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 SMITHSONIAN
supersimple
PHYSICS
THE ULTIMATE BITE-SIZE STUDY GUIDE
 Energy
Contents
32 Energy
33 Energy and food
Working scientifically 34 Energy stores
35 Energy transfers
10 The scientific method 36 Renewable energy resources
12 Scientific progress 38 Nonrenewable energy
14 Science and society 39 Climate change
15 Risks and benefits 40 Trends in energy use
16 Scientific models 41 Efficiency
17 Working safely 42 Heat transfers
18 Planning an experiment 43 Radiation
20 Measuring 44 Investigating radiation
21 Significant figures 46 Conduction
22 Presenting data 47 Investigating insulators
24 Patterns in data 48 Convection
25 Conclusions 50 Reducing energy transfers
26 Accuracy and precision 52 Kinetic and potential energy
27 Evaluations 54 Conservation of energy
28 Using mathematical models 55 Transferring energy by forces
30 SI units 56 Energy and power
58 Calculating energy efficiency

Safety and teacher supervision

• The experiments outlined in this book describe the experiments required

for the experiments set in the UK Physics GCSE curriculum. In undertaking
these experiments, you must follow the instructions on each page, as well as the
general instructions on “Working safely” on page 17.
• Some of the experiments require the additional supervision of a physics teacher,
and they should therefore only be undertaken at school under such supervision.
The experiments requiring teacher supervision are marked with this symbol:

!
Teacher supervision required

• DISCLAIMER: The publisher cannot accept any liability for any injury or losses
arising from experiments where such instructions were not followed and/or that
were undertaken without appropriate supervision.
Describing motion Force and motion

61 Speed 96 Circular motion

62 Calculating speed 97 Newton’s second law
63 Measuring speed 98 Investigating acceleration
64 Position–time graphs 100 Momentum
66 Scalars and vectors 102 Elastic and inelastic collisions
67 Velocity 104 Changing momentum
68 Acceleration 105 Stopping distance
70 Velocity–time graphs 107 Car safety features
108 Braking distance and energy
110 Terminal velocity
Forces

73 Forces Waves
75 Balanced and unbalanced forces
76 Resultant forces 113 Waves
78 Resolving forces 114 Sound
79 Mass and weight 115 Oscilloscopes
80 Springs 116 Wave equations
82 Investigating springs 118 Hearing sound
83 Deformations 119 Investigating the speed of waves
84 Moments 120 Measuring the speed of sound
86 Center of mass 121 Using ultrasound
88 Levers 122 Sonar
90 Gears 123 Investigating Earth’s interior
91 More simple machines 124 Interference
92 Action–reaction forces
93 Fields
94 Law of gravity
Light Electrical circuits

127 Light and seeing 153 Current electricity

128 Comparing sound and light 154 Electrical circuits
129 Pinhole cameras 155 Series and parallel circuits
130 Reflection 156 Measuring electricity
131 Refraction 158 Series and parallel circuit rules
132 Investigating light 160 Charge
134 Total internal reflection 161 Changing resistance
136 Lenses 162 Investigating resistance in wires
137 Waves and refraction 164 Resistance in wires
138 Refractive index 165 Investigating resistors in series and parallel
140 Converging and diverging lenses 167 Current and voltage calculations
141 Correcting vision 169 Current and voltage graphs
142 Converging lens ray diagram 171 Power in circuits
143 Magnifying glass ray diagram 172 Calculating energy
144 Diverging lens ray diagram 174 Light-dependent resistors
145 Light and color 175 Thermistors
147 Reflecting and absorbing 176 Sensor circuits
148 Electromagnetic radiation
150 Radio waves
151 Hazardous radiation Using electricity

179 Direct and alternating current

180 Electrical wiring
181 Fuses and circuit breakers
182 Preventing shocks
183 Electrical appliances
184 Energy use at home
185 Wasted energy
186 Power transmission
Static electricity Matter

188 Attracting and repelling 212 States of matter

190 Attraction by induction 213 Changes of state
191 Using static electricity 214 Particles in motion
192 Dangers of static electricity 215 Heat expansion
194 Electric fields 216 Density
217 Finding the density
218 Internal energy
Magnetism and 219 Specific heat capacity
electromagnetism 221 Finding specific heat capacity
223 Heating curves
196 Magnets 224 Temperature and changes of state
197 Magnetic fields 225 Latent heat calculations
198 Earth’s magnetic field
199 Electromagnets
201 Using electromagnets Pressure
202 The motor effect
204 Electric motors 227 Surface pressure
205 Electromagnetic induction 228 Atmospheric pressure
206 Generators 229 Pressure in a liquid
208 Loudspeakers and microphones 230 Floating and sinking
209 Transformers 231 Barometers and manometers
232 Pressure in gases
233 Pressure and volume
234 Pressure and temperature
235 Work and temperature
Atoms and radioactivity Space

237 Atomic structure 255 Structure of Earth

238 Elements and isotopes 256 Seasons
239 The atomic model 258 Solar system
240 Radioactive decay 260 The Moon
241 Different types of radiation 261 Eclipses
242 Nuclear equations 262 Orbits
244 Half-life 263 Galaxies
245 Background radiation 264 Observing space
246 Radioactive hazards 265 Redshift
247 Using radioactive isotopes 266 Expanding Universe
248 Nuclear medicine 267 Big Bang or steady state?
250 Nuclear fission 268 Star life cycles
252 Nuclear power 270 Classifying stars
253 Fusion
272 Glossary
281 Circuit symbols
282 Index
288 Acknowledgments
 Working
scientifically
10 Working scientifically

The scientif ic method

As scientists, we want to explain how
and why things happen—such as what 1. Ask a scientific question
Scientists are curious and often ask
happens when a current flows through a questions about how things work.
wire or when stars or planets form. We do For instance, why does a tea
kettle sometimes take longer to
this by thinking logically in a step-by-step boil? A scientific question is
process. The steps on this page are used one that can be answered by
collecting data (information).
in all fields of science. A question such as “Which
kind of hot drink is nicest?” is
not a scientific question.

2. Make a hypothesis
The next step is to come up
with a possible explanation
that can be tested. This
is called a hypothesis.
We can often write a
hypothesis using the
words “depends on.”
For instance, our
hypothesis might be:
Collect data
the length of time the
Some scientific questions can’t be
tea kettle takes to boil
tested by experiments. Astronomers can’t
depends on how much
experiment with planets and stars,
water is in it.
for instance. However, they can
still make hypotheses and
predictions and then
test the predictions by
making observations
to collect data.

3. Make a prediction
To test a hypothesis,
we use it to make
a prediction. A
prediction can
often be written as
“If … then ….” For
example: I predict
that if I double the
amount of water, it will
take twice as long to boil.

4. Collect data
Hypotheses are usually tested by
experiments. In this case, we might
heat measured volumes of water and
time how long each volume takes to
boil. An experiment must be a fair test,
which means the only variable we change
is the one we’re investigating (the volume
of water, in this case). The information we
collect in an experiment is called data.
 Working scientifically 11

Key facts

7. Theory
If the hypothesis is ✓ A hypothesis is a scientific
tested many times idea that can be tested.
and never fails, it
might eventually ✓ A hypothesis is used to
become accepted as predict what may happen in
a scientific theory. an experiment.
✓ If a hypothesis is supported
by an experiment, it may
become part of a theory.
✓ Scientists present their
discoveries to be checked
Refine hypothesis by other scientists.
or experiment
? If the prediction was wrong, the
hypothesis might be wrong,
too, or the experiment might Many scientists
not have worked properly. repeat the
Failed experiments are not experiment.
a waste of time—they
sometimes lead to
new discoveries.

Scientific theories
The conclusion
does not support People sometimes say “it’s
the hypothesis. just a theory” when they don’t
believe something. However,
in science, a scientific theory
is an explanation that has been
tested many times and become
widely accepted as true. For
example, the idea that Earth and
other planets of the solar system
orbit the Sun is a scientific
The conclusion theory based on many careful
supports the 6. Peer review observations and predictions.
hypothesis. After a successful experiment, a
scientist may write a report (called
If it weren’t for science, we’d
a paper) so that other scientists can probably believe that the
find out about the experiment and movement of the Sun across the
check the details. The paper may sky meant that it was orbiting
be published in a scientific journal Earth rather than vice versa.
for all scientists to read.
Time to boil

5. Analysis and conclusion

Volume of water After collecting data, we analyze it carefully to
check for errors and look for patterns. We use
the analysis to decide whether the experiment Solar system
supports the hypothesis. This forms our conclusion.
12 Working scientifically

Scientific progress Key facts

Scientific methods and theories change over time. ✓ Scientific theories and
For example, the invention of the telescope changed methods change over time.
the way people thought about the solar system. ✓ The invention of the
As telescopes became more powerful, new telescope led to new
ideas about the stars and the Universe discoveries about the
became accepted, too. planets, moon, and stars.
✓ As telescope technology
improved, new discoveries
changed our understanding
Quadrant of the Universe.

Sun

Elliptical orbits
About 80 years after Copernicus died,
a German astronomer named Johannes
Heliocentric model Kepler proposed a heliocentric model
Using observations with elliptical (oval) orbits instead of
made with the naked circular ones. This matched the
eye, the Polish astronomer movements of the planets much
Nicolaus Copernicus better than older models.
Observing the skies devised a new model. This
The first people known to study the night sky were had the Sun at the center
the people of Mesopotamia (now Iraq), around (heliocentric) and planets
5,000 years ago. Ancient astronomers used simple traveling around it in circular
instruments like a quadrant to measure the angle orbits. At first, it wasn’t
stars or planets made with the horizon and to accepted because it didn’t
predict when the Sun or Moon would rise and set. match observations perfectly.

140 CE 1543 1609 1610

Earth in the middle Telescopes
The people of the ancient world After the telescope was invented in the
thought that the Sun moved early 1600s, the Italian scientist Galileo
around Earth and that Earth Galilei discovered mountains and
was the center of the Universe. craters on the Moon and four moons
The Greek astronomer Ptolemy orbiting Jupiter. His observations
based his “geocentric model” supported the heliocentric model.
of the solar system on this idea.
Geocentric means Earth is in
the middle. To make this model
fit with the observation that
planets sometimes appeared
to move backward through the
sky, Ptolemy gave each planet
a complex system of orbits
within orbits (epicycles).

Ptolemy’s model is
called geocentric
because it puts
Earth in the center.
 Working scientifically 13

In a different light

Visible light is just one part of the electromagnetic

spectrum. Astronomers can learn more about
stars and galaxies by observing the other kinds
of electromagnetic wave that they emit. Some of X-ray Infrared
these waves are absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere,
so X-ray, ultraviolet, and infrared telescopes
have to be launched into space. Radio telescopes
can be built on the ground. The images here
show what the Andromeda Galaxy looks like at
different wavelengths.

Ultraviolet Radio

Theory of gravity
Inspired in part by Kepler’s elliptical orbits, the
English scientist Isaac Newton published a book
that included his laws of gravity and motion. These
mathematical models help explain how the planets
orbit the Sun and how moons orbit planets.

Andromeda
Galaxy
Discovering galaxies
In 1912, the American astronomer Henrietta Swan
Leavitt worked out a way of calculating the distance
from Earth to variable stars—stars whose brightness
Newton also invented varies. In 1923, another American, Edwin Hubble,
the reflecting telescope, used her idea to demonstrate the existence of other
which uses a curved galaxies beyond our own, revealing that the Universe
mirror instead of lenses. was far bigger than anyone had realized.

1687 1781 1908 Present day

Better telescopes
As telescopes got bigger and Modern observation methods
better, astronomers discovered Today, astronomers can launch
more distant objects. The telescopes into space or build
German-born astronomer William telescopes that detect radio waves
Herschel discovered Uranus or other forms of electromagnetic
using a telescope 39 feet radiation instead of visible
(12 meters) long. He also identified light. The information
lots of nebulas—clouds of gathered has helped
glowing material among the stars. us explain how stars
form and die,
how gravity holds
them together
in galaxies, and
William Herschel how the Universe
constructed his giant might have begun.
telescope with his sister
Caroline Herschel.

Radio telescope
14 Working scientifically

Science and Key facts

society ✓ Some scientific developments

raise ethical questions.

Scientific developments sometimes raise ethical questions ✓ Questions about what is right
or wrong cannot be answered
that can’t be answered by experiments, though gathering
by experiments and depend on
data can help people make informed decisions. The people’s opinions.
answers to questions such as the examples below
depend on people’s opinions, not on science.

Cheap meat Clean energy

Selective breeding can be used to produce farm animals that give Climate change is happening because humans are adding too much
better meat, cows that produce more milk, or hens that lay more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. Tidal power generates electricity
eggs. However, changes that cut costs for farmers may be harmful without producing carbon dioxide, but this sometimes involves
to the animals. Chickens bred to grow very fast, for example, may building a barrage dam across a river estuary, preventing fish from
be too heavy to walk. Are cheap meat and higher profits more migrating and changing natural habitats. Is clean energy more
important than animal welfare? important than preserving wildlife habitats?

This golden rice is

genetically engineered to Biofuel power station
Normal white rice
produce extra vitamins.

Genetic engineering Biofuels

Genetic engineering can provide cures for diseases or alter crops to Biofuels are fuels made from crops. Burning these fuels reduces
provide additional nutrients. These bring benefits to many people’s carbon dioxide emissions compared to burning fossil fuels, as
lives, but genetically modified organisms are not natural. Is it wrong the crops absorb carbon dioxide as they grow. However, growing
to modify life in this way? them uses land that could be used for food. Is clean energy more
important than food supplies?
 Working scientifically 15

Risks and benefits Key facts

Science and technology can produce inventions ✓ Modern technology can have great
that improve people’s lives, but some technologies benefits, but some technologies can
bring risks, too. Benefits and risks need to be also cause harm.
weighed up, taking all the evidence into account. ✓ The risks and benefits of different
Often the option that we think is more dangerous technologies need to be assessed
turns out not to be. before deciding whether or not to
use them.

Nuclear power or fossil fuels Walk or drive?

Many people think nuclear power is dangerous Which is safer—walking or driving? Accident
because of the risk of accidents or radiation statistics show that pedestrians suffer more
leaks. However, scientific studies suggest fatal accidents per mile traveled than drivers.
that fossil fuel power stations cause more But this isn’t the only factor. Walking is a
illness and death through pollution, form of exercise, and exercise can
as well as contributing more to greatly reduce your chance of
climate change. There are also contracting illnesses such as
more accidents caused by heart disease and diabetes.
drilling for oil and mining
coal than there are by
obtaining nuclear fuel.

X-ray
of head

Flight safety X-rays

Air crashes are X-ray machines
always big news and and CT scanners
make some people produce images
afraid to fly. However, of the inside of the
traveling by car is much body, helping doctors
more dangerous. For example, diagnose disease, but these
between the years 2000 and technologies expose living tissue
2009, car occupants in the US were to X-ray radiation, causing a very
more than 100 times more likely to have small increase in the risk of cancer. The
a fatal accident per mile traveled than benefits of obtaining the images in order to
passengers on commercial airliners. treat the condition usually outweigh the risks.
16 Working scientifically

Scientif ic Key facts

models ✓ Models help us understand or describe a

scientific idea.

