Chapter 2 Data Visualization | Statistical Inference via Data Science 10/13/22, 11:09 PM

Chapter 2 Data Visualization

We begin the development of your data science toolbox with data visualization. By visualizing
data, we gain valuable insights we couldn’t initially obtain from just looking at the raw data
values. We’ll use the ggplot2 package, as it provides an easy way to customize your plots.
ggplot2 is rooted in the data visualization theory known as the grammar of graphics
(Wilkinson 2005), developed by Leland Wilkinson.

At their most basic, graphics/plots/charts (we use these terms interchangeably in this book)
provide a nice way to explore the patterns in data, such as the presence of outliers,
distributions of individual variables, and relationships between groups of variables. Graphics
are designed to emphasize the findings and insights you want your audience to understand.
This does, however, require a balancing act. On the one hand, you want to highlight as many
interesting findings as possible. On the other hand, you don’t want to include so much
information that it overwhelms your audience.

As we will see, plots also help us to identify patterns and outliers in our data. We’ll see that a
common extension of these ideas is to compare the distribution of one numerical variable,
such as what are the center and spread of the values, as we go across the levels of a different
categorical variable.

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Needed packages

Let’s load all the packages needed for this chapter (this assumes you’ve already installed
them). Read Section 1.3 for information on how to install and load R packages.

library(nycflights13)
library(ggplot2)
library(moderndive)

2.1 The grammar of graphics

We start with a discussion of a theoretical framework for data visualization known as “the
grammar of graphics.” This framework serves as the foundation for the ggplot2 package
which we’ll use extensively in this chapter. Think of how we construct and form sentences in
English by combining different elements, like nouns, verbs, articles, subjects, objects, etc. We
can’t just combine these elements in any arbitrary order; we must do so following a set of
rules known as a linguistic grammar. Similarly to a linguistic grammar, “the grammar of
graphics” defines a set of rules for constructing statistical graphics by combining different
types of layers. This grammar was created by Leland Wilkinson (Wilkinson 2005) and has
been implemented in a variety of data visualization software platforms like R, but also Plotly
and Tableau.

2.1.1 Components of the grammar

In short, the grammar tells us that:

A statistical graphic is a mapping of data variables to aes thetic attributes of

geom etric objects.

Specifically, we can break a graphic into the following three essential components:

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1. data : the dataset containing the variables of interest.

2. geom : the geometric object in question. This refers to the type of object we can observe
in a plot. For example: points, lines, and bars.
3. aes : aesthetic attributes of the geometric object. For example, x/y position, color,
shape, and size. Aesthetic attributes are mapped to variables in the dataset.

You might be wondering why we wrote the terms data , geom , and aes in a computer
code type font. We’ll see very shortly that we’ll specify the elements of the grammar in R
using these terms. However, let’s first break down the grammar with an example.

2.1.2 Gapminder data

In February 2006, a Swedish physician and data advocate named Hans Rosling gave a TED
talk titled “The best stats you’ve ever seen” where he presented global economic, health, and
development data from the website gapminder.org. For example, for data on 142 countries in
2007, let’s consider only a few countries in Table 2.1 as a peek into the data.

TABLE 2.1: Gapminder 2007 Data: First 3 of 142 countries

Country Continent Life Expectancy Population GDP per Capita

Afghanistan Asia 43.8 31889923 975

Albania Europe 76.4 3600523 5937

Algeria Africa 72.3 33333216 6223

Each row in this table corresponds to a country in 2007. For each row, we have 5 columns:

1. Country: Name of country.

2. Continent: Which of the five continents the country is part of. Note that “Americas”
includes countries in both North and South America and that Antarctica is excluded.
3. Life Expectancy: Life expectancy in years.
4. Population: Number of people living in the country.
5. GDP per Capita: Gross domestic product (in US dollars).

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Now consider Figure 2.1, which plots this for all 142 of the data’s countries.

FIGURE 2.1: Life expectancy over GDP per capita in 2007.

Let’s view this plot through the grammar of graphics:

1. The data variable GDP per Capita gets mapped to the x -position aes thetic of the
points.
2. The data variable Life Expectancy gets mapped to the y -position aes thetic of the
points.
3. The data variable Population gets mapped to the size aes thetic of the points.
4. The data variable Continent gets mapped to the color aes thetic of the points.

We’ll see shortly that data corresponds to the particular data frame where our data is saved
and that “data variables” correspond to particular columns in the data frame. Furthermore,
the type of geom etric object considered in this plot are points. That being said, while in this
example we are considering points, graphics are not limited to just points. We can also use
lines, bars, and other geometric objects.

Let’s summarize the three essential components of the grammar in Table 2.2.

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TABLE 2.2: Summary of the grammar of graphics for this plot

data variable aes geom

GDP per Capita x point

Life Expectancy y point

Population size point

Continent color point

2.1.3 Other components

There are other components of the grammar of graphics we can control as well. As you start
to delve deeper into the grammar of graphics, you’ll start to encounter these topics more
frequently. In this book, we’ll keep things simple and only work with these two additional
components:

facet ing breaks up a plot into several plots split by the values of another variable
(Section 2.6)
position adjustments for barplots (Section 2.8)

Other more complex components like scales and coord inate systems are left for a more
advanced text such as R for Data Science (Grolemund and Wickham 2017). Generally
speaking, the grammar of graphics allows for a high degree of customization of plots and also
a consistent framework for easily updating and modifying them.

2.1.4 ggplot2 package

In this book, we will use the ggplot2 package for data visualization, which is an
implementation of the g rammar of g raphics for R (Wickham, Chang, et al. 2022). As we
noted earlier, a lot of the previous section was written in a computer code type font. This is

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because the various components of the grammar of graphics are specified in the ggplot()
function included in the ggplot2 package. For the purposes of this book, we’ll always
provide the ggplot() function with the following arguments (i.e., inputs) at a minimum:

The data frame where the variables exist: the data argument.
The mapping of the variables to aesthetic attributes: the mapping argument which
specifies the aes thetic attributes involved.

After we’ve specified these components, we then add layers to the plot using the + sign.
The most essential layer to add to a plot is the layer that specifies which type of geom etric
object we want the plot to involve: points, lines, bars, and others. Other layers we can add to
a plot include the plot title, axes labels, visual themes for the plots, and facets (which we’ll
see in Section 2.6).

