Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some form of transmission medium such

as a wire cable. For data communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication
system made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The effectiveness of
a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and
jitter.

1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received by the intended device
or user and only by that device or user.

2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in transmission and left
uncorrected are unusable.

3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are useless. In the case of video
and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced,
and without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.

4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the delivery of audio or
video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive
with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the result.

Components
A data communications system has five components.
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information include text,
numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,workstation, telephone
handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation, telephone
handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from sender
to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and
radio waves.
5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person
speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese.
Goals of Data Communication and application in Network:

Goals:

 Resource sharing: The main goal of networking is "Resource sharing", and it is to make all programs, data
and equipment available to anyone on the network without the regard to the physical location of the resource
and the user.
 Reliability: A second goal is to provide high reliability by having alternative sources of supply. For
example, all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of them is unavailable, the other
copies could be available.
 Coast Saving: Another goal is saving money. Small computers have a much better price/performance ratio
than larger ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor of ten times faster than the fastest single chip
microprocessors, but they cost thousand times more. This imbalance has caused many system designers to
build systems consisting of powerful personal computers, one per user, with data kept on one or more shared
file server machines. This goal leads to networks with many computers located in the same building. Such a
network is called a LAN (local area network).
 Performance :Another closely related goal is to increase the systems performance as the work load
increases by just adding more processors. With central mainframes, when the system is full, it must be
replaced by a larger one, usually at great expense and with even greater disruption to the users.
 Powerful Communication Medium :Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium. A
file that was updated or modified on a network can be seen by the other users on the network immediately.

Applications:
Transferring data between computers is just one area of communication. Data communication networks have
become an indispensable part of business, industry and entertainment. Some of the network applications in different
fields are the following :

1. Electronic Messaging:
Probably the most widely used network application is electronic mail (e-mail).With e-mail, it is possible to
send a message to remote locations from the privacy of your own home.
2. Facsimile Machine (Fax)
A fax machine creates an electronic equivalent of an image on a sheet of paper and sends the image over
telephone lines. A fax machine at the other end creates the original paper’s image
3. Teleconferencing:
Teleconferencing allow conferences o occur without the participants being in the same place
.Teleconferencing includes:
 Text conferencing, where participants communicate through their keyboards and computer monitors.
 Voice Conferencing , where participants at a number of locations communicate simultaneously over
the phone .
 Video Conferencing , where participants can see as well as talk to one another .

4. Cellular Telephone:
 Hitherto , two parties wishing to use the services of a telephone company had to be linked by a fixed wire
physical wire connection. Today’s cellular networks make it possible to maintain wireless phone connection
even while travelling over a large distance.
5. Information Services:
Information services include bulletin board and data banks. Bulletin board (Data Banks) allow the free
exchange of some software , file or other information. A World Wide Web site offering the technical
specifications for a new product is an information service.
6. Financial Services:
Financial services include credit history searches, foreign exchange and investment services, and electronic
fund transfer.
7. Marketing and Sales:
Computer networks are used extensively in both marketing and sales organizations.

Data Flow
Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure
.
1.Simplex
In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two devices on a
link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure a).Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of
simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can
use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.

2.Half-Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see Figure b).The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with
traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are travelling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a
half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same
time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.

3.Full-Duplex
In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously
(see Figure c).The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions
at the same time. In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals
going in the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided
between signals travelling in both directions.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when
communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.
NETWORKS
A network is the interconnection of a set of devices capable of communication. In this definition, a device can be a
host (or an end system as it is sometimes called) such as a large computer, desktop, laptop, workstation, cellular
phone, or security system. A device in this definition can also be a connecting device such as a router, which
connects the network to other networks, a switch, which connects devices together, a modem (modulator-
demodulator), which changes the form of data, and so on. These devices in a network are connected using wired or
wireless transmission media such as
cable or air. When we connect two computers at home using a plug-and-play router, we
have created a network, although very small.

Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are :
1. Performance,
2. Reliability
3. Security.
Performance:
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response time. Transit time is the amount of
time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an
inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors, including the number of
users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the connected hardware, and the efficiency of the
software. Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more
throughput and less delay. However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the
network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in the network.
Reliability:
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time it takes a
link to recover from a failure, and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data losses.

Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.

Type of Connection
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that transfers data
from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between
two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the same
time.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is
reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire
or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible (see
Figure). When we change television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing a point-to-point
connection between the remote control and the television’s control system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop ) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link
(see Figure). In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If
several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.

Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or more devices
connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of
the relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.

Topology

Bus Star Ring Tree Mesh Hybrid

Bus Topology: A network that uses a bus topology usually consists of a single , long cable (back bone cable) to
which computers are attached . Any computer attached to a bus can send a signal down to cable and all computers
receive the signal. Figure ( a ) illustrate the bus topology.

Because all computers attached to the cable can sense an electrical signal, any computer can send data to any other
computer. Of course, the computers attached to a bus network must coordinate to ensure that only one computer
sends a signal t any time or chaos results. In bus topology, the failure or removal of a device does not cause the
network to fail.