We often use models to help us understand ✓ Models can be used to make predictions,
which can then be tested by experiments.
scientific ideas. Like hypotheses, models
can be tested by experiments. There ✓ Types of model used in physics include
descriptive, computational, mathematical,
are five main types of scientific model:
spatial, and representational.
descriptive, computational, mathematical,
spatial, and representational.
Power station
Descriptive models
These models use words and sometimes diagrams
to describe something. This diagram showing how
electricity travels from power stations to our homes
is a descriptive model.

Computational models Yellow and

green colors
Computational models use computers to simulate
represent
complex processes. Weather forecasts are made large waves.
using computational models of the atmosphere.
The image shown here is a forecast for the waves
in the Atlantic Ocean.

Mathematical models
Temperature

These are models that use equations to represent

what happens in the real world. For example, a
mathematical equation can model the fall in
temperature as a hot object transfers heat to
its surroundings. The results of mathematical Room Time
models can be shown on graphs. temperature

Spatial models Outer ear Eardrum

A spatial model shows how things are arranged in Inner ear
three-dimensional space, such as the way the parts
of our ears fit together. This scale model is not the
same size as a real human ear, but all the parts are
the correct sizes relative to each other.

Representational models Cells

Switch
These models use simplified shapes and symbols to
represent more complex objects in the real world. For
example, this circuit diagram helps us understand Bulb
how the electrical circuit in a flashlight works.
 Working scientifically 17

Working safely
Physics experiments can involve electricity, moving
objects, and heat, so there’s a risk of being injured.
It’s important to conduct investigations safely, so be
sure to follow these guidelines.

Protecting your eyes Heating water

Safety glasses or goggles protect When heating
your eyes against splashes of water, take care
liquids or small particles such to avoid splashing
as iron filings. They should it on your skin. If
also be used if you are scalded, run cold
stretching wires or springs, water over your skin
in case the wire breaks and as soon as possible.
flies at your face.

Protecting your feet Slips and spills

Some physics experiments If you spill water
use weights that could fall on the floor, clean it up
on your feet and injure right away in case
them. A cardboard box full someone slips on it.
of crumpled newspaper will
catch a falling weight and
stop you from putting your
feet in the wrong place.

Working with electricity Dangerous substances

When working with Some science experiments involve
electricity, always turn radioactive materials or dangerous
off or disconnect the power chemicals. These substances should
supply or battery before only be handled by specially trained
making changes to a circuit. people wearing appropriate safety
Ask your teacher to check the equipment. Experiments involving dangerous
circuit before you switch it on. substances should not be carried out at home.

Bunsen burners Beware of the Sun

When using a Bunsen burner, When doing experiments
keep the area around it clear. with light, never look
Tie back loose hair and clothing directly at the Sun—it can
to keep them from getting near permanently damage your
the flame. Allow hot equipment eyes. The danger is even
to cool before handling, or use greater if using binoculars
heat-resistant gloves. or a telescope.
18 Working scientifically

Planning an Key facts

experiment ✓ Experiments must be carefully

planned to ensure a fair test.

To be a fair test, a scientific experiment should vary ✓ Things that change in experiments
are called variables.
only one thing at a time to see what effect it has on
something else. We call the thing you deliberately ✓ The independent variable is the thing
you change.
vary the independent variable. The thing it affects is
the dependent variable, and things you need to keep ✓ The dependent variable is the thing
you measure.
constant are control variables.
✓ Control variables are the things you
keep the same to ensure a fair test.
Investigating insulation
In the scientific method, you test a hypothesis (an idea) by
carrying out an experiment. Air is a poor conductor of heat,
so you might form a hypothesis that materials containing
lots of trapped air will be good insulators. To test this Experimental controls
hypothesis, you could carry out an experiment like the
one shown here. Three beakers of hot water are given
The uninsulated beaker is an experimental
different types of insulation, and the water temperature control. It allows you to compare the
is measured regularly as the beakers cool down. temperature change with insulation to how
it would change if no insulation had been
used. Any differences must be due to the
independent variable and not due to control
The dependent variable is the
variables such as the water volume or type
water temperature. Measuring
the temperature allows you to see if of glass beaker.
some kinds of insulation work better
than others. Scientists collect data by
measuring the dependent variable.

Control variables include

the water volume, its
Thermometer
starting temperature, and
the location of the beakers.
These must be the same
for every beaker to ensure
The independent a fair test.
variable is the type of
insulation. This is the
thing you vary to look
for an effect. Each
beaker of hot water has
a different kind of
insulation (or none).

Bubble wrap Fleece No insulation

 Working scientifically 19

The planning process

Experiments should always be carefully
planned in advance. The most important 1. First, decide which variable you will
deliberately change. This is the independent
part of the planning process is to decide variable. In the insulation experiment,
what the independent and dependent the type of insulation is the
variables are. It’s also important to work independent variable.
out what equipment you need and ensure
the experiment can be conducted safely.

6. Decide what safety 2. Decide which variable

precautions you need you’ll measure to look
to take and write for an effect. In the
them down. For this insulation experiment,
investigation, be the temperature
careful with the hot of the water is the
water, and make sure dependent variable.
you wipe up any spills
right away in case
someone slips.

3. Decide which variables

you need to keep constant
to ensure the test is fair.
These are your control
variables. For example,
5. Plan the steps the volume of water in
you’ll take during the each beaker and the
experiment in detail. starting temperature
How often will you take must be the same. If
the temperature? How you compare different
long will you leave the insulation materials, they
beakers standing? What volume of should be equally thick.
water will you use, and what should
the starting temperature be?
4. Make a list of all the
equipment you’ll need,
including measuring instruments.

Collecting data
Bubble wrap
Fleece
All experiments involve collecting data, which
Temperature

we use to see if a hypothesis is supported or No insulation

not. Planning how and when to collect data
is important. For this experiment, taking the
temperature regularly allows you to create
a graph of your results. The graph helps you Possible
spot possible errors in the measurements, incorrect
and it helps you reach a conclusion. reading

Time
20 Working scientifically

Measuring Key facts

Most experiments involve taking ✓ Most experiments involve measurements

measurements of physical quantities, of physical quantities, such as temperature,
such as temperature, volume, mass, volume, mass, or time.
or time. To obtain accurate data, you ✓ Instruments that can measure large
need to use an instrument suited to the quantities are usually not accurate when
size of the quantity you are measuring. measuring small quantities.

Length and distance Force

Use a tape measure to measure longer

distances, such as when finding your
walking speed over 10 meters.

Use a ruler to measure the length

of a small object.

This force meter has a stiff

Volume spring and can measure
Use a beaker or large forces up to 50 N, but it
Use a small
measuring cylinder is not very accurate for
measuring cylinder
for measuring large measuring very small forces.
for small volumes
volumes of liquid. of liquid. This force meter has a
stretchier spring and can
accurately measure small
forces. You will damage it
if you try to measure a
large force with it.

Time
Use a stopwatch to measure periods of
time greater than 10 seconds.

Use an electronic timer, like

this photogate, to measure
very small time intervals.

A digital multimeter
Electronic instruments can measure voltage,
current, and resistance.

Electronic instruments are often more accurate than manual

Test leads are connected
versions. However, this doesn’t always make them the best choice. to circuits.
They are more expensive and easier to damage, so they should
only be used in experiments where greater accuracy is necessary.
 Working scientifically 21

Significant figures Key facts

The significant figures in a number are the digits that ✓ More accurate measuring
have meaningful information. More accurate measuring instruments produce values
devices produce values with more significant figures. When with more significant figures.
collecting data or doing calculations, we often need to ✓ When multiplying or dividing, round
round numbers up or down to just a few significant figures. answers to the same number of
significant figures as the least
accurate starting value.
Recording data
The number of significant figures depends on the measuring
✓ When adding or subtracting, round
answers to the same number of
instruments you use. For instance, a ruler with a scale divided
decimal places as the least accurate
into centimeters gives fewer significant figures than a ruler
starting value.
with a scale divided into millimeters. Digital instruments often
give more significant figures than traditional ones (but this
doesn’t necessarily mean they are more accurate).

Using calculators

Sums done on calculators may give you more

significant figures than you need. Suppose
Width = 6 cm you calculate the resistance of a light bulb
(1 significant figure) using the formula below. You use readings
from a voltmeter and an ammeter that each
show values to three significant figures.

8.12 V
R=
1.04 A
The answer on a calculator is 7.8076923.

Writing your answer like this implies you

know the resistance to 8 significant figures,
but the measuring instruments were only
accurate to 3 significant figures, so your
answer should be too:

R = 7.81 Ω (3 s.f.)

When multiplying or dividing, round your

Width = 5.7 cm answer to the same number of significant
(2 significant figures) figures as the least accurate starting
value. When adding or
subtracting, round your 7.8076923
answer to the same
number of decimal
places as the least
accurate starting value.
22 Working scientifically

Presenting data
Data is the information you collect from experiments. It often consists
of numbers such as measurements. Organizing data into tables, charts,
or graphs helps you make sense of it and spot patterns. The kind of
chart or graph you use depends on the kind of data you collect.

Independent Dependent variable

variable
Tables
Tables are useful for organizing Acceleration (m/s2)
Mass added to
data and for doing simple cart (kg)
calculations, such as working 1st run 2nd run 3rd run Mean
out mean (average) values.
This table shows results from 0.5 9.9 10.2 10.1 10.1
an experiment investigating
1.0 6.8 8.8 6.6 6.7
how mass added to a cart affects
its acceleration. 1.5 5.2 4.8 5.1 5.0

Tables help us spot “outliers.” These are very

different from the other values and may be mistakes.
This value was ignored when calculating the mean.

Pie charts Food, drink, Other artificial sources,

and water 9% including nuclear tests and
Use a pie chart to show nuclear power plants 0.5%
percentages or relative
Cosmic
amounts. For example, radiation 13%
this pie chart shows
estimates of different Radon 42%
sources of background Soil and
radiation that people are buildings 16%
exposed to worldwide. Medical
treatment 19.5%

Bar charts
Use a bar chart when the
independent variable is made Label the The dependent variable is
usually shown on the y-axis.
up of discrete (separate) axis and give
categories. For example, this the unit.
bar chart shows how much 12 000
energy different groups of
Average energy
required (kJ)

people need each day. You

should also use a bar chart 8000
when the independent variable
consists of discrete values,
4000
such as numbers of people
or numbers of objects (which
are always counted in The independent 0
whole numbers). variable is usually
Age 5 Age 11 Age 18 Adult
shown on the x-axis. Age range
 Working scientifically 23

Continuous and discrete variables

Discrete variables are variables that can only have

certain values. For example, the number of passengers
on a plane can only be a whole number, and the
insulation around a container of hot water can only
consist of certain materials. A continuous variable, Discrete variable
however, can take any value and may not be a whole
number. Length and weight, for example, are
continuous variables.

Continuous variable

Line graphs
Use a line graph when both 8
axes show numerical values 6
that vary continuously rather
Temperature (0C)

than dividing into discrete 4 Join the points

(separate) categories. Line with straight lines.
graphs are often used when 2
one of your variables is time. 0
This graph shows how the 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
temperature of ice changes −2
Time (min)
as it is heated. Time is usually
−4 plotted on the x-axis.

−6

Scatter graphs
Use a scatter graph to
6
investigate a relationship
Current (A)

between two variables. This

graph shows how the current 4
through a resistor and through
a bulb varies when the voltage 2
is changed. If the data points
form a clear pattern when
plotted on the graph, such as a −10 −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10
line, we say the variables are Voltage (V)
−2
correlated. When this is the
case, draw a straight “line of
best fit” or “curve of best fit” −4 Resistor
through the points. Draw a line of best Bulb
fit through or as −6
close to as many
points as possible.
24 Working scientifically

Patterns in data Key facts

In some experiments, you might look to see if there ✓ A correlation is when one variable
is a relationship between two variables. In other changes as the other variable does.
words, if you change one variable, how does it ✓ A correlation does not show that one
affect the other? change causes the other.
✓ A relationship between two variables
is linear if the points form a straight
Correlation
line when plotted on a graph.
When two variables appear to be linked, we say they are
correlated. Plotting a scatter graph of your data is a good way ✓ A relationship is proportional if a
to spot correlations. A correlation between two variables doesn’t straight line goes through the origin.
show that one causes the other. For example, ice cream sales and
swimming accidents are positively correlated, but this is because
ice cream and swimming are both more popular in hot weather and
not because ice cream causes swimming accidents.

No correlation Weak correlation Strong positive Strong negative

The data points are scattered The points look as if they might correlation correlation
around randomly and show no be grouped around a diagonal The points form a diagonal The line formed by these
pattern. There is no correlation line. The large scatter means line, showing that one points shows that one variable
between the variables. this is only a weak relationship. variable increases as decreases as the other increases.
the other one does. This is a negative correlation.

Linear and proportional relationships

Graphs showing correlation can reveal other interesting
patterns in a relationship, depending on their shape.

1
y

x
Linear Proportional Inversely proportional Checking
A correlation where the If the points form a straight In an inversely proportional To check whether a relationship
points form a straight line line through the origin (where relationship, one variable is inversely proportional, plot
is described as linear. x and y both equal zero), the halves when the other doubles. one variable against the inverse
relationship is described as This forms a curved line. of the other (1 divided by the
proportional. This means that value). The graph should be a
if one variable doubles, so straight line through the origin.
does the other.
 Working scientifically 25

Conclusions
The conclusion of an experiment describes
what you found out, interprets the results,
and says whether the experiment agrees with 0.5
the prediction you made.

Current (A)
0.4

0.3
An electricity experiment
Three students carried out an experiment to test 0.2
the prediction that the current flowing through
a bulb is proportional to the voltage across it. 0.1
By using an ammeter to measure current in the
0
circuit and a voltmeter to measure voltage across 0 1 2 3 4
the bulb, they obtained the results shown in the
graph. Their conclusions are shown below.
Voltage (V)

Conclusion 1 Conclusion 2 Conclusion 3

“The current does go up “The current increases as “The graph shows that
when the voltage goes up, so voltage increases, but the the current increases as the
the prediction was correct.” graph is a curve. A proportional voltage increases. At lower
relationship would produce a voltages, the relationship
straight line, so the prediction could be proportional, as
was not correct.” the first few points fall on
a straight line. However, at
higher voltages, there is a
smaller increase in current
An incorrect conclusion
for every increase in voltage.
The description is not detailed, A better conclusion
and the graph does not show a The description has This shows that the resistance
proportional relationship, which more detail and the final is increasing. The prediction
would produce a straight line. conclusion is correct. was partially correct, as the
current does increase with
voltage, but the relationship
is not proportional.”