Let’s now put the theory of the grammar of graphics into practice.

2.2 Five named graphs - the 5NG

In order to keep things simple in this book, we will only focus on five different types of
graphics, each with a commonly given name. We term these “five named graphs” or in
abbreviated form, the 5NG:

1. scatterplots
2. linegraphs
3. histograms
4. boxplots
5. barplots

We’ll also present some variations of these plots, but with this basic repertoire of five graphics
in your toolbox, you can visualize a wide array of different variable types. Note that certain
plots are only appropriate for categorical variables, while others are only appropriate for
numerical variables.

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2.3 5NG#1: Scatterplots

The simplest of the 5NG are scatterplots, also called bivariate plots. They allow you to
visualize the relationship between two numerical variables. While you may already be familiar
with scatterplots, let’s view them through the lens of the grammar of graphics we presented in
Section 2.1. Specifically, we will visualize the relationship between the following two
numerical variables in the alaska_flights data frame included in the moderndive
package:

1. dep_delay : departure delay on the horizontal “x” axis and

2. arr_delay : arrival delay on the vertical “y” axis

for Alaska Airlines flights leaving NYC in 2013. In other words, alaska_flights does not
consist of all flights that left NYC in 2013, but rather only those flights where carrier is
AS (which is Alaska Airlines’ carrier code).

Learning check

(LC2.1) Take a look at both the flights data frame from the nycflights13 package and
the alaska_flights data frame from the moderndive package by running
View(flights) and View(alaska_flights) . In what respect do these data frames differ?
For example, think about the number of rows in each dataset.

2.3.1 Scatterplots via geom_point

Let’s now go over the code that will create the desired scatterplot, while keeping in mind the
grammar of graphics framework we introduced in Section 2.1. Let’s take a look at the code
and break it down piece-by-piece.

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ggplot(data = alaska_flights, mapping = aes(x = dep_delay, y = arr_delay)) +

geom_point()

Within the ggplot() function, we specify two of the components of the grammar of
graphics as arguments (i.e., inputs):

1. The data as the alaska_flights data frame via data = alaska_flights .

2. The aes thetic mapping by setting mapping = aes(x = dep_delay, y =
arr_delay) . Specifically, the variable dep_delay maps to the x position aesthetic,
while the variable arr_delay maps to the y position.

We then add a layer to the ggplot() function call using the + sign. The added layer in
question specifies the third component of the grammar: the geom etric object. In this case,
the geometric object is set to be points by specifying geom_point() . After running these
two lines of code in your console, you’ll notice two outputs: a warning message and the
graphic shown in Figure 2.2.

Warning: Removed 5 rows containing missing values (geom_point).

FIGURE 2.2: Arrival delays versus departure delays for Alaska Airlines flights from NYC in
2013.

Let’s first unpack the graphic in Figure 2.2. Observe that a positive relationship exists
between dep_delay and arr_delay : as departure delays increase, arrival delays tend to
also increase. Observe also the large mass of points clustered near (0, 0), the point indicating

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flights that neither departed nor arrived late.

Let’s turn our attention to the warning message. R is alerting us to the fact that five rows were
ignored due to them being missing. For these 5 rows, either the value for dep_delay or
arr_delay or both were missing (recorded in R as NA ), and thus these rows were ignored
in our plot.

Before we continue, let’s make a few more observations about this code that created the
scatterplot. Note that the + sign comes at the end of lines, and not at the beginning. You’ll
get an error in R if you put it at the beginning of a line. When adding layers to a plot, you are
encouraged to start a new line after the + (by pressing the Return/Enter button on your
keyboard) so that the code for each layer is on a new line. As we add more and more layers to
plots, you’ll see this will greatly improve the legibility of your code.

To stress the importance of adding the layer specifying the geom etric object, consider
Figure 2.3 where no layers are added. Because the geom etric object was not specified, we
have a blank plot which is not very useful!

ggplot(data = alaska_flights, mapping = aes(x = dep_delay, y = arr_delay))

FIGURE 2.3: A plot with no layers.

Learning check

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(LC2.2) What are some practical reasons why dep_delay and arr_delay have a positive
relationship?

(LC2.3) What variables in the weather data frame would you expect to have a negative
correlation (i.e., a negative relationship) with dep_delay ? Why? Remember that we are
focusing on numerical variables here. Hint: Explore the weather dataset by using the
View() function.

(LC2.4) Why do you believe there is a cluster of points near (0, 0)? What does (0, 0)
correspond to in terms of the Alaska Air flights?

(LC2.5) What are some other features of the plot that stand out to you?

(LC2.6) Create a new scatterplot using different variables in the alaska_flights data frame
by modifying the example given.

2.3.2 Overplotting

The large mass of points near (0, 0) in Figure 2.2 can cause some confusion since it is hard to
tell the true number of points that are plotted. This is the result of a phenomenon called
overplotting. As one may guess, this corresponds to points being plotted on top of each other
over and over again. When overplotting occurs, it is difficult to know the number of points
being plotted. There are two methods to address the issue of overplotting. Either by

1. Adjusting the transparency of the points or

2. Adding a little random “jitter”, or random “nudges”, to each of the points.

Method 1: Changing the transparency

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The first way of addressing overplotting is to change the transparency/opacity of the points
by setting the alpha argument in geom_point() . We can change the alpha argument to
be any value between 0 and 1 , where 0 sets the points to be 100% transparent and
1 sets the points to be 100% opaque. By default, alpha is set to 1 . In other words, if
we don’t explicitly set an alpha value, R will use alpha = 1 .

Note how the following code is identical to the code in Section 2.3 that created the
scatterplot with overplotting, but with alpha = 0.2 added to the geom_point() function:

ggplot(data = alaska_flights, mapping = aes(x = dep_delay, y = arr_delay)) +

geom_point(alpha = 0.2)

FIGURE 2.4: Arrival vs. departure delays scatterplot with alpha = 0.2.

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The key feature to note in Figure 2.4 is that the transparency of the points is cumulative: areas
with a high-degree of overplotting are darker, whereas areas with a lower degree are less
dark. Note furthermore that there is no aes() surrounding alpha = 0.2 . This is because
we are not mapping a variable to an aesthetic attribute, but rather merely changing the default
setting of alpha . In fact, you’ll receive an error if you try to change the second line to read
geom_point(aes(alpha = 0.2)) .