Figure (a)

Advantages:

 Connecting a computer or peripheral to a linear bus is easy.

 The topology requires least amount of cabling to connect the computers and, therefore, less expensive than
other cabling arrangements.
 It is easy to extend a bus since two cables can be joined into one longer cable with a connector.

Disadvantages:

 Entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the backbone.

 Heavy traffic can slow down a bus because computers on such networks do not coordinate with each other to
reserve time to transmit.
Star Topology: A network uses a star topology if all computers attach to a central point. Figure (b) illustrate the
star topology. A hub is a central device that joins single cable segments or individuals LAN into one network.

A typical hub consists of an electronic device that accepts data from a sending computer and delivers it to the
appropriate destination. In practice, star networks seldom have a symmetric shape in which the hub is located at an
equal distance from all computers. In a star topology, the failure of hub (central device) brings down the entire
network.

Figure(b)
Advantages:
 Star topology is easy to install and wire.
 The network is not disrupted even if a node fails or is removed from the network.
 Fault detection and removal of faulty parts easier in star topology .

Disadvantages:
 It requires a longer length of cable.
 If the hub fails, node attached to it are disabled.
 The cost of hubs make the network expensive as compared to bus and ring topology.

Ring Topology: The ring topology is a continuous path for data with no logical beginning or ending points and
thus no terminators. Workstations and file servers are attached to the cable at points around the rings. Figure (c)
illustrate the ring topology. When data is transmitted onto the ring, it goes around the ring from node to node, finds
its destination, and then continues until it ends at the source node. A ring network may be either unidirectional or
bidirectional. Unidirectional means that all transmissions travel in the same direction. Thus each device can
communicate with only one neighbour. Bidirectional means that data transmissions travel in either direction, and a
device can communicate with both its neighbours.

The ring topology is easier to manage than the bus because the equipment used to build the ring makes it easier to
locate a defective node or cable problem. Overall, the ring topology enables more reliable communication than the
bus.
 Figure(c)

Advantages:
 Ring topology is easy to install and configure.
 Every Computer is given equal access to the ring, hence no single computer can monopolise the network.

Disadvantages:
 Failure in any cable or node breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
 Maximum ring length and number of nodes are limited.
Tree Topology : A tree topology is a variation of star. As in star , nodes in a tree are linked to a central hub that
controls the traffic to the network. However , not every device plugs directly into central hub. The majority of
devices connect to a secondary hub that, in turn , is connected to the central hub as shown in figure.

Advantages:
 The distance to which a signal can travel increases as the signal passes through a chain of hubs.
 Tree topology allows isolating and prioritizing communication from different nodes.
 Tree topology allows for easy expansion of an existing network, which enables organizations to configure a
network to meet their needs.

Disadvantages:
  If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 It is more difficult to configure wire than other topologies.

Mesh Topology: The mesh topology has a direct connection between every pair of devices in the network. This
is an extreme design. Communication becomes very simple because there is no competition for common lines. If
two devices want to communicate, they do so directly without involving other devices. Figure illustrate the mesh
topology.

The number of cable required n mesh topology can be find by formula [n*(n-1)]/2 where n is the no. of system in
network for example in figure 6 computers are connected through mesh topology so total no of wires are:

[6*(6-1)]/2 =[6*5]/2

30/2=15 cables
Advantages:
 The use of large number of links eliminates network congestion.
 If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the entire network system.

Disadvantages:
 The amount of required cabling is very high.
 As every node is connected to the other, installation and reconfiguration is very difficult.
 The amount of hardware required in this type of topology can make it expensive to implement.
Hybrid Toplogy: A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that uses two or more differing
network topologies. These topologies include a mix of bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology,
and tree topology.

Hybrid Topology
Structure of Network:
What is Network?
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and
CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications.
The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light
beams.

Different Types of Networks

• Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified as:

– Local Area Network (LAN)

– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)

Local Area Network (LAN) :-

• A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within an office
building or home.
• LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed
by multiple users
• Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile
• Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps
• Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device
• Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s
• LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can be used in
wired LAN’s
• Every LAN uses a protocol – a set of rules that governs how packets are configured and transmitted.
• Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies include:
– Bus
– Ring
– Star
Advantages of LAN

• Speed
• Cost
• Security
• E-mail
• Resource Sharing

Disadvantages of LAN
• Expensive To Install
• Requires Administrative Time
• File Server May Fail
• Cables May Break
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large
campus.
• A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of
buildings to entire cities.
• A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many
individuals and organizations
• A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
• A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.

Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to customers and cable TV

network.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
• WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.
• A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.
• To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless
links such as satellites.
• Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways,
which enable them to share data.

The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.

Personal Area Network (PAN)
• A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices (including
telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a room
• It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger network
such as the internet.
• PAN’s can be wired or wireless
• A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer
devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an individual's body.
• The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is
typically a few meters.