An excellent conclusion
The description is much
more detailed. The student
has used their knowledge
of the link between current,
resistance, and voltage
to suggest what may be
causing the change in
shape of the graph.
26 Working scientifically

Accuracy and Key facts

precision ✓ Accurate measurements are ones

that are close to the true value
being measured.
When planning and evaluating an experiment, you
need to think about the accuracy and precision ✓ Precise measurements are those that
give the same (or similar) values when
of your measurements. The words accurate and the measurement is repeated.
precise have specific meanings in science.
✓ Errors in measurements can be
random or systematic.
Accurate or precise?
A measurement is considered more accurate if it is closer
than other measurements to the true value being measured.
It is precise if repeating the measurement several times
produces values that are the same or very close to each The center of the target
other. To understand the difference, it helps to think of represents the true
measurements as trying to hit a target. value being measured.

Inaccurate and imprecise Precise but inaccurate Accurate but imprecise Accurate and precise
The measurements are These measurements are These are close to the center These measurements are both
inaccurate, as they are not precise because they are all but not to each other, so they accurate and precise.
near the center of the target, nearly the same value, but are accurate but imprecise.
and imprecise, as they are they are inaccurate because
not close to each other. they aren’t close to the center.

Types of error

Systematic errors Random errors

The accuracy of some instruments Random errors are different
depends on how they’re used. Balances for every reading. For example,
should be set to zero with a container on if you take the temperature
them so you only measure the mass of of water in a beaker, the
the contents. If a balance is not zeroed thermometer might return a
properly, all the measurements will be slightly different reading each
incorrect by the same amount. This is time it dips into a different part
a systematic error and reduces the of the water. This reduces the
accuracy of the measurements. precision of your measurements.
0.5
This should be zero when the
beaker is empty.
 Working scientifically 27

Evaluations
We often evaluate our experiments to decide how much we can trust the results. An
experiment has to be valid and fair, and the conclusions must be based on high-quality
data. An evaluation may also suggest how the method could be improved.

Is the experiment valid?

An experiment is valid if you can answer
“yes” to all of these questions.

Was it a fair test? Is it reproducible?

Did you control all the If a different person carries
variables apart from out the experiment using
the independent variable different equipment, do
you were testing? they get the same results?

Is it repeatable? Did it test the hypothesis?

If you repeat the Did you make a prediction
experiment using from your hypothesis? Was
the same equipment, do the experiment a good test
you get the same results? of the hypothesis?

Data quality
Good data is accurate and precise. You can assess the quality of your data by repeating an
experiment, but sometimes you can also tell by looking carefully at the results. The graphs
below are from an experiment measuring the extension of a spring holding different weights.
Extension

Extension

Extension

Weight Weight Weight

The data points are scattered around the The points are closer to the line, so the This data is very close to the line of best
line of best fit. The data is imprecise. data is precise. However, extension should fit, and the line goes through the origin,
be zero for zero weight, so it’s odd that the as we expect. This data is both accurate
line does not pass through the origin. There and precise.
may be a systematic error (see page 26)
causing inaccurate data.
28 Working scientifically

Using mathematical Key facts

models ✓ Mathematical models use equations

to represent what happens in the
real world.
Mathematical models use equations to represent what
happens in the real world. Sometimes we can work out ✓ Mathematical models can be used
to describe graphs of results.
a mathematical model from a graph of results. At other
times, we might use an equation to predict a result. ✓ We can rearrange equations to
calculate particular quantities.

Linear equations
If a relationship between two
variables produces a straight
line on a graph, we call the
relationship linear. Linear
relationships can be described
by equations written like this:
Length (m)

y = mx + b. For instance, this

graph shows how the length of
a spring changes when different The line can be described by the following equation:
weights are hung on it. If you length = (spring constant × weight) + original length
know the original length of the
spring and the slope of the line,
Original length of spring
you can use the graph or the
equation to work out the spring’s
length for any weight. 0
0 Weight (N)

Rearranging equations
Sometimes you need to rearrange an equation
before doing a calculation. For example, the
1. F = m × a
equation F = m × a tells you how to calculate
force if you know mass and acceleration,
but what if you’re told the force and asked to 2. F m×a
=
calculate acceleration? You need to rearrange m m Divide both
the formula so that a is the subject. You can do sides by m.
it by dividing each side by m. Remember that 3. F m×a
equations have to stay balanced, so the same = These two m’s
operation must be carried out on both sides. m m cancel each
other out.

4. F
= a
m
F=m×a
F
5. a =
m
 Working scientifically 29

Standard form
Saturn is about 1 400 000 000 000 meters from the Sun. A bacterium is
about 0.000 001 meters wide. It’s easy to make mistakes in calculations
when numbers have lots of zeros, so we simplify them by writing them
in “standard form.” This shows a long number as a much shorter number
(from 1 to under 10) multiplied by a power of 10. To work out the power
of 10, count how many times the decimal point has to move.

This shows how many places the

decimal point has moved.

The second part

is a power of 10.
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

1.400 000 000 000 m = 1.4 × 1012 m

The first part is a number
with only one digit in front
of the decimal point.

The minus sign shows the

decimal point has been
1 2 3 4 5 6 moved to the right.

0.000 001 m = 1.0 × 10−6 m

Calculating percentages
A percentage is a number shown as a fraction of 100. To turn any
fraction into a percentage, work out the fraction on a calculator,
multiply the answer by 100, and add a percentage symbol. For example,
a 30-watt light bulb transfers 18 watts of power to light and wastes the
0.6
other 12 watts as heat. What’s its efficiency as a percentage?

useful power output (W)

efficiency (%) = × 100
total power input (W)

18 W
= × 100
30 W

= 0.6 × 100

= 60%
30 Working scientifically

SI units Derived units

Most SI units are derived from base units. For
example, the unit for area (m2) is based on the meter.
Science is an international activity.
Scientists from different countries Quantity SI unit
work together on the same problems,
so it helps if everyone uses the same area square meter (m2)

units for measurements. Scientists volume cubic meter (m3)

around the world use the Système
International (SI) system of units. speed and velocity meters per second (m/s)

meters per second

acceleration
Base units squared (m/s2)
All SI units are based on a small number of 1 Hz =1 per
base units. The five base units in the table frequency hertz (Hz)
second
below are used in this book.
force newton (N)

kilogram meters per

momentum
Quantity SI base unit Symbol second (kg m/s)

time second s pressure pascal (Pa) 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

length meter m energy joule (J)

power watt (W) 1 W = 1 J/s

mass kilogram kg

current ampere (amp) A charge coulomb (C)

temperature kelvin K potential difference

volt (V)
(voltage)
One unit on the Kelvin temperature scale is
the same size as 1 degree on the Celsius resistance ohm (Ω)
scale, but the scales start at different points.

Prefix Multiplies by Example

nano (n) 10−9 1 nanometer (nm) = 0.000 000 001 m

micro (μ) 10−6 1 microsecond (µs) = 0.000 001 s

milli (m) 10−3 1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 g

centi (c) 10−2 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m

SI prefixes kilo (k) 103 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 g

A meter isn’t a very
useful unit for measuring mega (M) 106 1 megahertz (MHz) = 1 000 000 Hz
the size of an atom or the
distance to Mars, so we giga (G) 109 1 gigawatt (GW) = 1 000 000 000 W
add prefixes to standard
units to make bigger tera (T) 1012 1 terawatt (TW) = 1 000 000 000 000 W
or smaller versions.
Energy
32 Energy

Energy Key facts

Energy is the ability to make something ✓ Energy can be stored in many different ways.
happen. It moves your arms and legs, ✓ Energy can be transferred from one energy
charges your phone, powers your TV, store to another.
and makes the Sun shine. Energy can ✓ Energy cannot be destroyed.
be stored in different ways or transferred
✓ Movement energy is also called kinetic energy.
from one store to another, but it can
never be destroyed.

Light transfers energy

from a bulb to
its surroundings.

The faster the

clockwork robot
walks, the greater
its store of kinetic
energy.

Energy stores Energy transfers

Energy can be stored in different ways. Energy can be transferred from
The energy stored by a moving object one energy store to another. When
is called kinetic energy. The faster you turn on a lamp, the bulb
an object is moving, the greater its transfers energy to the surroundings
kinetic energy. by light and heating.
 Energy 33

Energy and food Key facts

The food we eat supplies our bodies with energy. ✓ The scientific unit for
We measure the amount of energy in food using units energy is the joule (J).
called kilojoules. ✓ The energy in food is
often shown in kilojoules
(1 kJ = 1000 J).
Energy in different foods
Different foods store different amounts of energy. We ✓ A person’s daily energy
sometimes measure food energy in Calories, but the requirement depends on
scientific unit for energy is the joule. Food contains their age, size, and level of
thousands of joules, so we use units called kilojoules physical activity.
(1 kJ = 1000 J). The chart here shows how long you would
have to run for to use up the energy in different foods.

Energy in 100 g of different foods

Broccoli
130 kJ (31 Calories)

Apple
180 kJ (43 Calories)

Banana
400 kJ (96 Calories)

Bread
1040 kJ (249 Calories)

Pizza
1400 kJ (335 Calories)

Milk chocolate
2200 kJ (526 Calories)

0 10 20 30 40 50
Minutes running

Energy and exercise

The average adult needs around 10 000 kJ of energy a day,

but the figure varies from person to person and from day
to day. In general, the greater a person’s mass, the more
energy they need—so adults use more energy than children. Walking Swimming Jogging
How physically active you are also affects how much energy 800–1700 kJ 1200–3000 kJ 1900–4000 kJ
your body uses. per hour per hour per hour
34 Energy

Energy stores Key facts

Energy isn’t just stored in batteries—it can ✓ Energy can be stored in many different ways,
be stored in many different ways, from the including thermal energy, chemical energy,
kinetic energy stored in a moving car to the gravitational potential energy, kinetic
potential energy of a diver on a high diving energy, elastic energy, and nuclear energy.

board. When energy moves from one store ✓ An energy transfer is the movement of energy
to another, we say the energy is transferred. from one store to another.

Thermal energy Kinetic energy

When energy is stored in hot objects, we A moving object has kinetic energy.
call it heat energy or thermal energy. When The faster it moves or the greater
you heat water to make tea or coffee, its its mass, the greater its store of
store of thermal energy increases. kinetic energy.

Chemical energy Elastic potential energy

Energy stored in chemical bonds is Stretch a rubber band or squeeze a
called chemical energy. The energy spring and it will store elastic potential
stored in batteries and food is stored as energy until you release it. Elastic
chemical energy. Explosives and fuels potential energy can also be stored in
store large amounts of chemical energy objects when they’re squashed or twisted.
that transfers to thermal energy when
they burn.

Nuclear energy Gravitational potential energy

The energy stored inside atoms is called An object or a person raised to a high
nuclear energy or atomic energy. This position stores gravitational potential
store of energy powers nuclear reactors, energy (GPE). When a diver falls, their
nuclear bombs, and the Sun. GPE is transferred to kinetic energy.

Hydroelectric power

Hydroelectric power stations use gravitational potential

energy to make electricity. A dam is built to hold back
a river in a valley, forming a deep artificial lake. Water
from the lake flows downhill through pipes inside the
dam, turning machines called turbines, which drive
electricity generators. Gravitational potential energy
transfers to kinetic energy in the turbines and ultimately
to electrical energy, which is used to power homes.
 Energy 35

Energy transfers Key facts

When you turn on a light, ride a bike, cook a ✓ Energy can be transferred from
meal, or do anything at all, you transfer energy one energy store to another.
from one energy store to another. Energy transfers ✓ The total amount of energy in an
make everything happen. isolated system is not changed by
an energy transfer. This is known as
the law of conservation of energy.
Energy transfer by heating
Heating an object transfers energy to its thermal energy ✓ Energy can be transferred in
many ways: by heat, forces,
store. This either makes the object warmer or causes a
change of state to happen. Here, chemical energy stored electricity, radiation, and sound.
in fuel is transferred by heating to water in a tea kettle. The
hot water will eventually cool down as energy escapes, but
the total amount of energy shared by the fuel, stove, tea
kettle, water, and their surroundings remains constant. This
is called the law of conservation of energy.
Other energy transfers

Heating isn’t the only way to transfer

Energy stored in energy. Energy can also be transferred by
the surroundings forces, electricity, radiation, and sound.

By forces
If a force acts on an object—
for example, by moving it—it
Energy transfers energy to the object.
transferred We call the energy transferred
by heating in this way work.

By electricity
Energy stored in
Whenever you turn on an
the hot water
electric device, energy is
transferred along the wires
by electricity.

Energy By radiation
Different forms of radiation—
transferred such as visible light, X-rays,
by heating and microwaves—transfer
energy at incredible speeds.
Our planet gets most of its
Energy stored in a energy in this way from
camping stove the Sun.

By sound
Energy diagrams Like all types of wave, sound
We can show energy transfers in simple waves transfer energy as they
diagrams like this one. The stove, tea kettle, travel. When sound waves
reach your ears, the energy is
and their surroundings together make up
transferred to your eardrums,
what we call an isolated system—a set of which vibrate.
objects that don’t exchange matter or
energy with anything outside.
36 Energy

Renewable Key facts

energy resources ✓ Sources of energy that will never run

out are called renewable.

Sources of energy that will never run out are called ✓ Renewable energy resources
contribute far less to climate change
renewable energy resources. These energy resources
than fossil fuels.
are becoming more widely used because they
contribute far less to climate change than fossil fuels. ✓ Sources of renewable energy include
solar, biofuels, wind, hydroelectric,
All sources of renewable energy have advantages tidal, wave, and geothermal.
and disadvantages.

Solar energy
A solar power station uses the Sun’s energy
to generate electricity. At a concentrated solar
power plant, mirrors arranged in circles focus
sunlight onto a central receiver, where the heat
is used to boil water and make steam, which
drives a generator. Electricity can also be produced
directly using solar cells (photovoltaic cells). Solar
power plants and solar cells work best in sunny
climates and can’t generate electricity at night.

Biofuels
In some parts of the world, biofuels are used to
power cars rather than gasoline or diesel. Biofuels
can be made from fast-growing crops like sugar
cane. The sugar is fermented to make ethanol,
which can be burned in car engines. Although
biofuels contribute less to global warming than
fossil fuels, their production takes up land that
could be used to grow food and has led to
deforestation in tropical areas.

Wind energy
Warmed by the Sun, the air in Earth’s atmosphere
is continually moving, and this kinetic energy can
be captured by wind turbines and used to generate
electricity. Wind turbines require suitable weather
and must be high above the ground or ocean to
work well. Many wind farms are built offshore
(in the ocean), where they don’t spoil the
appearance of natural landscapes.
 Energy 37

Hydroelectricity
Hydroelectric dams hold back rivers to
form artificial lakes. Water from the lake
flows through pipes to turbines at the
bottom of the dam. The turbines drive
generators, which produce electricity.
One disadvantage of hydroelectricity
is that the natural habitat of the valley is
lost when it’s flooded to make the lake.