Method 2: Jittering the points

The second way of addressing overplotting is by jittering all the points. This means giving
each point a small “nudge” in a random direction. You can think of “jittering” as shaking the
points around a bit on the plot. Let’s illustrate using a simple example first. Say we have a
data frame with 4 identical rows of x and y values: (0,0), (0,0), (0,0), and (0,0). In Figure 2.5, we
present both the regular scatterplot of these 4 points (on the left) and its jittered counterpart
(on the right).

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FIGURE 2.5: Regular and jittered scatterplot.

In the left-hand regular scatterplot, observe that the 4 points are superimposed on top of
each other. While we know there are 4 values being plotted, this fact might not be apparent to
others. In the right-hand jittered scatterplot, it is now plainly evident that this plot involves
four points since each point is given a random “nudge.”

Keep in mind, however, that jittering is strictly a visualization tool; even after creating a jittered
scatterplot, the original values saved in the data frame remain unchanged.

To create a jittered scatterplot, instead of using geom_point() , we use geom_jitter() .

Observe how the following code is very similar to the code that created the scatterplot with
overplotting in Subsection 2.3.1, but with geom_point() replaced with geom_jitter() .

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ggplot(data = alaska_flights, mapping = aes(x = dep_delay, y = arr_delay)) +

geom_jitter(width = 30, height = 30)

FIGURE 2.6: Arrival versus departure delays jittered scatterplot.

In order to specify how much jitter to add, we adjusted the width and height arguments
to geom_jitter() . This corresponds to how hard you’d like to shake the plot in horizontal
x-axis units and vertical y-axis units, respectively. In this case, both axes are in minutes. How
much jitter should we add using the width and height arguments? On the one hand, it is
important to add just enough jitter to break any overlap in points, but on the other hand, not
so much that we completely alter the original pattern in points.

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As can be seen in the resulting Figure 2.6, in this case jittering doesn’t really provide much
new insight. In this particular case, it can be argued that changing the transparency of the
points by setting alpha proved more effective. When would it be better to use a jittered
scatterplot? When would it be better to alter the points’ transparency? There is no single right
answer that applies to all situations. You need to make a subjective choice and own that
choice. At the very least when confronted with overplotting, however, we suggest you make
both types of plots and see which one better emphasizes the point you are trying to make.

Learning check

(LC2.7) Why is setting the alpha argument value useful with scatterplots? What further
information does it give you that a regular scatterplot cannot?

(LC2.8) After viewing Figure 2.4, give an approximate range of arrival delays and departure
delays that occur most frequently. How has that region changed compared to when you
observed the same plot without alpha = 0.2 set in Figure 2.2?

2.3.3 Summary

Scatterplots display the relationship between two numerical variables. They are among the
most commonly used plots because they can provide an immediate way to see the trend in
one numerical variable versus another. However, if you try to create a scatterplot where either
one of the two variables is not numerical, you might get strange results. Be careful!

With medium to large datasets, you may need to play around with the different modifications
to scatterplots we saw such as changing the transparency/opacity of the points or by jittering
the points. This tweaking is often a fun part of data visualization, since you’ll have the chance
to see different relationships emerge as you tinker with your plots.

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2.4 5NG#2: Linegraphs

The next of the five named graphs are linegraphs. Linegraphs show the relationship between
two numerical variables when the variable on the x-axis, also called the explanatory variable,
is of a sequential nature. In other words, there is an inherent ordering to the variable.

The most common examples of linegraphs have some notion of time on the x-axis: hours,
days, weeks, years, etc. Since time is sequential, we connect consecutive observations of the
variable on the y-axis with a line. Linegraphs that have some notion of time on the x-axis are
also called time series plots. Let’s illustrate linegraphs using another dataset in the
nycflights13 package: the weather data frame.

Let’s explore the weather data frame from the nycflights13 package by running
View(weather) and glimpse(weather) . Furthermore let’s read the associated help file by
running ?weather to bring up the help file.

Observe that there is a variable called temp of hourly temperature recordings in Fahrenheit
at weather stations near all three major airports in New York City: Newark ( origin code
EWR ), John F. Kennedy International ( JFK ), and LaGuardia ( LGA ).

However, instead of considering hourly temperatures for all days in 2013 for all three airports,
for simplicity let’s only consider hourly temperatures at Newark airport for the first 15 days in
January. This data is accessible in the early_january_weather data frame included in the
moderndive package. In other words, early_january_weather contains hourly weather
observations for origin equal to EWR (Newark’s airport code), month equal to 1 , and
day less than or equal to 15 .

Learning check

(LC2.9) Take a look at both the weather data frame from the nycflights13 package and
the early_january_weather data frame from the moderndive package by running
View(weather) and View(early_january_weather) . In what respect do these data

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frames differ?

(LC2.10) View() the flights data frame again. Why does the time_hour variable
uniquely identify the hour of the measurement, whereas the hour variable does not?

2.4.1 Linegraphs via geom_line

Let’s create a time series plot of the hourly temperatures saved in the
early_january_weather data frame by using geom_line() to create a linegraph, instead
of using geom_point() like we used previously to create scatterplots:

ggplot(data = early_january_weather,
mapping = aes(x = time_hour, y = temp)) +
geom_line()

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FIGURE 2.7: Hourly temperature in Newark for January 1-15, 2013.

Much as with the ggplot() code that created the scatterplot of departure and arrival delays
for Alaska Airlines flights in Figure 2.2, let’s break down this code piece-by-piece in terms of
the grammar of graphics:

Within the ggplot() function call, we specify two of the components of the grammar of
graphics as arguments:

1. The data to be the early_january_weather data frame by setting data =

early_january_weather .
2. The aes thetic mapping by setting mapping = aes(x = time_hour, y = temp) .
Specifically, the variable time_hour maps to the x position aesthetic, while the
variable temp maps to the y position aesthetic.

We add a layer to the ggplot() function call using the + sign. The layer in question
specifies the third component of the grammar: the geom etric object in question. In this case,
the geometric object is a line set by specifying geom_line() .

