. FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing):

○ Divides the bandwidth into multiple frequency ranges, each assigned to a
signal.
○ Example: FM radio stations operate on different frequencies.
■ 93.5 MHz, 98.3 MHz, etc., allow simultaneous transmission.
2. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing):
○ Divides time into slots and assigns each signal a time slot in a cycle.
○ Example: Digital telephone systems use TDM to send multiple calls over the
same line.
3. WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing):
○ Used in fiber optics. Different light wavelengths (colors) carry separate data
streams.
 ○ Example: Internet backbone lines using fiber-optic cables.
4. Statistical TDM:
○ Assigns time slots dynamically based on demand instead of fixed slots.

Comparison of WDM, TDM, and FDM

2. Error Detection and Correction

Errors occur during data transmission due to noise or interference. These errors need to be
detected and corrected.

Error Detection Methods:

1. Parity Check:
○ Adds a parity bit (even or odd) to ensure data integrity.
○ Example:
■ Data: 1010 → Parity bit added: 10101.
2. Checksum:
○ Data blocks are summed, and the sum is sent with the data. The receiver
verifies it.
3. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC):
○ A more complex method using division and polynomial coding.
○ Used in Ethernet and communication protocols.

Error Correction:

1. Forward Error Correction (FEC):

○ Adds redundancy so errors can be corrected without retransmission.
2. Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ):
○ Errors are detected, and the sender retransmits the data.

Many-to-One and One-to-Many

Many-to-One Communication:

● Definition: A scenario where multiple sources transmit their data to a single

destination.
● Examples:
○ Multiple sensors sending data to a central server.
○ Several computers uploading files to a cloud server.
● Use Case: Data aggregation in IoT systems or centralized processing.

One-to-Many Communication:

● Definition: A single source sends data to multiple destinations simultaneously.

● Examples:
○ A server broadcasting live video to many users.
○ Email sent from one user to a mailing list.
● Use Case: Broadcasting systems, such as live streaming or multicast networking.

3. Switching Techniques

Switching connects devices in a network and routes data efficiently.

Types of Switching:

1. Circuit Switching:
○ Establishes a dedicated path for the entire communication session.
○ Example: Traditional telephone calls.
2. Packet Switching:
○ Data is broken into packets and sent independently. Packets are
reassembled at the destination.
○ Example: Internet data transfer (TCP/IP).
3. Message Switching:
○ Entire messages are stored and forwarded node by node.
○ Example: Email transmission.

4. Data Link Control Protocols

Definition:

Protocols at the data link layer manage the transfer of data between two directly connected
devices.

Key Concepts:

1. Line Discipline:
○ Determines who can send data and when.
○ Examples: Polling, Selective Polling.
2. Flow Control:
○ Ensures the sender does not overwhelm the receiver.
○ Methods:
■ Stop-and-Wait: Sender waits for acknowledgment before sending the
next frame.
■ Sliding Window: Allows multiple frames to be sent before
acknowledgment.
3. Error Control:
○ Ensures reliable delivery of data.
○ Example: Go-Back-N ARQ, Selective Repeat ARQ.
4. Protocols:
○ Synchronous Protocols: Data is transmitted in sync with a clock signal.
○ Asynchronous Protocols: Data is sent with start and stop bits to indicate
transmission.
5. Character vs. Bit-Oriented Protocols:
○ Character-Oriented: Uses characters as control information (e.g., ASCII).
○ Bit-Oriented: Uses bit-level frames (e.g., HDLC).

5. Point-to-Point Protocols (PPP)

Definition:

PPP is a data link layer protocol used to establish a direct connection between two nodes.

Key Components:

1. Transmission States:
○ Idle, Establishing, Authenticating, Network-Layer Protocol Configuration,
Termination.
2. PPP Layers:
 ○ LCP (Link Control Protocol): Configures and establishes the link.
○ Authentication Protocols: Verifies the identity of the sender (e.g., PAP,
CHAP).
○ NCP (Network Control Protocol): Configures network layer protocols like IP.

6. ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

Definition:

ISDN is a set of communication standards that transmit voice, video, and data over digital
telephone lines.

Key Concepts:

1. ISDN Services:
○ Bearer Services: Data transmission.
○ Teleservices: Voice communication.
○ Supplementary Services: Call forwarding, conference calls.
2. ISDN Architecture:
○ Basic Rate Interface (BRI): Provides two 64 Kbps bearer channels and one
16 Kbps signaling channel.
○ Primary Rate Interface (PRI): Provides multiple bearer channels (23 in the
US, 30 in Europe).
3. ISDN Layers:
○ Physical Layer: Defines the transmission medium.
○ Data Link Layer: Manages reliable communication.
○ Network Layer: Provides call setup and termination.
4. Broadband ISDN:
○ Uses fiber optics for high-speed communication.
○ Supports services like video conferencing and internet access.
UNIT-IV: Network Devices, Network Layer, and
Internet

1. Network Devices

Network devices are hardware components that connect computers and facilitate
communication.

Types of Devices:

1. Repeaters:
○ Amplify or regenerate signals to extend the range of transmission.
○ Example: Used in Ethernet to extend cable length.
2. Bridges:
○ Connect two LAN segments and filter traffic based on MAC addresses.
○ Example: A bridge can connect a wired LAN with a wireless LAN.
3. Routers:
○ Connect different networks and determine the best path for data.
○ Operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3).
○ Example: Home internet router connects devices to the internet.
4. Gateways:
○ Connect networks with different protocols.
○ Example: A gateway connects an email system to an SMS system

2. The Network Layer

The Network Layer (Layer 3 in the OSI model) is responsible for logical addressing, routing,
and packet forwarding.