Wave and tidal energy

Wave and tidal power stations use the motion
of sea water to drive turbines placed in water.
Wave power is still experimental. Tidal power
stations are difficult and expensive to build
but can produce large amounts of electricity
at predictable times, though not constantly.
One disadvantage is that they can change tidal
patterns upstream, affecting the wildlife there.

Geothermal energy
At a geothermal power station, cold water is
pumped deep underground, where it is heated
to make steam by energy from Earth’s interior.
The steam is then used to drive electricity
generators. Geothermal power stations produce
very little pollution but work best in volcanically
active places.

Electricity is used to
Power stations transfer energy but is
Steam
not a source of energy.
Turbine
Most power stations use the same system to generate
electricity. Energy from fuels or from the Sun is used
to turn water into steam, which flows through pipes and
turns spinning fans called turbines. The turbines drive
generators, which create electricity. In wind farms,
hydroelectric power stations, and wave or tidal power
stations, moving water or air turns the turbines directly.

Heat Water Generator Pylon

38 Energy

Nonrenewable Key facts

energy ✓ Nonrenewable energy

comes from energy
resources that will run out.
The modern world uses a lot of energy to power everything
from cars and planes to the gadgets in our homes. Most of our ✓ Most of our energy comes
from nonrenewable
energy comes from nonrenewable resources (resources that sources.
will run out one day), such as fossil fuels.
✓ Burning fossil fuels pollutes
the atmosphere and causes
Fossil fuels climate change.
Fossil fuels formed from the remains of plants and algae that lived in the
distant past. For millions of years, these organisms transferred energy
from sunlight to stored chemical energy. These fuels are very useful
because a small mass of fossil fuel stores a large quantity of energy.
However, burning fossil fuels pollutes the atmosphere with carbon
dioxide and is the main cause of climate change.

Oil Coal Natural gas

Oil (petroleum) comes from tiny fossilized This solid fuel formed from the fossilized Natural gas is burned in power stations
sea organisms. Crude oil obtained from remains of trees and other plants. Coal is to make electricity and in homes to power
underground is used to make gasoline, burned in power stations and generates central heating systems or cook food. It
diesel, and kerosene (a liquid fuel used to much of the world’s electricity. As well as transfers about twice as much energy per
power jet engines in aircraft). These fuels producing carbon dioxide when it burns, it kilogram as coal, which means it releases
are very convenient to store, transport, refill produces a pollutant called sulfur dioxide, only half as much carbon dioxide when
tanks, and burn in engines. which causes acid rain. burned, causing less pollution.

Nuclear power Water vapor Cooling

Nuclear tower
Nuclear power stations use the energy stored in the atomic nuclei reactor Turbine
Electricity
of radioactive elements such as uranium. Nuclear fuels are building
pylon
nonrenewable, but they store huge amounts of energy and do not
emit greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Disadvantages of
nuclear power include the production of radioactive waste that
remains harmful for thousands of years and requires burial deep
underground and the risk of widespread contamination of the
environment if there is an accident.
 Energy 39

Climate change Key facts

Much of the energy we use comes from fossil fuels, which ✓ The use of fossil fuels as an
release carbon dioxide gas (CO2) when we burn them. CO2 energy resource releases
is a greenhouse gas—it traps heat in Earth’s atmosphere. carbon dioxide (CO2) into
As atmospheric levels of CO2 have risen, the planet’s the atmosphere.
climate has changed. ✓ Rising levels of atmospheric
CO2 and other greenhouse
gases cause climate
The greenhouse effect change through the
The main cause of climate change is pollution of the atmosphere greenhouse effect.
with greenhouse gases, such as CO2 from fossil fuels and methane
from agriculture. These gases absorb heat radiated from Earth’s
surface and reradiate it into the air, making the atmosphere warmer
(much as glass traps warmth in a greenhouse). Without any
greenhouse effect, Earth would be too cold for most life.
However, human activity is making the effect too strong.

3. Some of the energy

escapes into space.

Sun
2. Earth’s surface
1. Radiation reradiates the energy 4. Greenhouse gases in the
from the Sun as infrared radiation. atmosphere absorb some of
passes through the the energy and reradiate it back
atmosphere and warms to Earth, warming the atmosphere.
Earth’s surface.

At
m
os
ph
ere
Earth

Atmospheric CO2 Atmospheric CO2

420
Measurements of CO2 levels in CO2 levels
Parts per million

the atmosphere show they are 380 have risen very

currently rising steeply. Levels steeply over the
of CO2 in the distant past can last 200 years.
also be measured by sampling 340
bubbles of air trapped in
ancient ice sheets. These
300
studies show that CO2 levels
were stable until about 200
years ago, when the use of 260
fossil fuels began rising rapidly. 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Year
40 Energy

Trends in energy use Key facts

Our consumption of energy resources—especially ✓ The use of fossil fuels has

fossil fuels—has increased dramatically in the last increased dramatically in
200 years. Because fossil fuels are nonrenewable and the last 200 years.
harm the environment, many countries are now trying ✓ The use of fossil fuels
to increase their use of renewable energy instead. is one of the causes of
climate change.

Energy consumption
✓ Many countries are now
trying to reduce their
The graph shows how consumption of different energy
use of fossil fuels and
resources has grown since the year 1800, when the world
increase their use of
was starting to industrialize. The rise in the use of fossil
renewable energy.
fuels has caused a rise in the level of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere—the main cause of climate change.

Traditional Coal Crude oil Natural gas Renewables

biofuels
160
Renewables make up a small
fraction of energy resources used.
(petawatt-hour)

120
The use of crude oil and natural
gas grew rapidly as drilling
Energy

technology improved.
80

Because it is relatively easy to

mine, coal was the first fossil
40
fuel to become widely used.

0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
Year
1 petawatt-hour is the energy used when 1 million
billion watts of power is sustained for an hour.

Carbon capture and storage Power station

Carbon dioxide released when fossil fuels are burned

CO2 pumped
is the main cause of climate change. One idea underground
proposed to reduce emissions is carbon capture. The
carbon dioxide in waste gases from power stations is
made to react with chemicals called amines to form a
liquid that can be stored underground. Power stations
could cut emissions by 90 percent this way, but the
electricity they produce would be more expensive.
 Energy 41

Efficiency Key facts

When you turn on a light, not all the energy is transferred to ✓ An efficient device
the surroundings by light—some of it is transferred to the air wastes only a small
by heating. This is wasted energy. An efficient device is one percentage of the energy
that wastes only a small percentage of the energy it transfers. it transfers usefully.
✓ Sankey diagrams
show efficiency.
Sankey diagrams
We can show how efficient a device is with a Sankey diagram. ✓ Energy-efficient
devices help reduce our
The diagrams here show that old-fashioned filament light
bulbs have very low efficiency because most of the energy is consumption of energy.
transferred to the surroundings as heat. In contrast, an LED
light bulb transfers most of its electrical energy to light and
wastes only a small amount as heat.

Light energy
This thin arrow shows
Electrical energy that only a small
Heat ene amount of energy is
r gy
transferred by light.

The width of the arrow

The large arrow shows
shows the amount of
that most of the energy
energy transferred.
is wasted as heat.
Filament bulb

Most of the energy supplied to an

LED bulb is transferred by light.

Light energy
Electrical energy
Heat energy The total amount of
energy transferred away
from the bulb is the
same as the amount
Some energy is transferred to it.
LED bulb wasted as heat.

Improving efficiency
Efficiency

All machines and devices waste energy, and that wasted

energy ultimately escapes to the surroundings as heat. For
example, bicycles waste energy through friction between
moving parts. This can be reduced by keeping the chain
and other moving parts lubricated. By using energy-efficient
electrical devices in our homes, we can reduce how much Many household appliances have
energy-efficiency labels that help
energy we waste and so reduce our consumption of fossil
people choose the most efficient
fuels, which is good for the environment. product to buy.
42 Energy

Heat transfers Key facts

Why do hot drinks cool down? Stores of thermal ✓ Heat always transfers from hot
energy (heat) never stay in one place—the energy objects to colder objects until
always transfers from hot things to colder things. they are at the same temperature
These transfers can happen in different ways. (thermal equilibrium).
✓ Thermal energy is transferred
in three ways: by conduction,
Heating water convection, and radiation.
When water is heated on a gas stove, energy
is transferred in three ways: by conduction,
convection, and radiation.

Convection is the transfer

of heat by currents moving
within a fluid. As water in
the bottom of the pitcher heats
up, it expands and becomes
less dense. This makes it rise,
Cold water Hot water creating convection currents.
sinks rises

Conduction is the transfer

of thermal energy through Radiation is the transfer of
solids or between materials energy by electromagnetic
that are in physical contact. waves, which travel at the speed
Heat from the burning fuel of light. As well as emitting light
transfers through the glass that we can see, the flames emit
to the water by conduction. infrared radiation.

Thermal equilibrium

If you leave a hot drink standing, it will cool down until it’s
the same temperature as its surroundings. Similarly, a cold
drink will warm up. This is because energy continually transfers
from hotter objects to colder objects until they are at the same
temperature as each other. When that happens, we say that
they are in thermal equilibrium.
Hot drink Cold drink
 Energy 43

Radiation Key facts

When you put your hand near a hot teapot, you can ✓ Hotter objects emit more infrared
feel its heat warm your skin. That’s because your skin radiation than cooler objects.
can sense something your eyes can’t see: infrared ✓ When infrared radiation strikes an
radiation. All objects emit infrared radiation, but the object, it transfers energy to its
hotter an object is, the more radiation it gives out. thermal energy store.
✓ Matte black surfaces are better
at absorbing and emitting
infrared radiation than shiny
Thermal images or white surfaces.
Although infrared radiation is invisible to our eyes, thermal
cameras can detect it. This thermal image shows the radiation
emitted by hot tea in a cup and a teapot. Like visible light,
infrared radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation and Cooler areas
can travel through space. When it strikes an object, some of appear blue.
the infrared radiation is absorbed and transfers energy to the
object’s thermal energy store, making it warmer. You can feel
this warmth on your skin when you put your hand close to a
hot cup without touching it.

Hotter areas
are represented
by white or
pink in this
thermal image.

Some of the infrared Thermal energy has

radiation emitted by spread into the teapot’s
the teapot is reflected handle by conduction.
by the table top.

Absorbers and reflectors

The amount of energy an object absorbs

from infrared radiation depends on the color
and texture of its surface. Matte (nonshiny)
and black surfaces are good at absorbing and
emitting infrared radiation. White or shiny
objects, however, reflect radiation, so they
absorb relatively little thermal energy. Black absorbs and emits White reflects infrared
infrared radiation well radiation well
44 Energy

Investigating Method

radiation 1. Empty and rinse three drink cans or

food cans. Paint one can matte black, another
white, and the third shiny silver. The color
This experiment allows you to compare the of the can is the independent variable in
this experiment.
rates at which black, white, and shiny surfaces
absorb infrared radiation. You can also use the 2. Pour an equal amount of cold water into
each can. Insert a thermometer and put some
same equipment to investigate how different cotton around it to reduce loss of heat.
surfaces emit radiation.
3. Place the cans outside on a sunny day. The
quantity of water in the cans and the amount
of heat they receive from the Sun are both
control variables.

4. Note the temperature of the water in each

Absorbing radiation can. Temperature is the dependent variable
Infrared radiation from the Sun transfers energy in the experiment.
to the cans, heating the water inside them. Matte
black surfaces absorb more infrared radiation 5. Leave the cans in the Sun for 90 minutes,
and record the temperature of the water
than white or shiny surfaces, so the water in every 10 minutes.
the black can should heat up the fastest.

Sun
Stopwatch

1:30:00
Thermometer

Cotton

Shiny silver

White paint

Matte black paint

 Energy 45

Results

Record your data in a table and then plot the results on a in all three cans but climbs fastest and highest in the black
graph. The graph shows that the temperature rises quickly can. The silver and white cans show similar results.

Temperature of water in cans

The temperature rises
most quickly in the
black can because
40
it absorbs infrared
radiation well.
Temperature (°C)

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (minutes)
Black can Silver can White can
temperature (°C) temperature (°C) temperature (°C)

Conclusion

The black can absorbed more radiation than the silver there was a breeze or a cloud passing in front of the Sun.
and white ones. The only difference between the cans The temperature and radiation reaching the cans could
was color, so this means black absorbs radiation more be controlled more easily indoors by using a heat lamp
easily than white or silver. The temperature of the water instead of the Sun.
in the cans did not rise steadily. This might be because

Emitting radiation

You can use the same equipment to investigate how hot objects lose energy by
radiation to their surroundings. This experiment is much quicker, so use one can
at a time. Fill the first can with exactly 300 ml of water heated to 50°C, insert a
thermometer, and put some cotton around it. Wait for the temperature to reach
45°C, then record the temperature every 30 seconds for 10 minutes. Repeat
with the other two cans, making sure the room temperature stays the same, and
show your results on a graph.
46 Energy

Conduction Key facts

Metal objects often feel cold to the touch because ✓ Conduction is the transfer of energy
metals are good at transferring energy away from by touch.
your body. The spread of thermal energy through ✓ Metals are good thermal conductors
physical contact is called conduction. because the particles are arranged in
a lattice and because electrons can
move freely.
Conduction in metals
When a metal bar is heated, the extra energy makes the ✓ Materials that are poor thermal
conductors are called insulators.
particles vibrate more. Because the particles in metals
are arranged in a tight lattice, vibrations spread from
particles to their neighbors, transferring kinetic energy
and so causing heat to spread through the object. Metals
also conduct heat well because some of their electrons
can move freely, which also transfers kinetic energy.

Energy spreads
from the hot end
of the metal bar.

Heat spreads through

the metal bar.
Energy is also spread
by free electrons.

Heat Heat Heat

1. Heating transfers 2. The particles vibrate, 3. Energy continues
energy to the particles’ which causes neighboring to spread along the
kinetic energy stores. particles to vibrate, too. metal bar.

Conductors and insulators

Solids that are dense and crystalline, such as metals, are good
thermal conductors because the particles are packed tightly
and locked in a lattice, which helps them transfer energy to their
neighbors. In contrast, air is a very poor thermal conductor
because the particles are far apart. Materials that contain trapped
air, such as wool sweaters and foam coffee cups, are also poor
conductors. We call these materials insulators and use them to
slow the transfer of thermal energy. One of the best insulators is
aerogel, a silicon-based insulator that is more than 99 percent air.
Aerogel blocks heat from a flame
 Energy 47

Investigating Method

insulators 1. Set up the apparatus as shown below. All the beakers must be
the same size, and you should try to keep the thickness of the
insulation the same.
Some materials, like metals, conduct
thermal energy well. Other materials are 2. When you’re ready to start, pour the same volume of hot
water from a tea kettle into each beaker. Put the
poor conductors (good insulators). These thermometers in and start the stopwatch.
materials can be used to reduce the
3. Write down the starting temperatures, then record the
energy transferred from a hot object to its temperature of the water in each beaker every minute
surroundings or to keep something cool by for 10 minutes.
reducing the transfer of energy into it.