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Learning check

(LC2.11) Why should linegraphs be avoided when there is not a clear ordering of the
horizontal axis?

(LC2.12) Why are linegraphs frequently used when time is the explanatory variable on the x-
axis?

(LC2.13) Plot a time series of a variable other than temp for Newark Airport in the first 15
days of January 2013.

2.4.2 Summary

Linegraphs, just like scatterplots, display the relationship between two numerical variables.
However, it is preferred to use linegraphs over scatterplots when the variable on the x-axis
(i.e., the explanatory variable) has an inherent ordering, such as some notion of time.

2.5 5NG#3: Histograms

Let’s consider the temp variable in the weather data frame once again, but unlike with the
linegraphs in Section 2.4, let’s say we don’t care about its relationship with time, but rather
we only care about how the values of temp distribute. In other words:

1. What are the smallest and largest values?

2. What is the “center” or “most typical” value?
3. How do the values spread out?
4. What are frequent and infrequent values?

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One way to visualize this distribution of this single variable temp is to plot them on a
horizontal line as we do in Figure 2.8:

FIGURE 2.8: Plot of hourly temperature recordings from NYC in 2013.

This gives us a general idea of how the values of temp distribute: observe that temperatures
vary from around 11°F (-11°C) up to 100°F (38°C). Furthermore, there appear to be more
recorded temperatures between 40°F and 60°F than outside this range. However, because of
the high degree of overplotting in the points, it’s hard to get a sense of exactly how many
values are between say 50°F and 55°F.

What is commonly produced instead of Figure 2.8 is known as a histogram. A histogram is a

plot that visualizes the distribution of a numerical value as follows:

1. We first cut up the x-axis into a series of bins, where each bin represents a range of
values.
2. For each bin, we count the number of observations that fall in the range corresponding to
that bin.
3. Then for each bin, we draw a bar whose height marks the corresponding count.

Let’s drill-down on an example of a histogram, shown in Figure 2.9.

FIGURE 2.9: Example histogram.

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Let’s focus only on temperatures between 30°F (-1°C) and 60°F (15°C) for now. Observe that
there are three bins of equal width between 30°F and 60°F. Thus we have three bins of width
10°F each: one bin for the 30-40°F range, another bin for the 40-50°F range, and another bin
for the 50-60°F range. Since:

1. The bin for the 30-40°F range has a height of around 5000. In other words, around 5000
of the hourly temperature recordings are between 30°F and 40°F.
2. The bin for the 40-50°F range has a height of around 4300. In other words, around 4300
of the hourly temperature recordings are between 40°F and 50°F.
3. The bin for the 50-60°F range has a height of around 3500. In other words, around 3500
of the hourly temperature recordings are between 50°F and 60°F.

All nine bins spanning 10°F to 100°F on the x-axis have this interpretation.

2.5.1 Histograms via geom_histogram

Let’s now present the ggplot() code to plot your first histogram! Unlike with scatterplots
and linegraphs, there is now only one variable being mapped in aes() : the single numerical
variable temp . The y-aesthetic of a histogram, the count of the observations in each bin,
gets computed for you automatically. Furthermore, the geometric object layer is now a
geom_histogram() . After running the following code, you’ll see the histogram in Figure 2.10
as well as warning messages. We’ll discuss the warning messages first.

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = temp)) +

geom_histogram()

`stat_bin()` using `bins = 30`. Pick better value with `binwidth`.

Warning: Removed 1 rows containing non-finite values (stat_bin).

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FIGURE 2.10: Histogram of hourly temperatures at three NYC airports.

The first message is telling us that the histogram was constructed using bins = 30 for 30
equally spaced bins. This is known in computer programming as a default value; unless you
override this default number of bins with a number you specify, R will choose 30 by default.
We’ll see in the next section how to change the number of bins to another value than the
default.

The second message is telling us something similar to the warning message we received
when we ran the code to create a scatterplot of departure and arrival delays for Alaska
Airlines flights in Figure 2.2: that because one row has a missing NA value for temp , it was
omitted from the histogram. R is just giving us a friendly heads up that this was the case.

Now let’s unpack the resulting histogram in Figure 2.10. Observe that values less than 25°F as
well as values above 80°F are rather rare. However, because of the large number of bins, it’s
hard to get a sense for which range of temperatures is spanned by each bin; everything is one
giant amorphous blob. So let’s add white vertical borders demarcating the bins by adding a
color = "white" argument to geom_histogram() and ignore the warning about setting
the number of bins to a better value:

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = temp)) +

geom_histogram(color = "white")

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FIGURE 2.11: Histogram of hourly temperatures at three NYC airports with white borders.

We now have an easier time associating ranges of temperatures to each of the bins in Figure
2.11. We can also vary the color of the bars by setting the fill argument. For example, you
can set the bin colors to be “blue steel” by setting fill = "steelblue" :

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = temp)) +

geom_histogram(color = "white", fill = "steelblue")

If you’re curious, run colors() to see all 657 possible choice of colors in R!

2.5.2 Adjusting the bins

Observe in Figure 2.11 that in the 50-75°F range there appear to be roughly 8 bins. Thus each
bin has width 25 divided by 8, or 3.125°F, which is not a very easily interpretable range to
work with. Let’s improve this by adjusting the number of bins in our histogram in one of two
ways:

1. By adjusting the number of bins via the bins argument to geom_histogram() .

2. By adjusting the width of the bins via the binwidth argument to geom_histogram() .

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Using the first method, we have the power to specify how many bins we would like to cut the
x-axis up in. As mentioned in the previous section, the default number of bins is 30. We can
override this default, to say 40 bins, as follows:

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = temp)) +

geom_histogram(bins = 40, color = "white")

Using the second method, instead of specifying the number of bins, we specify the width of
the bins by using the binwidth argument in the geom_histogram() layer. For example,
let’s set the width of each bin to be 10°F.

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = temp)) +

geom_histogram(binwidth = 10, color = "white")

We compare both resulting histograms side-by-side in Figure 2.12.

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FIGURE 2.12: Setting histogram bins in two ways.

Learning check

(LC2.14) What does changing the number of bins from 30 to 40 tell us about the distribution
of temperatures?

(LC2.15) Would you classify the distribution of temperatures as symmetric or skewed in one
direction or another?