Functions of the Network Layer:

1. Logical Addressing:
○ Assigns IP addresses to devices for unique identification.
○ Example: IPv4 (192.168.1.1), IPv6 (fe80::1).
2. Routing:
○ Determines the best path for data packets using routing tables.
○ Example: Routers use routing algorithms like Dijkstra or Bellman-Ford.
3. Packet Forwarding:
 ○ Transfers data packets from source to destination using IP addresses.

3. Routing Algorithms

Routing algorithms decide how packets are sent through the network.

Types of Routing:

1. Static Routing:
○ Routing tables are manually configured.
○ Example: Small networks where paths rarely change.
2. Dynamic Routing:
○ Routers update routing tables automatically based on network conditions.
○ Protocols:
■ RIP (Routing Information Protocol): Uses hop count.
■ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): Uses link state and Dijkstra’s
algorithm.

Example:

● In a large company, routers dynamically update to avoid congested paths.

4. Congestion Control Algorithms

Congestion occurs when network traffic exceeds capacity, leading to delays or packet loss.

Congestion Control Techniques:

1. Open-Loop Control: Prevents congestion before it happens.

○ Example: Flow control techniques like rate limiting.
2. Closed-Loop Control: Detects and reacts to congestion.
○ Example: TCP reduces the transmission rate when congestion is detected.

5. Quality of Service (QoS)

QoS ensures reliable communication by prioritizing traffic.

QoS Parameters:
 1. Bandwidth: Allocating sufficient bandwidth for critical data.
2. Latency: Reducing delays.
3. Jitter: Controlling variation in packet arrival times.
4. Packet Loss: Ensuring minimal data loss.

Example:

● In a video call, QoS prioritizes voice and video over file downloads.

6. Internetworking

Internetworking refers to connecting multiple networks to create a larger network.

Components:

1. IP Addresses: Unique addresses to identify devices across networks.

2. Subnetting: Dividing a large network into smaller sub-networks.
3. Routing: Ensures seamless data transfer between networks.

Example:

● The internet is the largest example of internetworking, connecting millions of

networks worldwide.

7. Network Layer in the Internet

In the internet, the Network Layer uses IP (Internet Protocol) for addressing and packet
delivery.

Key Protocols:

1. IPv4:
○ 32-bit addresses, written in dotted decimal format.
○ Example: 192.168.1.1.
2. IPv6:
○ 128-bit addresses, written in hexadecimal format.
○ Example: fe80::1.
3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
○ Used for error messages and diagnostic purposes.
○ Example: The ping command uses ICMP.
UNIT-V: Transport and Upper Layers in the OSI
Model

1. Transport Layer Functions (Layer 4)

The Transport Layer is responsible for reliable data delivery between processes running on
two different devices.

Functions of the Transport Layer:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly:

○ Data from the Application Layer is divided into smaller segments for
transmission.
○ At the destination, segments are reassembled.
2. Example:
○ Large video files are segmented into smaller parts for transmission.
3. End-to-End Communication:
○ Ensures reliable data transfer between devices.
4. Error Control:
○ Detects and corrects errors during transmission.
○ Example: TCP ensures reliability by retransmitting lost packets.
5. Flow Control:
○ Prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver.
○ Techniques: Sliding Window Protocol.
6. Connection Management:
○ Establishes, maintains, and terminates communication between devices.
7. Example:
○ TCP uses a three-way handshake to establish a connection: SYN →
SYN-ACK → ACK.

2. Connection Management in the Transport Layer

Connection management ensures data is transferred reliably.

Types of Connections:
 1. Connection-Oriented Communication:
○ A connection is established before data transfer.
○ Ensures reliable delivery.
○ Example: TCP.
2. Connectionless Communication:
○ Data is sent without establishing a connection.
○ Faster but less reliable.
○ Example: UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

3. Session Layer (Layer 5)

The Session Layer is responsible for managing sessions (connections) between

applications.

Functions of the Session Layer:

1. Session Establishment:
○ Starts and manages communication sessions.
2. Synchronization:
○ Adds checkpoints (synchronization points) to the data stream.
○ Example: In a large file download, checkpoints allow resuming from the last
point if interrupted.
3. Session Termination:
○ Properly closes the session once the data transfer is complete.

4. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation Layer deals with the formatting, encryption, and compression of data
for proper interpretation.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:

1. Data Translation:
○ Converts data into a format understood by the application.
○ Example: Converts ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Data Compression:
○ Reduces the size of data for faster transmission.
 ○ Example: Compressing images using JPEG or PNG.
3. Encryption and Decryption:
○ Encrypts data for security during transmission and decrypts it at the
destination.
○ Example: HTTPS uses SSL/TLS for encryption.

5. Application Layer (Layer 7)

The Application Layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model. It provides services directly to
users and applications.

Functions of the Application Layer:

1. Network Services:
○ Provides access to network services like file transfer, email, and remote login.
2. Resource Sharing:
○ Enables sharing of resources like printers or files over a network.
3. Application Access:
○ Provides access to applications like web browsers, email clients, and FTP
tools.

Examples of Application Layer Protocols:

1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):

○ Used to access web pages on the internet.
○ Example: Browsing a website using http://www.example.com.
2. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
○ Used for sending emails.
○ Example: Sending an email from Gmail.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):
○ Used for transferring files over a network.
○ Example: Uploading a website to a web server.
4. DNS (Domain Name System):
○ Translates domain names into IP addresses.
○ Example: www.google.com → 142.250.182.4.