Investigating insulation
You can test the insulating
properties of different Thermometer
01:00
materials by using them Cardboard lid to
to insulate beakers of hot reduce heat loss
water. The best insulator Stopwatch
is the one that keeps the
water warm the longest.
You also need to measure
how quickly the temperature
falls with no insulation.

! Bubble wrap Fleece No insulation

Teacher supervision
required

Beakers containing hot water

Results

Plot the data for all three beakers on the same graph.
Draw a smooth curve through the points for each Bubble wrap
beaker. The graph should show that both the bubble
Fleece
wrap and the fleece kept the water warmer than
Temperature

having no insulation and that bubble wrap was best at No insulation

keeping the water hot. You could have carried out this
investigation more simply by recording just the start Incorrect
and end temperatures. However, if you’d also made an reading
incorrect final reading like the one in this graph, you
might then have wrongly concluded that bubble wrap
has the same insulating properties as fleece.

Time
48 Energy

Convection Key facts

Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by ✓ Convection is the transfer of heat by

currents moving in a fluid (a liquid or a gas). When currents moving in a fluid.
a region of air or water is heated, it becomes less ✓ Convection occurs because heating
dense than the surrounding fluid and rises, makes parts of a fluid less dense than
creating a convection current. the surrounding fluid.
✓ Thermals are rising columns of warm
air produced by convection.
Convection in water
We can watch convection happen by adding a colored dye
to water before heating it. In the experiment shown here,
the dye is placed at the bottom of the beaker and gradually
dissolves. When the water over the flame is heated, it
becomes less dense than the surrounding water and rises.

3. The hot
water becomes
less dense and
4. The warm water
spreads out when
rises. The dye
it reaches the top
reveals the
of the beaker.
rising current.

5. Cooler
water sinks
and replaces
the rising
warm water.
2. The Bunsen
burner heats the
water, making 1. A colored
it expand. dye is added
to the water.

How radiators work

Modern central heating systems use The circulating air Warm

convection to heat the air inside houses. transfers heat energy air rises.
Hot water in radiators transfers energy throughout the room.
to the air, which warms and becomes
less dense. The warm air rises and cooler
air replaces it. Eventually, the warm air Cool air flows The radiator
cools and sinks back down, completing in to replace transfers energy
the cycle. This circulation of air is a the warm air. to the air.
convection current.
 Energy 49

How thermals work Wind Small clouds

Warm air
rises, creating often form at the
a thermal. top of thermals.
Roads, buildings, and areas of darker
ground (such as plowed fields) heat
up more quickly in the Sun than areas
of vegetation. They transfer energy to Gliders can stay
the air above them, creating rising aloft by flying
columns of warm air called thermals, between thermals.
which are often topped by fluffy white
cumulus clouds. Gliders can stay
airborne for long periods by circling in
a thermal to climb and then following
the clouds to find another thermal. Plowed fields
warm up more
quickly than pastures.

Thermals
This hang-glider needs
no engine to stay airborne.
It gets all the lift it needs
from thermals—convection
currents rising from the
sun-warmed ground.
50 Energy

Reducing energy transfers

Heating a house can be expensive, so modern
buildings are designed to minimize the transfer Layers of thick, air-filled
insulation in the attic reduce
of energy to their surroundings. Well-insulated conduction of heat from
buildings also reduce our need for fossil fuels the rooms below.
to supply energy for heating.

Insulating houses
Houses can transfer heat to the environment
by conduction, convection, and radiation, so
designers of modern buildings aim to reduce
all three. Good insulation not only helps keep
houses warm in winter, but keeps them cooler
in summer, making them more comfortable.

Small windows and

coated glass reduce loss
of heat by radiation.

Heat loss

A house usually loses most of its energy

through the roof and walls, but heat is
also lost through windows, doors, and
the ground. The greater the difference
in temperature between the inside and Thick
outside of the house, the faster the rate curtains block
of energy loss. convection
currents by
cold windows.
Up to 25% of heat is lost
through the roof.

25%
Layers of insulation
under the floor and
35%
carpets reduce energy
transfer to the ground.
10%

15%

15%
Around 15% of heat is lost Masonry blocks
through the ground. containing air have a lower
thermal conductivity than
traditional bricks or stone.
 Energy 51

Key facts

✓ Energy can be transferred from

the inside of a house to its
surroundings by conduction,
convection, and radiation.
✓ Good insulation reduces heating bills
and reduces the use of fossil fuels.

Windows on the sunny side of the

building may be larger to let more
sunlight enter, reducing the need
for heating in winter.

Vacuum flask

Vacuum flasks were invented by Scottish

chemist James Dewar in 1892 to keep
chemicals cold, but today we use them more
often to keep hot drinks hot. The inner
flask has a double wall made of glass or
aluminum with a vacuum between the two
walls, which reduces transfer of energy by
conduction or convection. The silvery inner
surface also reflects radiation.

Outer lid
used as cup

Insulated stopper

Plastic outer layer

Double- or triple-glazed
windows have either a vacuum
or a gas layer between panes
of glass to reduce heat
transfer by conduction.

Silvery inner surface

Tight-fitting doors stop drafts,
reducing heat transfer by convection.

Cavity walls consist of two layers of masonry

with a gap in between to reduce conduction. A vacuum between
The cavity may be filled with foam or mineral the two inner walls cuts
wool to prevent convection. heat loss by conduction
and convection.

The thicker a wall is, the lower the rate

at which energy transfers through it.
52 Energy

Kinetic and Key facts

potential energy ✓ The faster an object moves,

or the greater its mass,
the greater its store of
As a roller coaster races up and down, energy is transferred kinetic energy (KE).
back and forth between its stores of kinetic energy (KE)
and gravitational potential energy (GPE). The equations
✓ The higher an object is,
or the greater its mass,
on these pages show you how to calculate both quantities. the greater its store of
gravitational potential
energy (GPE).
Kinetic energy
A moving object stores kinetic energy. When it speeds up, energy ✓ When a roller coaster
is transferred to this store, and when it slows down, energy is accelerates downhill,
transferred away. The faster the object moves, or the greater its energy is transferred from
mass, the greater its store of kinetic energy. The equation here its store of GPE to its store
shows how to calculate kinetic energy. of KE.

1 2 2
kinetic energy ( J) = × mass (kg) × speed (m/s)
2 Calculating kinetic
energy
1 2
Ek = × m × v
2
Question
A paper plane has a
mass of 5 g (0.005 kg)
The roller coaster car and travels at 12 m/s.
has maximum GPE at How much kinetic energy
the peak of a hill. does it store?

Answer
1
E = × m × v2
2
1
= × 0.005 kg × (12 m/s)2
2
= 0.36 J

As the car goes downhill,

GPE is transferred to KE
and it speeds up.
 Energy 53

Gravitational potential energy

When you raise an object, the lifting force does work and transfers
energy to the object’s store of gravitational potential energy (GPE).
The higher an object is or the greater its mass, the greater its store On Earth, this figure is approximately
of GPE. This equation shows how to calculate the change in an 10 N/kg. On the Moon, it would be
object’s GPE from a change in its height. about a sixth of this figure.

gravitational field change in

change in GPE ( J) = mass (kg) × ×
strength (N/kg) height (m)
∆GPE = m × g × ∆h

The Greek letter delta

means “change in.”
Calculating GPE

Question
A woman with a mass
of 70 kg climbs 30 m
up a cliff. How much
gravitational potential
energy does she gain?

Answer
∆GPE = m × g × ∆h
= 70 kg × 10 N/kg × 30 m
The car needs a
lot of KE to travel = 21 000 J
around the loop.

Climbing causes the car to slow down.

Energy is transferred from its KE store
to its store of GPE.

Air resistance and friction

between the car and track
continually transfer energy
away, slowing the ride.

The car reaches top

speed and maximum
KE at the bottom of
the hill.
54 Energy

Conservation of energy
Friction with
Energy can be transferred or stored, but it cannot be created the hook and
or destroyed. The total amount of energy in an isolated system with air causes
energy to be
remains the same before and after energy transfers. This is transferred
known as the law of conservation of energy. away, reducing
the height the
pendulum reaches.

Energy transfers in a pendulum

A pendulum is a mass suspended freely from a fixed point.
Energy is transferred between the pendulum’s store of kinetic
energy (KE) and its store of gravitational potential energy
(GPE). The pendulum, hook, and air make up what we call a
system. The total amount of energy within an isolated system
(one that energy does not enter or leave) remains constant.

Maximum GPE
Maximum GPE (stationary again)
Key facts (pendulum is
stationary)

✓ Energy can be transferred or stored,

but it cannot be created or destroyed.
✓ The total amount of energy within an
isolated system remains the same
before and after energy transfers.
✓ As a pendulum swings, energy is
transferred between its stores of
kinetic energy and gravitational GPE transfers
potential energy. to KE
KE transfers to GPE

Maximum KE (pendulum
at maximum speed)

Harmonic motion Angle of pendulum

Angle

The pendulum’s repetitive, back-and-forth movement

is known as simple harmonic motion. Each swing
takes exactly the same length of time, which is why
pendulums are used as timekeepers in mechanical Time
clocks. When the pendulum’s angle of swing is plotted
on the y-axis of a graph against time, it shows a Energy of pendulum GPE + KE
pattern called a sine wave. Plotting GPE and KE on a
graph also produces sine waves. When added, these
Energy

form a straight line, showing that energy is transferred

between them but conserved.

Gravitational potential Kinetic energy (KE) Time

energy (GPE)
 Energy 55

Transferring Key facts

energy by forces ✓ The energy transferred when a force

moves an object is called work.

It takes energy to power a car, make a plane fly, or ✓ As work done is a measure of
energy, the units are joules (J).
ride a bike. The energy transferred when a force
moves an object is called work. ✓ Work done equals force multiplied
by distance moved in the direction
of the force.
Work done
The scientific meaning of “work” is different from its
everyday meaning. When you push an object, the force
does work to move it and transfers energy from your
body to the object’s kinetic energy store. As work done Examples of work
is a measure of energy, the units are joules (J). You can
work out the total energy transferred by multiplying the Work is done whenever energy is transferred.
force by the distance moved in the direction of the force.

work ( J) = force (N) × distance (m)

W=F×d

For instance, if you push a loaded shopping cart for 4 m with

a continuous force of 14 N, you’ve done 56 J of work. When you pull the brakes on a bike, the force
of friction between the brakes and wheel does
W=F×d negative work. Friction transfers energy from the
= 14 N × 4 m bike’s kinetic energy store to thermal energy,
making the bike slow down.
= 56 J

A force of 14
newtons acts
continuously
for 4 meters.

When you drop a ball, the force of gravity

14 N does work and energy is transferred to the
ball’s kinetic energy store, making it accelerate.

When you stretch a spring, the force transfers

energy to the spring’s store of elastic potential
energy. The force needed increases as the spring
gets harder to stretch (see page 82).

4m
56 Energy

Energy and power Key facts

Power is a measure of how quickly energy ✓ Power is a measure of how

is transferred (how quickly work is done). quickly energy is transferred
The more energy transferred per second, (how quickly work is done).
the greater the power. ✓ Power = energy transferred ÷
time taken.

Lifting power ✓ We measure power in watts (W).

1 W = 1 J/s.
Two cranes use motorized pulleys to lift heavy loads from a
ship. Both loads have the same mass, so the same energy
is needed to lift them a certain distance. However, the
orange crane lifts the cargo to twice the height of the yellow
crane in the same time. Its motor has twice the power.

This crane has

twice the power.

10 seconds

10 seconds

Power equation
The equation here shows how to calculate energy transferred ( J )
power. We measure power in units called power (W) =
time (s)
watts (W). A power of 1 watt means 1 joule
of energy is transferred in 1 second.
E
P =
t
 Energy 57

Calculating power Calculating energy

Question Question
A boy weighing 400 newtons climbs A microwave oven with a power rating of 800 W heats
2.6 m up a ladder in 4 seconds. Use a bowl of soup for 3 minutes. How much energy
the formula work = force × distance does it use?
to calculate how much energy was
transferred. What was the boy’s power?

Answer Answer
First, calculate energy transferred (work done). First, rearrange the power equation to make energy
E=f×d the subject, then put in the numbers. Don’t forget
= 400 N × 2.6 m to convert minutes to seconds (3 minutes = 180 s).
= 1040 J E
P=
t
Then use the power formula to calculate his power. E=P×t
E = 800 W × 180 s
P=
t = 144 000 J
1040 J
=
4s
= 260 W

Rocket power
To escape the pull of gravity and reach orbit,
massive rockets require engines with up to
60 gigawatts (60 billion watts) of power.
58 Energy

Calculating Key facts

energy efficiency ✓ The efficiency of a device is

the percentage of energy
transferred usefully.
Efficient devices are good at transferring energy
to useful energy stores. An efficient light bulb, for ✓ Efficiency can be calculated
from either energy or power.
instance, transfers energy mostly as light rather
than wasting it as heat. The efficiency of a device
is the percentage of energy transferred usefully.

Energy efficiency equation

This noisy old lawn mower is inefficient. It transfers most of
the energy it receives to sound and heat. Only 30 percent
of the energy is output usefully to cut grass, so its efficiency
is 30 percent. You can calculate the efficiency of a device
using the equation shown here.

useful energy
output ( J )
efficiency (%) = × 100
total energy
input ( J )

Multiplying by 100 converts the

answer to a percentage.

Useful energy
transfer

4500 J kinetic energy

15 000 J
energy

10
50
0J
he
at
an
d
so
un
d

Wasted energy
 Energy 59

Efficiency and power

You can also calculate useful power output ( W )
efficiency if you know the total efficiency (%) = × 100
power input and useful power total power input ( W )
output of a device. Use this
equation instead.

Efficiency calculations

Question 1 Answer 1
A 75-watt fan runs for Useful energy transfer = 4500 J − (200 J + 700 J)
1 minute, transferring 4500 = 3600 J
joules of energy. 200 joules is 3600 J Wasted energy
Efficiency = × 100
transferred to thermal energy 4500 J
stores, 700 joules is transferred = 80% Total energy transferred
through sound waves, and
the rest is transferred to useful
kinetic energy stores. What Check your answer makes
sense. Nothing can be more
is the efficiency of the fan? than 100% efficient, so your
answer must be less than 100.

Question 2 Answer 2
A 5-watt light bulb has an Rearrange the second efficiency equation to make
efficiency rating of 60%. What useful power output the subject.
is its useful power output? Useful power output = efficiency × total power input
60
= ×5W
100
=3W

Improving efficiency
Machines with moving parts
generate frictional forces that
transfer energy to useless energy
stores, such as sound and heat.
Adding lubricants like oil reduces
friction and so improves efficiency.
No devices are 100 percent
efficient, as some energy is always
lost through heating, light, sound,
or other energy transfers.
Describing
motion
 Describing motion 61

Speed Key facts

Speed is a measure of how fast something is moving. It ✓ Speed describes how far
describes distance traveled over a certain amount of time. something travels in a given
It is usually measured in meters per second (m/s), miles per amount of time.
hour (mph), or kilometers per hour (km/h). Unlike velocity, ✓ Speed is a scalar quantity
which tells you how fast something is moving in a particular rather than a vector, so it
direction, speed has no direction—it is a scalar quantity has no direction.

rather than a vector (see page 66).