(LC2.16) What would you guess is the “center” value in this distribution? Why did you make
that choice?

(LC2.17) Is this data spread out greatly from the center or is it close? Why?

2.5.3 Summary

Histograms, unlike scatterplots and linegraphs, present information on only a single numerical
variable. Specifically, they are visualizations of the distribution of the numerical variable in
question.

2.6 Facets
Before continuing with the next of the 5NG, let’s briefly introduce a new concept called
faceting. Faceting is used when we’d like to split a particular visualization by the values of
another variable. This will create multiple copies of the same type of plot with matching x and
y axes, but whose content will differ.

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For example, suppose we were interested in looking at how the histogram of hourly
temperature recordings at the three NYC airports we saw in Figure 2.9 differed in each month.
We could “split” this histogram by the 12 possible months in a given year. In other words, we
would plot histograms of temp for each month separately. We do this by adding
facet_wrap(~ month) layer. Note the ~ is a “tilde” and can generally be found on the key
next to the “1” key on US keyboards. The tilde is required and you’ll receive the error Error
in as.quoted(facets) : object 'month' not found if you don’t include it here.

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = temp)) +

geom_histogram(binwidth = 5, color = "white") +
facet_wrap(~ month)

FIGURE 2.13: Faceted histogram of hourly temperatures by month.

We can also specify the number of rows and columns in the grid by using the nrow and
ncol arguments inside of facet_wrap() . For example, say we would like our faceted
histogram to have 4 rows instead of 3. We simply add an nrow = 4 argument to
facet_wrap(~ month) .

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ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = temp)) +

geom_histogram(binwidth = 5, color = "white") +
facet_wrap(~ month, nrow = 4)

FIGURE 2.14: Faceted histogram with 4 instead of 3 rows.

Observe in both Figures 2.13 and 2.14 that as we might expect in the Northern Hemisphere,
temperatures tend to be higher in the summer months, while they tend to be lower in the
winter.

Learning check

(LC2.18) What other things do you notice about this faceted plot? How does a faceted plot
help us see relationships between two variables?

(LC2.19) What do the numbers 1-12 correspond to in the plot? What about 25, 50, 75, 100?

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(LC2.20) For which types of datasets would faceted plots not work well in comparing
relationships between variables? Give an example describing the nature of these variables
and other important characteristics.

(LC2.21) Does the temp variable in the weather dataset have a lot of variability? Why do
you say that?

2.7 5NG#4: Boxplots

While faceted histograms are one type of visualization used to compare the distribution of a
numerical variable split by the values of another variable, another type of visualization that
achieves this same goal is a side-by-side boxplot. A boxplot is constructed from the
information provided in the five-number summary of a numerical variable (see Appendix A.1).

To keep things simple for now, let’s only consider the 2141 hourly temperature recordings for
the month of November, each represented as a jittered point in Figure 2.15.

FIGURE 2.15: November temperatures represented as jittered points.

These 2141 observations have the following five-number summary:

1. Minimum: 21°F
2. First quartile (25th percentile): 36°F
3. Median (second quartile, 50th percentile): 45°F
4. Third quartile (75th percentile): 52°F

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5. Maximum: 71°F

In the leftmost plot of Figure 2.16, let’s mark these 5 values with dashed horizontal lines on
top of the 2141 points. In the middle plot of Figure 2.16 let’s add the boxplot. In the rightmost
plot of Figure 2.16, let’s remove the points and the dashed horizontal lines for clarity’s sake.

FIGURE 2.16: Building up a boxplot of November temperatures.

What the boxplot does is visually summarize the 2141 points by cutting the 2141 temperature
recordings into quartiles at the dashed lines, where each quartile contains roughly 2141 ÷ 4
≈ 535 observations. Thus

1. 25% of points fall below the bottom edge of the box, which is the first quartile of 36°F. In
other words, 25% of observations were below 36°F.
2. 25% of points fall between the bottom edge of the box and the solid middle line, which is
the median of 45°F. Thus, 25% of observations were between 36°F and 45°F and 50% of
observations were below 45°F.
3. 25% of points fall between the solid middle line and the top edge of the box, which is the
third quartile of 52°F. It follows that 25% of observations were between 45°F and 52°F
and 75% of observations were below 52°F.
4. 25% of points fall above the top edge of the box. In other words, 25% of observations
were above 52°F.

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5. The middle 50% of points lie within the interquartile range (IQR) between the first and
third quartile. Thus, the IQR for this example is 52 - 36 = 16°F. The interquartile range is a
measure of a numerical variable’s spread.

Furthermore, in the rightmost plot of Figure 2.16, we see the whiskers of the boxplot. The
whiskers stick out from either end of the box all the way to the minimum and maximum
observed temperatures of 21°F and 71°F, respectively. However, the whiskers don’t always
extend to the smallest and largest observed values as they do here. They in fact extend no
more than 1.5 × the interquartile range from either end of the box. In this case of the
November temperatures, no more than 1.5 × 16°F = 24°F from either end of the box. Any
observed values outside this range get marked with points called outliers, which we’ll see in
the next section.

2.7.1 Boxplots via geom_boxplot

Let’s now create a side-by-side boxplot of hourly temperatures split by the 12 months as we
did previously with the faceted histograms. We do this by mapping the month variable to
the x-position aesthetic, the temp variable to the y-position aesthetic, and by adding a
geom_boxplot() layer:

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = month, y = temp)) +

geom_boxplot()

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FIGURE 2.17: Invalid boxplot specification.

Warning messages:
1: Continuous x aesthetic -- did you forget aes(group=...)?
2: Removed 1 rows containing non-finite values (stat_boxplot).

Observe in Figure 2.17 that this plot does not provide information about temperature
separated by month. The first warning message clues us in as to why. It is telling us that we
have a “continuous”, or numerical variable, on the x-position aesthetic. Boxplots, however,
require a categorical variable to be mapped to the x-position aesthetic. The second warning
message is identical to the warning message when plotting a histogram of hourly
temperatures: that one of the values was recorded as NA missing.

We can convert the numerical variable month into a factor categorical variable by using
the factor() function. So after applying factor(month) , month goes from having
numerical values just the 1, 2, …, and 12 to having an associated ordering. With this ordering,
ggplot() now knows how to work with this variable to produce the needed plot.

ggplot(data = weather, mapping = aes(x = factor(month), y = temp)) +

geom_boxplot()

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FIGURE 2.18: Side-by-side boxplot of temperature split by month.