Walking Typical speeds

1.5 m/s This chart shows the typical speeds that
people move at when walking, running,
or traveling in a vehicle. Lots of things
Running affect the speed at which something
3 m/s travels, such as whether it is going
uphill or downhill, moving on firm or
Cycling soft ground, or traveling into the wind.
6 m/s

Strong breeze
12 m/s

Car (highway)
30 m/s

Intercity train
55 m/s

Plane
250 m/s

0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Speed

Measuring speed
This car speedometer
shows speed in both
Scientists usually measure speed in miles per hour (green)
meters per second, but the speedometers and kilometers per
in vehicles display speed in other units. hour (orange).
Cars use miles per hour or kilometers per
hour, and ships and planes usually use
knots (nautical miles per hour).
62 Describing motion

Calculating speed Key facts

To calculate the speed of a moving object, you divide ✓ Average speed is equal
the distance it travels by the time it takes to travel that to the total distance
distance. Average speed is the total distance divided by traveled divided by the
the total time taken, but instantaneous speed tells you total time taken.
how fast something is moving at a particular moment. ✓ Instantaneous speed is
how quickly something
is moving at a specific
Average and instantaneous speed point in time.
Imagine a sprinter running a 100 m race. At the very start, she
moves slowly, but she soon speeds up. Toward the end, she might
get tired and slow down a little. Her instantaneous speed has
changed throughout the race, but we can calculate her average
speed using the formula below.

12.5
total distance (m)
average speed (m/s) =
total time (s)

Instantaneous speed = 6 m/s Instantaneous speed = 14 m/s Instantaneous speed = 8 m/s

Total distance = 100 m

Calculating speed Calculating distance

Question Question
A sprinter completes a 100 m race in 12.5 seconds. A cyclist in a race rides for 25 seconds with an
What is her average speed? average speed of 12 m/s. How far does he cycle?

Answer Answer
total distance
Average speed = Rearrange the equation to work out distance rather
total time
than speed:
100 m Total distance = average speed × total time
=
12.5 s = 12 m/s × 25 s
= 8 m/s = 300 m
 Describing motion 63

Measuring speed Key facts

To measure speed, you have to measure the distance an object ✓ Instruments used to
travels and the time it takes to travel that distance. Instruments measure distance include
used to measure distance include rulers and tape measures. rulers and tape measures.
Instruments used to measure time include stopwatches and ✓ Instruments used to
photogates. measure time include
stopwatches and
photogates.
Photogates
A photogate is used to calculate the speed of fast-moving objects.
✓ Photogates use a beam
of light to measure time
It measures very brief time intervals much more accurately than
very accurately.
a person can do with a stopwatch. In the experiment shown here, a
cart carrying a card breaks the light beam for a fraction of a second.
To find the cart’s speed at that point, divide the length of the card by
the time interval recorded.

The card on the The photogate produces a

cart breaks the beam of light that breaks when
beam of light. an object passes through it.

The timer measures

how long the light
beam is broken for.

Use the ruler to measure

the length of the card.

Speed guns

The radar speed guns used by police

to check if drivers are speeding use
radio waves. When the outgoing radio
Outgoing waves
waves reflect off an approaching
car, their frequency and wavelength
change. The faster the car, the higher Reflected waves are compressed, resulting in
the frequency of the reflected waves. shorter wavelength and higher frequency.
The speed gun detects the returning
echoes and uses their frequency to
calculate the car’s speed.
64 Describing motion

Position–time Key facts

graphs ✓ A position–time graph shows how far

and how fast an object has traveled at
different times in its journey.
A position–time graph shows the journey of
an object traveling in a straight line. The slope ✓ The gradient shows the speed of an
object—the steeper the gradient, the
(gradient) of the line reveals how fast it’s moving faster the speed.
and when it speeds up, slows down, or stands still.
✓ You can use a position–time graph to
calculate an object’s speed at any
Understanding position–time graphs point in the journey.
Each of the lines on this position–time graph shows a
different journey. The steeper the line, the faster an object is
moving. A curved line has a changing gradient, which means
an object is changing speed. A flat horizontal line means an
object is stationary.

100 This person starts walking

at a constant speed, but
after 20 seconds, she
suddenly speeds up—she
must be running. After 10
seconds of running, she
comes to a stop and the
80
line remains horizontal.

At first, the car travels

quickly at a constant
speed, but then it gradually
60 slows. When it reaches
Position (m)

a position of 60 m, its
distance traveled stops
changing, so the car
must have stopped.

40

20
The low gradient of the
tortoise’s line shows that
it walks slowly. The line
is perfectly straight,
which means that its
0 speed is not changing.
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s)
 Describing motion 65

Calculating speed from a gradient

Question 600
This graph shows the position–time journey for a car.

Position (m)
At what speed was the car traveling during the last 400
40 seconds of the journey?

200

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s)

Answer
1. To find the speed, you need to calculate the gradient of
the straight line. Draw a right-angled triangle under any 600
part of the line. The triangle’s vertical side is the change

Position (m)
in distance. The horizontal side is the change in time.
2. Work out both values. 400
Change
Change in distance = 400 m − 200 m = 200 m
in distance
Change in time = 30 s − 10 s = 20 s 200
3. Divide the change in distance by the change in time Change
to find the speed. in time
change in distance 0
speed = 0 10 20 30 40 50
change in time
200 m Time (s)
=
20 s
= 10 m/s

Drawing a tangent
Tangent

Sometimes you might have to work out the gradient 150

on a curved part of the line. This is easy—you do
Position (m)

Change in
it by drawing a line called a tangent. A tangent is a distance
100
straight line that touches the curve without crossing
it, matching the slope at the point in question. After Change in
drawing a tangent, complete a right-angled triangle as time
50
described above and use it to work out the change in
distance divided by the change in time.
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)
66 Describing motion

Scalars and Key facts

vectors ✓
✓
Scalar quantities have magnitude.
Vector quantities have magnitude
and direction.
Scientific measurements are either scalar
quantities or vector quantities. Scalar quantities ✓ Distance is scalar; displacement
is a vector.
just have a magnitude (size), whereas vector
quantities have magnitude and direction.

Distance and displacement

The map below shows the route a jogger takes around a
Vector quantities
park. How far has he traveled? One way to answer this is
to measure the total distance of his winding path. This is a
scalar quantity, as it has no particular direction. Another is
to measure his displacement—his distance and direction in a
straight line from his starting point. Displacement is a vector
quantity because it has a direction as well as a magnitude.
Forces always have a direction, so all forces are
vectors. Your weight is a force that acts downward
toward Earth, so weight is a vector. In contrast,
your mass (the amount of matter in your body)
is a scalar quantity.

Start

The velocity of an object is its speed in a particular

direction. If a car is turning a corner at a steady
31 mph (50 km/h), its speed is constant but its
direction is changing, so its velocity is changing, too.
Displacement

End
Distance

Acceleration, in everyday language, means

getting faster. However, the scientific meaning of
acceleration is a change in velocity. Acceleration is
a vector quantity and tells us if an object is getting
faster, slower, or changing direction.

The momentum of an object is its mass multiplied

by its velocity. Momentum is calculated from
velocity and so is a vector quantity.
 Describing motion 67

Velocity Key facts

Speed and velocity are not the same ✓ Velocity is the speed of a moving object in a
thing. Speed tells you how fast something is particular direction.
moving, but velocity is how fast something ✓ Velocity is a vector quantity—it has direction
is moving in a particular direction. Unlike and magnitude.
speed, which is a scalar quantity, velocity ✓ Speed is a scalar quantity—it has no direction.
is a vector quantity—it has direction as
well as magnitude.

Speed = 25 mph
Velocity = 25 mph

Speed = 25 mph
Velocity = −25 mph

Speed and velocity Changing velocity

If two cars are traveling at the same speed but in When a car turns, its direction changes, which
opposite directions, they have different velocities. For means that its velocity changes as well. The car here
example, the yellow car is traveling 25 mph (40 km/h) has driven at a constant speed all the way around a
east, but the white car is traveling 25 mph (40 km/h) roundabout, but its velocity has been changing
west. In physics, we can use a minus sign to show continually. Its average velocity going around the
something is happening in the opposite direction. In roundabout is 0 mph (km/h).
this diagram, east is the positive direction, so the
white car has a velocity of −25 mph (−40 km/h).

Frames of reference

Suppose you’re standing on a train moving east at

50 m/s and you throw a ball forward at 10 m/s.
What’s the ball’s velocity? The speed relative to you
is 10 m/s, but for someone standing beside the
track, the ball’s velocity is 60 m/s. Likewise, if you
throw the ball backward at 10 m/s, someone
beside the track will see it moving forward at
40 m/s. All these quantities are correct, but each
one depends on a different point of view. We call
these different points of view “frames of reference.”
68 Describing motion

Acceleration Key facts

Acceleration is the rate at which an object’s ✓ Acceleration is the rate at which

velocity is changing. It doesn’t just mean speeding velocity changes.
up. Slowing down and changing direction are forms ✓ The unit for acceleration is m/s2 .
of acceleration, too. ✓ The uniform acceleration of a
falling object at Earth’s surface is
9.8 m/s2 (g).
Formula for acceleration
You can calculate acceleration using the formula
below. The unit to use for acceleration is m/s2
(meters per second squared).
Acceleration due to gravity

change in velocity (m/s) When an object falls, the force of gravity

acceleration (m/s2) = at Earth’s surface gives it a uniform
time taken (s) acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2. This means
that with each passing second, its velocity
Final velocity increases by 9.8 m/s. This value is used
v f − vi Initial velocity
a = so often in calculations that it has its own
t abbreviation, g. In real life, objects don’t
always accelerate uniformly at 9.8 m/s2
because air resistance produces an
upward force.

Calculating acceleration
With each passing
To work out “change in velocity” in the right side of the second, the ball’s
formula, you need two figures: final velocity and initial velocity increases by
velocity. Take care to get these the right way around. For about 10 m/s.
example, a car traveling at a velocity of 13 m/s speeds
0 m/s
up to 25 m/s in 10 seconds. What’s its acceleration? 10 m/s

vf – vi Put final velocity first and

20 m/s
a= t initial velocity second.
30 m/s
25 m/s – 13 m/s
=
10 s
2
= 1.2 m/s 40 m/s
Acceleration is measured in
meters per second squared
(meters per second per second).

50 m/s

Initial velocity (vi) Final velocity (vf)

 Describing motion 69

Drogue parachute
Some high-speed aircraft must slow down (decelerate) very quickly in order
to land in confined spaces. One solution is to deploy a drogue parachute—
a small parachute that dramatically increases the force of drag.

Using distance
Slowing down Sometimes we have to calculate acceleration
from a change in velocity over a certain distance
Question
rather than over a period of time. We use the
If an object is slowing down, it has negative
equation below to do this.
acceleration. A motorcycle is traveling at 30 m/s Displacement
on a country road. It arrives at a town and the rider (distance traveled)
slows down to 10 m/s, taking 25 seconds to do so.
2 2
What was the average acceleration? vf − vi = 2as
Final velocity Initial velocity

Finding acceleration

Question
A train pulls out from a station and accelerates uniformly
for 1350 m until it reaches a velocity of 55 m/s. What is
the train’s acceleration?
30 m/s 10 m/s

25 seconds

Answer
v − vi
a= f
t Answer
10 m/s − 30 m/s Rearrange the formula to find a.
= v 2 − vi2
25 s
a= f
= −0.8 m/s2 2s
(55 m/s)2 − (0 m/s)2
=
2 × 1350 m
Acceleration is negative here 3025
=
because the motorcycle was 2700
slowing down. = 1.12 m/s2
70 Describing motion

Velocity–time graphs Key facts

A velocity–time graph shows how an object’s velocity ✓ A velocity–time graph

changes over time. The gradient (steepness) of the line shows how an object’s
represents the object’s acceleration or deceleration velocity changes over time.
(negative acceleration). The graph can also show ✓ The horizontal axis shows
whether or not an object’s acceleration is uniform. time and the vertical axis
shows velocity.
✓ You can work out
acceleration from the
gradient (slope) of the line.

Understanding velocity–time graphs ✓ The area under the line is

This velocity–time graph shows two different journeys. the displacement (total
Slopes with a straight line represent uniform acceleration, distance traveled).
whereas curved lines represent changing acceleration. Flat
horizontal lines represent constant velocity.

The train maintains

40 a velocity of 35 m/s
for 300 seconds.

30 The train accelerates The train

uniformly after decelerates
leaving the station. uniformly.
Velocity (m/s)

20

The rate of acceleration falls The car continues

as the car nears its top speed. traveling at a
constant velocity.

10
The car accelerates at
an increasing rate.
The train
comes to
a stop.

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s)
 Describing motion 71

Calculating acceleration Calculating displacement

Question You can use a velocity–time graph to work out

The graph below shows a car’s journey. What was the the displacement of a moving object—the total
car’s acceleration between 10 and 30 seconds? distance it has traveled. You do this by finding
the area under the graph. This works because
distance traveled = velocity × time.

50
Question
40
Velocity (m/s)

The graph shows a 50-second train journey.

How far did the train travel?
30

20

10 50
Rectangle
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 40

Velocity (m/s)
Time (s)
30 Triangle

Answer 20
1. Acceleration is change in velocity divided by time
taken, so work these out by drawing a triangle under 10
the sloped part of the graph.
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
50 Time (s)
40
Velocity (m/s)

30 Change in Answer
velocity 1. Start by separating the space under the line into a
20 triangle and a rectangle.
2. Next, work out the triangle’s area using the formula
10 Time for the area of a triangle:
taken
0 base × height
area =
0 10 20 30 40 50 2
The units are meters
Time (s) 30 s × 40 m/s
= because the area under
2 the line represents distance.
= 600 m
2. Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity
3. Now work out the area of the rectangle:
= 40 m/s − 10 m/s
area = base × height
= 30 m/s
= 20 s × 40 m/s
3. Time taken = 30 s − 10 s
= 800 m
= 20 s
4. Add the two values to find the displacement:
30 m/s
4. Acceleration = displacement = 600 m + 800 m
20 s
= 1400 m
= 1.5 m/s2
Forces
Forces
A force is a push or a pull that changes the motion
Tension
or shape of an object. There are many types of force. in the rope
Some require physical contact, such as when you pulls upward.
kick a ball. Others, such as gravity and magnetism,
are noncontact forces that work at a distance.
Friction between
the shoe and cliff
allows the climber
Forces at work to grip the surface.
Several forces can act on an object at the same time. This picture
shows the main forces acting on a climber abseiling down a cliff.
Each force is represented by an arrow that shows the force’s
direction—forces are vector quantities (see page 66). The arrow’s
length here represents the size of the force. When a climber
pushes the cliff,
a reaction force
pushes them
back off it.
Key facts

✓ A force is a push or pull.