The resulting Figure 2.18 shows 12 separate “box and whiskers” plots similar to the rightmost
plot of Figure 2.16 of only November temperatures. Thus the different boxplots are shown
“side-by-side.”

The “box” portions of the visualization represent the 1st quartile, the median (the 2nd
quartile), and the 3rd quartile.
The height of each box (the value of the 3rd quartile minus the value of the 1st quartile) is
the interquartile range (IQR). It is a measure of the spread of the middle 50% of values,
with longer boxes indicating more variability.
The “whisker” portions of these plots extend out from the bottoms and tops of the boxes
and represent points less than the 25th percentile and greater than the 75th percentiles,
respectively. They’re set to extend out no more than 1.5 × IQR units away from either
end of the boxes. We say “no more than” because the ends of the whiskers have to
correspond to observed temperatures. The length of these whiskers show how the data
outside the middle 50% of values vary, with longer whiskers indicating more variability.

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The dots representing values falling outside the whiskers are called outliers. These can be
thought of as anomalous (“out-of-the-ordinary”) values.

It is important to keep in mind that the definition of an outlier is somewhat arbitrary and not
absolute. In this case, they are defined by the length of the whiskers, which are no more than
1.5 × IQR units long for each boxplot. Looking at this side-by-side plot we can see, as
expected, that summer months (6 through 8) have higher median temperatures as evidenced
by the higher solid lines in the middle of the boxes. We can easily compare temperatures
across months by drawing imaginary horizontal lines across the plot. Furthermore, the heights
of the 12 boxes as quantified by the interquartile ranges are informative too; they tell us about
variability, or spread, of temperatures recorded in a given month.

Learning check

(LC2.22) What does the dot at the bottom of the plot for May correspond to? Explain what
might have occurred in May to produce this point.

(LC2.23) Which months have the highest variability in temperature? What reasons can you
give for this?

(LC2.24) We looked at the distribution of the numerical variable temp split by the numerical
variable month that we converted using the factor() function in order to make a side-by-
side boxplot. Why would a boxplot of temp split by the numerical variable pressure
similarly converted to a categorical variable using the factor() not be informative?

(LC2.25) Boxplots provide a simple way to identify outliers. Why may outliers be easier to
identify when looking at a boxplot instead of a faceted histogram?

2.7.2 Summary

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Side-by-side boxplots provide us with a way to compare the distribution of a numerical

variable across multiple values of another variable. One can see where the median falls
across the different groups by comparing the solid lines in the center of the boxes.

To study the spread of a numerical variable within one of the boxes, look at both the length of
the box and also how far the whiskers extend from either end of the box. Outliers are even
more easily identified when looking at a boxplot than when looking at a histogram as they are
marked with distinct points.

2.8 5NG#5: Barplots

Both histograms and boxplots are tools to visualize the distribution of numerical variables.
Another commonly desired task is to visualize the distribution of a categorical variable. This is
a simpler task, as we are simply counting different categories within a categorical variable,
also known as the levels of the categorical variable. Often the best way to visualize these
different counts, also known as frequencies, is with barplots (also called barcharts).

One complication, however, is how your data is represented. Is the categorical variable of
interest “pre-counted” or not? For example, run the following code that manually creates two
data frames representing a collection of fruit: 3 apples and 2 oranges.

fruits <- tibble(

fruit = c("apple", "apple", "orange", "apple", "orange")
)
fruits_counted <- tibble(
fruit = c("apple", "orange"),
number = c(3, 2)
)

We see both the fruits and fruits_counted data frames represent the same collection
of fruit. Whereas fruits just lists the fruit individually…

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# A tibble: 5 × 1
fruit
<chr>
1 apple
2 apple
3 orange
4 apple
5 orange

… fruits_counted has a variable count which represent the “pre-counted” values of

each fruit.

# A tibble: 2 × 2
fruit number
<chr> <dbl>
1 apple 3
2 orange 2

Depending on how your categorical data is represented, you’ll need to add a different
geom etric layer type to your ggplot() to create a barplot, as we now explore.

2.8.1 Barplots via geom_bar or geom_col

Let’s generate barplots using these two different representations of the same basket of fruit: 3
apples and 2 oranges. Using the fruits data frame where all 5 fruits are listed individually
in 5 rows, we map the fruit variable to the x-position aesthetic and add a geom_bar()
layer:

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ggplot(data = fruits, mapping = aes(x = fruit)) +

geom_bar()

FIGURE 2.19: Barplot when counts are not pre-counted.

However, using the fruits_counted data frame where the fruits have been “pre-counted”,
we once again map the fruit variable to the x-position aesthetic, but here we also map the
count variable to the y-position aesthetic, and add a geom_col() layer instead.

ggplot(data = fruits_counted, mapping = aes(x = fruit, y = number)) +

geom_col()

FIGURE 2.20: Barplot when counts are pre-counted.

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Compare the barplots in Figures 2.19 and 2.20. They are identical because they reflect counts
of the same five fruits. However, depending on how our categorical data is represented, either
“pre-counted” or not, we must add a different geom layer. When the categorical variable
whose distribution you want to visualize

Is not pre-counted in your data frame, we use geom_bar() .

Is pre-counted in your data frame, we use geom_col() with the y-position aesthetic
mapped to the variable that has the counts.

Let’s now go back to the flights data frame in the nycflights13 package and visualize
the distribution of the categorical variable carrier . In other words, let’s visualize the
number of domestic flights out of New York City each airline company flew in 2013. Recall
from Subsection 1.4.3 when you first explored the flights data frame, you saw that each
row corresponds to a flight. In other words, the flights data frame is more like the
fruits data frame than the fruits_counted data frame because the flights have not
been pre-counted by carrier . Thus we should use geom_bar() instead of geom_col()
to create a barplot. Much like a geom_histogram() , there is only one variable in the aes()
aesthetic mapping: the variable carrier gets mapped to the x -position. As a difference
though, histograms have bars that touch whereas bar graphs have white space between the
bars going from left to right.

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier)) +

geom_bar()

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FIGURE 2.21: Number of flights departing NYC in 2013 by airline using geom_bar().

Observe in Figure 2.21 that United Airlines (UA), JetBlue Airways (B6), and ExpressJet Airlines
(EV) had the most flights depart NYC in 2013. If you don’t know which airlines correspond to
which carrier codes, then run View(airlines) to see a directory of airlines. For example,
B6 is JetBlue Airways. Alternatively, say you had a data frame where the number of flights for
each carrier was pre-counted as in Table 2.3.

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TABLE 2.3: Number of flights pre-counted for each carrier

carrier number

9E 18460

AA 32729

AS 714

B6 54635

DL 48110

EV 54173

F9 685

FL 3260

HA 342

MQ 26397

OO 32

UA 58665

US 20536

VX 5162

WN 12275

YV 601

In order to create a barplot visualizing the distribution of the categorical variable carrier in
this case, we would now use geom_col() instead of geom_bar() , with an additional y =
number in the aesthetic mapping on top of the x = carrier . The resulting barplot would
be identical to Figure 2.21.

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Learning check

(LC2.26) Why are histograms inappropriate for categorical variables?

(LC2.27) What is the difference between histograms and barplots?

(LC2.28) How many Envoy Air flights departed NYC in 2013?

(LC2.29) What was the 7th highest airline for departed flights from NYC in 2013? How could
we better present the table to get this answer quickly?

2.8.2 Must avoid pie charts!

One of the most common plots used to visualize the distribution of categorical data is the pie
chart. While they may seem harmless enough, pie charts actually present a problem in that
humans are unable to judge angles well. As Naomi Robbins describes in her book, Creating
More Effective Graphs (Robbins 2013), we overestimate angles greater than 90 degrees and
we underestimate angles less than 90 degrees. In other words, it is difficult for us to
determine the relative size of one piece of the pie compared to another.

Let’s examine the same data used in our previous barplot of the number of flights departing
NYC by airline in Figure 2.21, but this time we will use a pie chart in Figure 2.22. Try to answer
the following questions:

How much larger is the portion of the pie for ExpressJet Airlines ( EV ) compared to US
Airways ( US )?
What is the third largest carrier in terms of departing flights?
How many carriers have fewer flights than United Airlines ( UA )?

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FIGURE 2.22: The dreaded pie chart.

While it is quite difficult to answer these questions when looking at the pie chart in Figure
2.22, we can much more easily answer these questions using the barchart in Figure 2.21. This
is true since barplots present the information in a way such that comparisons between
categories can be made with single horizontal lines, whereas pie charts present the
information in a way such that comparisons must be made by comparing angles.

Learning check

(LC2.30) Why should pie charts be avoided and replaced by barplots?

(LC2.31) Why do you think people continue to use pie charts?

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2.8.3 Two categorical variables

Barplots are a very common way to visualize the frequency of different categories, or levels,
of a single categorical variable. Another use of barplots is to visualize the joint distribution of
two categorical variables at the same time. Let’s examine the joint distribution of outgoing
domestic flights from NYC by carrier as well as origin . In other words, the number of
flights for each carrier and origin combination.

For example, the number of WestJet flights from JFK , the number of WestJet flights from
LGA , the number of WestJet flights from EWR , the number of American Airlines flights from
JFK , and so on. Recall the ggplot() code that created the barplot of carrier
frequency in Figure 2.21:

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier)) +

geom_bar()

We can now map the additional variable origin by adding a fill = origin inside the
aes() aesthetic mapping.

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier, fill = origin)) +

geom_bar()

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FIGURE 2.23: Stacked barplot of flight amount by carrier and origin.

Figure 2.23 is an example of a stacked barplot. While simple to make, in certain aspects it is
not ideal. For example, it is difficult to compare the heights of the different colors between the
bars, corresponding to comparing the number of flights from each origin airport between
the carriers.

Before we continue, let’s address some common points of confusion among new R users.
First, the fill aesthetic corresponds to the color used to fill the bars, while the color
aesthetic corresponds to the color of the outline of the bars. This is identical to how we
added color to our histogram in Subsection 2.5.1: we set the outline of the bars to white by
setting color = "white" and the colors of the bars to blue steel by setting fill =
"steelblue" . Observe in Figure 2.24 that mapping origin to color and not fill
yields grey bars with different colored outlines.

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier, color = origin)) +

geom_bar()

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FIGURE 2.24: Stacked barplot with color aesthetic used instead of fill.

Second, note that fill is another aesthetic mapping much like x -position; thus we were
careful to include it within the parentheses of the aes() mapping. The following code,
where the fill aesthetic is specified outside the aes() mapping will yield an error. This
is a fairly common error that new ggplot users make:

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier), fill = origin) +

geom_bar()

An alternative to stacked barplots are side-by-side barplots, also known as dodged barplots,
as seen in Figure 2.25. The code to create a side-by-side barplot is identical to the code to
create a stacked barplot, but with a position = "dodge" argument added to
geom_bar() . In other words, we are overriding the default barplot type, which is a stacked
barplot, and specifying it to be a side-by-side barplot instead.

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier, fill = origin)) +

geom_bar(position = "dodge")

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FIGURE 2.25: Side-by-side barplot comparing number of flights by carrier and origin.

Note the width of the bars for AS , F9 , FL , HA and YV is different than the others. We
can make one tweak to the position argument to get them to be the same size in terms of
width as the other bars by using the more robust position_dodge() function.

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier, fill = origin)) +

geom_bar(position = position_dodge(preserve = "single"))

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FIGURE 2.26: Side-by-side barplot comparing number of flights by carrier and origin (with
formatting tweak).

Lastly, another type of barplot is a faceted barplot. Recall in Section 2.6 we visualized the
distribution of hourly temperatures at the 3 NYC airports split by month using facets. We
apply the same principle to our barplot visualizing the frequency of carrier split by
origin : instead of mapping origin to fill we include it as the variable to create small
multiples of the plot across the levels of origin .

ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier)) +

geom_bar() +
facet_wrap(~ origin, ncol = 1)

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FIGURE 2.27: Faceted barplot comparing the number of flights by carrier and origin.

Learning check

(LC2.32) What kinds of questions are not easily answered by looking at Figure 2.23?