✓ A force can change the speed,
direction of movement, or shape
of an object.
Gravity pulls
✓ Forces can be contact or
downward.
noncontact forces.
✓ The unit for force is the newton (N).
✓ Forces are vector quantities.

Effects of forces

A force can have several effects on an object. Many forces affect the
motion of an object—for instance, by making it speed up, slow down,
or change direction. Forces can also change an object’s shape.
Tension
Gravity makes the skateboarder Air resistance slows bends the
accelerate downhill. the skydiver’s fall. archer’s bow.

A force applied to a When an object is A force may also A force in the opposite Forces can also
stationary object can already moving, a force cause a moving object direction to a moving cause temporary or
make it move. in the same direction to change direction. object makes it slow permanent changes
makes it move faster. down or stop. in an object’s shape.
74 Forces

T ypes of force
Contact forces Noncontact forces

Pushes and pulls are Gravity is a force of

the contact forces we attraction between objects
use to move things, with mass. Earth’s gravity
from kicking a ball to makes things fall
tapping a keyboard. toward Earth.

Friction is a force that opposes motion when objects Electrostatic force is the An electrostatic
rub or slide together. Static friction affects stationary attraction or repulsion charge on a
objects and must be overcome to make them move. between objects with person’s hair
makes the hairs
Kinetic friction is the force between an electric charge.
repel each other,
moving objects and is weaker causing them to
than static friction. stand on end.

Air and water resistance are forces that objects Magnetism is the force
moving through air and water have to overcome. They experienced when a
are caused by the push of air and water in the way. magnetic material is
Like friction, these forces always near a magnet.
act opposite to the
direction of motion.

Reaction forces Newtons

Action Reaction
Reaction forces occur in The unit for force is named the
response to every force but act newton (N) after the English
in the opposite direction. If one scientist Isaac Newton. One
skateboarder pushes the other, newton is about the weight of an
they will both move, as the push apple. The scientific definition of
results in a reaction force acting a newton is the force needed to
in the opposite direction. accelerate a 1 kg object by 1 m/s2.
1 N force
 Forces 75

Balanced and Key facts

unbalanced forces ✓ When two forces on an object are balanced,

they are equal and act in opposite directions.

When forces acting on the same object in opposite ✓ Balanced forces cancel each other out, so
they do not change the motion of an object.
directions are the same size, we say they are
balanced. Balanced forces cancel each other out. ✓ When the forces acting on an object are
unbalanced, they change its motion.
A change in an object’s motion only happens if
the forces acting on it are unbalanced.

Balanced forces Unbalanced forces

These two tug-of-war teams are pulling with equal force. When the purple team pulls harder, there is an overall
The forces are balanced and cancel each other out, so force in that direction and the teams begin to move.
there is no movement.

300 N 300 N 400 N 300 N

When an object is moving at a constant velocity, the forces If the dog stops pulling, an unbalanced force is acting in the
acting on it are balanced. Here, the pulling force from opposite direction to the sled’s motion, so it slows down. An
the dog is balanced by friction between the sled and the unbalanced force acting sideways (such as a strong wind)
snow, which acts in the opposite direction. The dog and would change the direction of movement.
the sled both move forward at a constant velocity.

Pulling force Friction Friction

First law of motion

If there was no friction
to slow down the
In the 18th century, the English scientist Isaac Newton marble, it would carry
described the effect of forces on motion with his first law on rolling forever.
of motion. This says that an object either remains at rest
or moves in a straight line at a constant velocity unless an
unbalanced force acts on it. For example, when you flick
a marble, it continues rolling after the force from your
finger has stopped.
76 Forces

Resultant forces Key facts

When several forces act on an object at the same ✓ When several forces act on an
time, their effects combine and act as though object, their effects combine and
there is a single force, called a resultant force. act as if there is a single force
The resultant force can be found by drawing the (a resultant force).
forces as arrows on a diagram. ✓ Forces acting on an object can be
shown on a free body diagram.

Finding resultant forces

✓ If two forces are acting in the same
direction, you can work out the
The sled below has several different forces acting on it. The
resultant by adding them.
sled’s weight pushing down on the ground is balanced by a
reaction force (called a normal force) acting upward from the ✓ If two forces are acting in opposite
ground. The dogs are creating a pulling force (called tension) directions, work out the resultant by
through the ropes, but friction with the ground creates a force subtracting one from the other.
in the opposite direction. If the pulling force is greater than
friction, there is a resultant force that causes a change in
motion: the sled accelerates.
The weight of the sled
and the normal force are
1000 N equal and opposite; they
add up to a resultant
There is a 750 N force pulling the sled force of zero in the
forward and a 400 N force from friction vertical direction.
acting backward. This gives a resultant force
of 750 N – 400 N = 350 N acting forward.

750 N 400 N

1000 N Normal
force
Free body diagram
There is a resultant force
in this direction, so the
sled accelerates.
Pulling Friction

Weight
 Forces 77

Free body diagrams The force of the

table on the book
(the normal force)
A free body diagram shows the forces acting on an
object. The object can be represented by a dot or a
square, and the forces are represented by labeled
arrows pointing away from it. Here, a book is resting The force of Earth’s
on a table. The diagram only shows forces acting on gravity (weight)
the book. (Forces acting on the table are omitted.) pulling on the book

Calculating resultant forces

Question 1 Answer 1
One person pushes a piano with a force of 100 N, but 1. Draw a free body diagram showing the forces acting
another person pushes back the opposite way with a force on the piano.
of 150 N. What’s the resultant force?

150 N 100 N

100 N 150 N 2. Find the answer by subtraction:

Resultant force = 150 N − 100 N
= 50 N to the left

Question 2 Answer 2
Two people try to push a heavy box. One person pushes When forces (or any vector quantities) don’t act
with a force of 100 N. The other person pushes at right in a straight line, you can add them by drawing a
angles with a force of 120 N. What’s the resultant force? scale diagram.

1. Draw one force from

the end of the other
100 N 120 N
to form a triangle.

120 N
In this diagram,
1 cm = 10 N.

2. Measure the sloping ?

side of the triangle 100 N
with a ruler to find the
magnitude of the force.

3. Measure the angle with a protractor to find the

direction of the force.

4. Write both in your answer:

Force = 156 N at 50°.
78 Forces

Resolving forces Key facts

The effects of forces are easiest to understand when ✓ A single force can be resolved into
they act at right angles to each other, but a force can component forces acting at right
act at any angle. To get around the problem, it can angles to each other.
help to break down a force into two components that ✓ Resolve forces by drawing a scale
are at right angles but have the same combined effect diagram or by using trigonometry.
as the single force. This is known as resolving forces.

Pulling power The vertical force arrow

measures 2.5 cm, so
This explorer is dragging a pack of heavy gear across a glacier, the vertical component
exerting a force of 50 N at an angle of 30° from the ground. is 2.5 × 10 N = 25 N.
Resolving this force into horizontal and vertical components is
useful because we could then use the horizontal component to
calculate the sled’s acceleration. To resolve the force, draw a
triangle to scale. In the triangle here, 1 cm represents 10 N
of force. Measure the horizontal and vertical sides of the N
50
triangle to find the two components.
30°

The horizontal force

The pulling force acts arrow measures 4.3 cm,
upward and forward, so so the horizontal
it has vertical and component is
horizontal components. 4.3 × 10 N = 43 N.
n
n sio
Te
N
50

Friction

Resolving forces with math

Although forces can be resolved using

scale drawings, it’s faster and more opposite
accurate to use trigonometry. For sin θ =
N hypotenuse
instance, to find the vertical component
= 50
Opposite

of tension in the rope, we can use the

use
sine formula on the right. This allows us ten
po Rearrange the formula to make
to calculate the height of a right-angled Hy “opposite” the subject:
triangle if we know the angle of the θ
opposite = hypotenuse × sin θ
slope (θ) and the length of the slope = 50 N × sin 30°
Adjacent
(the hypotenuse). = 25 N Use a calculator
to find the sine
of 30°.
 Forces 79

Mass and Key facts

weight ✓ Weight is the force that acts

on an object due to gravity.

Some people might think that the kilogram ✓ Mass is measured in

kilograms, but weight is
is a unit of weight, but in science, we use
measured in newtons.
kilograms to measure mass, not weight. Mass
and weight are different. Mass is the amount ✓ Weight can be measured
using a force meter
of matter in an object. Weight is the pull of (newton meter).
gravity on an object. It is a force and is
measured in newtons.
✓ Weight can be calculated
using mass and the strength
of gravity.

Measuring weight
You can measure the weight of an object with a force meter
(newton meter), which has a spring that stretches along a scale The scale shows the
as the force pulling the hook increases. You can also calculate force in newtons.
weight using the formula below. The formula takes into account
the strength of gravity, which varies on different planets. An
object’s weight depends on the strength of gravity, but its mass
is the same everywhere.

weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational field strength (N/kg)

W=m×g

On Earth’s surface, An apple with a mass of

the gravitational field 0.1 kg is pulled downward by
strength (g) is 10 N/kg. Earth’s gravity with a force of 1 N.

Calculating weight

Question Answer
Curiosity is a car-sized rover on Weight on Mars = m × g
Mars. Its mass is 899 kg and = 899 kg × 3.7 N/kg
the gravitational field strength = 3326 N = 3300 N (2 s.f.)
on Mars is 3.7 N/kg. Calculate Weight on Earth = m × g
Curiosity ’s weight on Mars. How = 899 kg × 10 N/kg
much does it weigh on Earth? = 8990 N = 9000 N (2 s.f.)
80 Forces

Springs Key facts

When you stretch or squeeze a spring, the change in its length ✓ Hooke’s law says that
is proportional to the force you apply. This relationship is known the extension of a spring
as Hooke’s law. is directly proportional to
the force applied.

Hooke’s law
✓ Elastic deformation is a
reversible change in an
Hang a weight on a spring and it stretches a little. Hang twice as much
object’s shape.
weight and it stretches twice as much. The extension (or compression)
of springs and other elastic objects is proportional to the force applied. ✓ Inelastic deformation is
This relationship is summarized in the equation below. Force meters an irreversible change
use this principle to measure forces—when you pull the hook on a in an object’s shape.
force meter, it stretches a spring inside it. ✓ Hooke’s law applies up
to a point called the limit
of proportionality.
✓ Work is done when a spring
is deformed, storing elastic
potential energy.
No extension

Extension
Calculating the
Extension spring constant

The value of k, the spring

The hanger constant, varies between different
weighs the same springs. The higher the value of
as one disk. k, the stiffer the spring.

Question
A spring is stretched by a force
Adding weights of 2 N, making it extend 5 cm.
makes the Calculate the spring constant
spring extend. for this spring.

Doubling the Answer

force doubles First, rearrange the equation to
the extension.
make k the subject. Remember
to convert the extension to meters.
F
k=
x
2N
k=
0.05 m
force (N) = spring constant (N/m) × extension (m) k = 40 N/m
F=k×x
 Forces 81

Limit of proportionality Elastic and inelastic deformation

Hooke’s law works only up to a certain point, called the If you stretch a spring and release it, it returns to its
limit of proportionality. Beyond this, the relationship is original shape. We call this elastic deformation. However,
nonlinear. If you stretch or squeeze an elastic object if you stretch it beyond its elastic limit, its shape changes
even further, it may become damaged and unable to permanently. We call this inelastic deformation. Different
return to its original size. The point of no return is called materials can sustain different amounts of elastic
the elastic limit and varies with different materials. deformation before they reach their elastic limit.

A tennis An aluminum
ball can has a low
can be elastic limit.
Elastic limit squashed If you squeeze
almost flat it with enough
without reaching force, it crumples
its elastic limit and will and won’t spring back
spring back into shape. into shape.
Force

Limit of
proportionality

Glass has a Plasticine

high elastic reaches
limit, which is its elastic
The gradient of the straight
why marbles limit almost
section is k, the spring constant.
bounce, but too immediately when
much force makes a force is applied, making
Extension glass shatter. it ideal for molding.

Elastic potential energy

A force that extends or compresses an elastic object does why a stretched elastic band flies across the room when
work, storing elastic potential energy in the object. When you release it and a bungee jumper is pulled back up
the object is released, it returns to its former shape after falling. You can calculate elastic potential energy
and the energy is transferred to kinetic energy. That’s using this equation.

1
elastic potential energy (J) = × spring constant × extension squared
2
1
E = × k × x2
2

Question Answer
A bungee cord has a spring constant of 90 N/m and extends 1
E= × 90 N/m × 8 m × 8 m
by 8 m after a bungee jumper comes to a standstill. How 2
much elastic potential energy is it now storing? E = 2880 J
82 Forces

Investigating springs Key facts

Forces can change the shape of an object, such as by ✓ Applying a force to a

stretching a spring. Investigating the effect of a pulling spring causes it to extend
force on a spring shows that a spring’s extension is or contract.
directly proportional to the force applied. ✓ The increase in length
of an object is known as
its extension.
Setting up the experiment
In this investigation, increasing masses are hung from a spring ✓ The extension of a spring is
directly proportional to the
suspended from a clamp. The resulting spring extension—the
increase from the spring’s original length—is measured with a ruler force applied.
and recorded. The results are plotted on a graph to investigate the
relationship between force and extension.

Spring
!
Teacher supervision
required
Fixed
Original length
ruler

Extension
Extension Measure the
extension of
the spring
as the force
Masses exert increases.
a downward
force due to
their weight.

The hanger
weighs the
same as
Clamp stand one disk.

Results
The curved
section shows
a nonlinear
Plot the results on a graph with force in newtons on the y-axis
relationship.
and the spring’s extension on the x-axis. Joining the crosses
Force (N)

should give you a straight line, which shows that the relationship
is linear. The line should also pass through the origin (0, 0),
The straight
which indicates that the extension is directly proportional to the
section shows a
force. (If you double the force, the extension doubles.) However, linear relationship.
if you add too many masses (if you overload the spring), the The gradient
relationship between force and extension becomes nonlinear and equals the
the line curves. spring constant
Extension (m)
(see page 80).
 Forces 83

Deformations Key facts

As well as making objects move, forces can change ✓ A change of shape caused by forces
their shape. We call these changes deformations. is called a deformation.
Changing the shape of a stationary object requires ✓ Changing the shape of an object
two or more forces acting in different directions. requires two or more forces acting in
different directions.

Types of deformation ✓ The type of deformation an object

undergoes depends on the direction
Stretching, compressing, bending, and twisting—or
of the forces and where they act on
combinations of these deformations—are some of the
ways in which objects can change shape. How an object is the object.
deformed depends on the number and direction of forces
applied to it.

Compression Tension
When a pair of forces push an object in opposite directions, When a pair of forces
this creates compression and squashes the object. A bouncy pull an object in opposite
toy like a space hopper undergoes an elastic compression directions, this creates
on each bounce before springing back to its original shape. tension and causes the Upward force
object to stretch. During from platform
Weight of person a bungee jump, the cord
experiences a downward
force due to the person’s
weight and an upward
pull from the platform
it’s secured to.

Reaction force Downward force

from ground from weight

Bending Twisting
When more than two forces act on an object in different directions, A pair of turning forces acting in opposite directions on
they can cause bending. For instance, the bars used by gymnasts— different points of an object can cause it to twist.
which allow a small amount of elastic deformation—bend when
the gymnast’s weight acts in the middle and upward forces
from the supports act at each end.

Weight

Opposite turning forces

Upward force
from support
84 Forces

Moments Key facts

To most people, a “moment” means a second or ✓ A moment is the turning effect

two, but in physics, it means something completely of a force.
different. A moment is the turning effect caused by a ✓ The equation for moments is
force that makes an object rotate around a fixed point moment = force × distance.
called a pivot. You use moments all the time—turning ✓ Tools such as wrenches and levers
a door handle, pedaling a bike, or bending an arm. work by generating a large moment.

How wrenches work

When you use a wrench to loosen a nut, the force of
your hand produces a turning effect—a moment—that
turns the nut. The longer the wrench, the greater the
moment and the easier it is to loosen a tight nut. The unit
for moments is the newton meter (Nm). You can calculate
moments with this equation. moment

moment (Nm) = force (N) × distance (m)

M=F×d

To create the maximum

moment, the force from
your hand should be at
right angles to the wrench.
forc
e

The longer the wrench,

nc e the greater the moment.
dista

90° Distance is the perpendicular distance

from the force to the pivot.

Calculating moments

Question Answer
A wrench 20 cm long is used to loosen a bolt. If a force of The distance must be in meters. 20 cm = 0.2 m.
30 N is applied at the end of the wrench, what is the size M=F×d
of the moment in Nm (newton meters)? = 30 N × 0.2 m
= 6 Nm
 Forces 85

Trolley

Jib

Principle of moments Load

If the total clockwise moments on an
Counterweight
object equal the total counterclockwise
moments, the object won’t turn. This
is known as the principle of moments
and is important when thinking about
things balancing. A tower crane uses
this principle to stay balanced. A
counterweight at the back produces a
moment in the opposite direction to
the moment produced by the load.

Staying balanced

Question
This seesaw is balanced.
What is the weight in
newtons of the person
on the right?
2m 1.5 m

600 N ?N

Answer
1. First, work out the counterclockwise moment produced by the
person on the left.
M=F×d
= 600 N × 2 m
= 1200 Nm
2. The seesaw is balanced, so the clockwise moment is also
1200 Nm. Rearrange the moment equation to put force on
the left to find the answer.
M
F=
d
1200 Nm
=
1.5 m
= 800 N

Tower crane
86 Forces

Center of mass Key facts

The weight of an object (or any other force acting on it) ✓ The weight of an object can be
can be thought of as acting at a single point: the center of thought of as acting at a single point:
mass. Whether or not an object is stable depends on the the center of mass.
position of its center of mass. ✓ The center of mass can be inside
or outside an object, depending on
its shape.
The balancing bird
This toy bird looks like it shouldn’t be able to balance on its ✓ An object is stable when its center of
mass is above its base.
beak. However, because its wingtips extend forward and are
weighted, the bird’s center of mass is located at the beak. The ✓ An object will fall over if its center of
heavy wings and the rear of the body both produce moments mass is outside the base.
(turning forces), but these balance each other, much like
people at opposite ends of a seesaw.

Counterclockwise
moment from the
weight of the body Clockwise moment from
the weight of the wings

Center
of mass

Weighted wings

Stability An object will fall over if A lower center of

the center of mass is mass makes the
outside the base. object more stable.
An object is stable when its Center
center of mass is above its base. of mass
Tall objects with narrow bases fall
over easily because even a small
movement can push the center
of mass outside the base. Stable
objects tend to have a low center
of mass and a wide base.
Stable Unstable Stable
 Forces 87

Finding the center of mass

Pin

To find the center of mass of an irregular

2D shape (a plane lamina), hang the
shape from a vertical surface with a pin
so it can swing freely. After it comes to
rest, hang a plumb line (a weight on a
string) from the pin and use it to draw
a vertical line on the object. Repeat,
hanging the shape from two more pivot Plumb line The center of
points. The center of mass is the point mass is where
where the lines intersect. the lines meet.

Off-road stability
Off-road vehicles are designed to have
a very low center of mass and a wide
wheelbase so they can negotiate steep or
bumpy ground without becoming unstable.

Force of The car remains

gravity stable provided
the center of mass
stays between
the wheels.
Stable
88 Forces

Levers Key facts

Levers are simple machines that magnify or reduce ✓ A lever is a rigid object that can rotate
the effects of forces. We use them all the time, often around a fixed point called a pivot or
without realizing. Scissors, wheelbarrows, door a fulcrum.
handles, and even our arms and legs work as levers. ✓ Levers can magnify or reduce the
effect of a force.

How levers work ✓ Levers that magnify a force reduce

the distance traveled by the load.
A wheelbarrow acts as a lever to make lifting
easier. Like all levers, it rotates around a point ✓ Levers that reduce a force increase
called a pivot (or fulcrum), which in this case is the the distance traveled by the load.
wheel. When a force (called the effort) is applied at
the handles to lift the wheelbarrow, it is magnified
to create a larger output force that overcomes the
load in the barrow. The farther the effort is from
the load, the greater the force is magnified. Calculating effort

Question
A wheelbarrow 1.8 m
is filled with soil
Effort weighing 450 N
and with a center
of mass 0.5 m from
the wheel. If the
handles are 1.8 m
Output A wheelbarrow magnifies
the lifting force applied
from the wheel,
to the handles. what is the effort
needed to lift 0.5 m
the soil?

Answer
First, use the equation for moments
(see page 84) to calculate the moment
due to the load.
moment (Nm) = force (N) × distance (m)
= 450 N × 0.5 m
= 225 Nm

Next, calculate the force needed to

produce a moment of the same size when
Load applied at the handles. Rearrange the
equation to make force the subject.
M
F=
d
Pivot (fulcrum) 225 Nm
=
1.8 m
= 125 N
 Forces 89

Lever classes
Levers come in three different classes, depending on where the effort, load, and pivot are in
relation to each other. If the effort is farther from the pivot than the load, the lever magnifies the
force. If the effort is nearer, the lever reduces the force but increases the distance moved.

Class 1 Lever Class 2 Lever Class 3 Lever

Effort Load Load

Load

Effort
Effort

In class 1 levers, the pivot is between In class 2 levers, the load is between the In class 3 levers, the effort is between
the effort and load. Class 1 levers can pivot and the effort. These levers magnify the pivot and the load. Tweezers and
magnify or reduce forces. Pliers magnify the force you put in. Nutcrackers, for other class 3 levers reduce the force
forces to grip small objects tightly. example, make it easier to crack nuts. you put in, making it easier to handle
delicate objects.

Machines

Pivot
Mechanical devices that magnify
or reduce forces (or that change
the direction of forces) are known
as machines. Simple machines
Lever
such as levers often form parts
of more complex machines with
The squeezer moves
several moving parts. Here, a down more slowly
lever is connected via a gear than the lever
to a toothed bar that moves but with much
down when the lever swings, greater force.
magnifying the force from
the user to squeeze oranges.
90 Forces

Gears Key facts

Gears are wheels with toothed edges that interlock to ✓ A gear is a wheel with a toothed edge.
transmit rotational (turning) forces. Like levers, they can ✓ Gears transmit rotational forces.
magnify or reduce the turning effects (moments) of forces.
✓ When the driven gear is larger than
the gear driving it, it rotates more
How gears work slowly but with a greater moment
A gear transmits rotational force when its teeth mesh with those (stronger turning force).
of another gear, causing it to turn as well. The forces acting at ✓ When the driven gear is smaller than
the teeth are the same for both gears, but the moments (the the gear driving it, it rotates more
turning forces exerted on the axles) are different if connected quickly but with a smaller moment
gears have different numbers of teeth. (weaker turning force).

Slower rotation
with greater force

Faster rotation
with less force

Connected gears rotate

in opposite directions.

Axle The smaller gears have fewer teeth

and so rotate several times each
time the large gear rotates once.

Driver or Driver or
Using gears input gear
Driven gear Driven gears Driver gears
input gear

Gears can either

magnify moments or
increase the speed
of rotation. Which
they do depends on Driven gear
whether the driving
gear is smaller or When the driven gear is larger than When the driven gear is smaller The gears on a bike are connected
the gear driving it, the greater than the driver gear, it produces by a chain. Choosing a small front
larger than the
distance between the teeth and a smaller moment on its axle but gear and a large rear gear increases
driven gear. the axle means it produces a rotates faster. This arrangement the moment—ideal for climbing a
greater moment. This arrangement increases speed. hill. Choosing a large front gear and
magnifies the input turning force. small rear gear increases speed.
 Forces 91

More simple Key facts

machines ✓ Simple machines can magnify or

reduce forces or change their
direction, making jobs easier.
Levers and gears are not the only simple machines that
can magnify or reduce forces. All the simple machines ✓ Simple machines include levers,
gears, ramps, wedges, screws,
on this page make jobs easier by changing forces. wheels, and pulleys.

Wedges Ramps Screws

A wedge is thick at one end and The sloping surface of a A screw is a ramp that has been
thin at the other. When you apply ramp makes it easier to raise coiled around a cylinder. Each twist
a force downward to the thick a heavy object. The shallower of the screwdriver pushes the tip of
end, the thin end increases the the slope, the lower the input the screw only a small amount
force and drives it sideways, force needed. However, the forward but with greater force than
cutting or splitting an object. load has to travel a longer the screwdriver exerts on the screw.
distance, so the work done
to lift the object is the same.

Wheels and axles Pulleys

A wheel and axle work like a A pulley is a rope or cable that runs
circular lever. Like levers, around one or more wheels. If only one
they can both increase or wheel is used, a pulley merely changes
reduce forces. When the the direction of a force. However, if two
input force is applied to the wheels are arranged as shown below,
rim, as with a steering wheel, the pulley doubles the lifting force.
the turning force around the A three-wheel pulley can triple the
circumference of the axle is lifting force.
magnified. When the input
force is applied to the axle,
the force at the rim is smaller
but the rim moves faster than
the circumference of the
Load

Load

axle, as with a bicycle wheel.

ort

ort
Eff

Eff

A two-wheel pulley
can halve the effort
needed to lift a load.
92 Forces

Action–reaction Key facts

forces ✓ Newton’s third law

states that every force
is accompanied by an
The English scientist Isaac Newton realized that forces always equal force acting in the
come in pairs. He said that every “action” (meaning force) has opposite direction.
an equal and opposite “reaction” (opposing force). We call this
✓ Pairs of action and reaction
Newton’s third law of motion. forces are always the same
type of force and act
between pairs of objects.
Action and reaction
This dog is pulling a towel, but the towel is also exerting a pulling force ✓ Action and reaction forces
on the dog. These two forces are called action–reaction forces and exist shouldn’t be confused with
whether the dog is moving or stationary. The dog also exerts a force on the balanced forces.
ground because of its weight. This has a reaction force, too: the ground is
pushing up on the dog. Action–reaction forces are not the same as balanced
forces (see page 75). Balanced forces act on the same object, but action
Force of dog’s weight
and reaction forces act between pairs of objects.
on the ground

Dog pulls
towel

Towel pulls dog

Reaction force from

the ground on the dog

Effects of action–reaction pairs Reaction Action Action Reaction

Both forces in an action–reaction pair are

real and can cause changes in motion or
shape for the objects involved. For example,
when a skateboarder pushes against a wall,
she exerts a force on the wall and the wall exerts
an equal and opposite force on her. The wall
stays still, but the skateboarder gets a push in the
opposite direction. If she pushes against another
skateboarder, both move in opposite directions. Skateboarder moves Skateboarders move
in opposite directions
 Forces 93

Fields Objects with more mass

experience a greater
Not all forces require physical contact. Some forces, gravitational pull.

such as gravity, act from a distance. These noncontact

forces involve something called a field: a region around
an object in which the object can exert forces.

Action at a distance
Gravity, magnetism, and the attraction or repulsion
between charged objects are all forces that act through 0.2 N 40 000 N
a field. A gravitational field surrounds all objects
with mass, but the pull of gravity is only noticeable
around very massive objects, such as Earth. The
strength of a noncontact force on an object
depends on the strength of the field, the
object’s position within it, and the object’s
properties. For instance, Earth exerts a
stronger gravitational pull on objects
that are closer and that have more mass.

Key facts

✓ Noncontact forces act

through a field.
✓ A field is the region around
an object in which the
object can exert forces.
✓ The size of the force
depends on the strength
of the field, the object’s
position within it, and the
object’s properties. The lines show how a mass
The field strength is
would move if it was placed
greater where the lines
in the gravitational field.
are closer together.

Newton’s third law

Gravitational
force exerted by
Newton’s third law says that every force has an equal and Earth on person
opposite reaction force. This holds true for noncontact forces
Gravitational
exerted through fields. For instance, Earth exerts a gravitational
force exerted by
pull on a person standing on its surface, but that person also person on Earth
has a gravitational field of their own and exerts an equal and
opposite pull on Earth. But because Earth’s mass is so vast,
the effect of the reaction force on Earth is imperceptible.
94 Forces

Law of gravity Key facts

All objects with mass, from galaxies to atoms, exert an attractive ✓ All objects with mass
force on other objects with mass through their gravitational are surrounded by a
fields. The size of the force between any two objects can be gravitational field in which
worked out from Newton’s law of universal gravitation, which other objects with mass
are attracted.
was developed by the English scientist Isaac Newton.
✓ The gravitational force
between two objects is
Earth and Moon proportional to the product
Newton used observations of the Moon and planets to work out his law of their masses.
of gravity. He realized that the force of gravity between any two bodies
is proportional to their masses multiplied together (the product of their ✓ The gravitational force
between two objects is
masses). But gravity also declines as objects get farther apart, falling in
inversely proportional to
proportion to the square of the distance between their centers. This
the square of the distance
relationship can be written as an equation.
between them.

M1 (mass of Earth)
M2 (mass of Moon)
Force exerted by
Earth on Moon

F1 F2

Force exerted by
Moon on Earth

r
The letter G stands for r is the distance
a number called the between the centers
gravitational constant. M1 × M2 of the two bodies.
F1 = F2 = G
r2

The inverse square law Light source

Newton’s law of universal gravitation follows a pattern At three times

the distance,
known as the inverse square law: as the distance
At twice the light intensity
between two objects increases, the gravitational force is reduced by
distance, light is
between them falls in proportion to the square of the a factor of nine.
spread over four
distance. In nature, there are many examples of a times the area.
property following this pattern, including light intensity Light intensity is
and the electrostatic force between charged objects. reduced by a
factor of four.