(LC2.33) What can you say, if anything, about the relationship between airline and airport in
NYC in 2013 in regards to the number of departing flights?

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(LC2.34) Why might the side-by-side barplot be preferable to a stacked barplot in this case?

(LC2.35) What are the disadvantages of using a dodged barplot, in general?

(LC2.36) Why is the faceted barplot preferred to the side-by-side and stacked barplots in this
case?

(LC2.37) What information about the different carriers at different airports is more easily seen
in the faceted barplot?

2.8.4 Summary

Barplots are a common way of displaying the distribution of a categorical variable, or in other
words the frequency with which the different categories (also called levels) occur. They are
easy to understand and make it easy to make comparisons across levels. Furthermore, when
trying to visualize the relationship of two categorical variables, you have many options:
stacked barplots, side-by-side barplots, and faceted barplots. Depending on what aspect of
the relationship you are trying to emphasize, you will need to make a choice between these
three types of barplots and own that choice.

2.9 Conclusion

2.9.1 Summary table

Let’s recap all five of the five named graphs (5NG) in Table 2.4 summarizing their differences.
Using these 5NG, you’ll be able to visualize the distributions and relationships of variables
contained in a wide array of datasets. This will be even more the case as we start to map
more variables to more of each geom etric object’s aes thetic attribute options, further
unlocking the awesome power of the ggplot2 package.

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TABLE 2.4: Summary of Five Named Graphs

Named
Shows Geometric object Notes
graph

Relationship
between 2
1 Scatterplot geom_point()
numerical
variables

Relationship
Used when there is a
between 2
2 Linegraph geom_line() sequential order to x-
numerical
variable, e.g., time
variables

Facetted histograms
Distribution of 1 show the distribution of
3 Histogram numerical geom_histogram() 1 numerical variable split
variable by the values of another
variable

Distribution of 1
numerical
4 Boxplot variable split by geom_boxplot()
the values of
another variable

geom_bar() when
Stacked, side-by-side,
counts are not pre-
Distribution of 1 and faceted barplots
counted,
5 Barplot categorical show the joint
geom_col() when
variable distribution of 2
counts are pre-
categorical variables
counted

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2.9.2 Function argument specification

Let’s go over some important points about specifying the arguments (i.e., inputs) to functions.
Run the following two segments of code:

# Segment 1:
ggplot(data = flights, mapping = aes(x = carrier)) +
geom_bar()

# Segment 2:
ggplot(flights, aes(x = carrier)) +
geom_bar()

You’ll notice that both code segments create the same barplot, even though in the second
segment we omitted the data = and mapping = code argument names. This is because
the ggplot() function by default assumes that the data argument comes first and the
mapping argument comes second. As long as you specify the data frame in question first
and the aes() mapping second, you can omit the explicit statement of the argument names
data = and mapping = .

Going forward for the rest of this book, all ggplot() code will be like the second segment:
with the data = and mapping = explicit naming of the argument omitted with the default
ordering of arguments respected. We’ll do this for brevity’s sake; it’s common to see this style
when reviewing other R users’ code.

2.9.3 Additional resources

An R script file of all R code used in this chapter is available here.

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If you want to further unlock the power of the ggplot2 package for data visualization, we
suggest that you check out RStudio’s “Data Visualization with ggplot2” cheatsheet. This
cheatsheet summarizes much more than what we’ve discussed in this chapter. In particular, it
presents many more than the 5 geom etric objects we covered in this chapter while providing
quick and easy to read visual descriptions. For all the geom etric objects, it also lists all the
possible aesthetic attributes one can tweak. In the current version of RStudio in late 2019,
you can access this cheatsheet by going to the RStudio Menu Bar -> Help -> Cheatsheets ->
“Data Visualization with ggplot2.” You can see a preview in the figure below. Alternatively, you
can preview the cheat sheet by going to the ggplot2 Github page with this link.

FIGURE 2.28: Data Visualization with ggplot2 cheatsheet.

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2.9.4 What’s to come

Recall in Figure 2.2 in Section 2.3 we visualized the relationship between departure delay and
arrival delay for Alaska Airlines flights only, rather than all flights. This data is saved in the
alaska_flights data frame from the moderndive package.

In reality, the alaska_flights data frame is merely a subset of the flights data frame
from the nycflights13 package consisting of all flights that left NYC in 2013. We created
alaska_flights using the following code that uses the dplyr package for data
wrangling:

library(dplyr)

alaska_flights <- flights %>%

filter(carrier == "AS")

ggplot(data = alaska_flights, mapping = aes(x = dep_delay, y = arr_delay)) +

geom_point()

This code takes the flights data frame and filter() it to only return the 714 rows
where carrier is equal to "AS" , Alaska Airlines’ carrier code. (Recall from Section 1.2
that testing for equality is specified with == and not = .) The code then cycles back to save
the output in a new data frame called alaska_flights using the <- assignment operator.

Similarly, recall in Figure 2.7 in Section 2.4 we visualized hourly temperature recordings at
Newark airport only for the first 15 days of January 2013. This data is saved in the
early_january_weather data frame from the moderndive package.

In reality, the early_january_weather data frame is merely a subset of the weather data
frame from the nycflights13 package consisting of all hourly weather observations in 2013
for all three NYC airports. We created early_january_weather using the following dplyr
code:

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early_january_weather <- weather %>%

filter(origin == "EWR" & month == 1 & day <= 15)

ggplot(data = early_january_weather, mapping = aes(x = time_hour, y = temp)) +

geom_line()

This code pares down the weather data frame to a new data frame
early_january_weather consisting of hourly temperature recordings only for origin ==
"EWR" , month == 1 , and day less than or equal to 15 .

These two code segments are a preview of Chapter 3 on data wrangling using the dplyr
package. Data wrangling is the process of transforming and modifying existing data with the
intent of making it more appropriate for analysis purposes. For example, these two code
segments used the filter() function to create new data frames ( alaska_flights and
early_january_weather ) by choosing only a subset of rows of existing data frames
( flights and weather ). In the next chapter, we’ll formally introduce the filter() and
other data wrangling functions as well as the pipe operator %>% which allows you to
combine multiple data wrangling actions into a single sequential chain of actions. On to
Chapter 3 on data wrangling!

References

Grolemund, Garrett, and Hadley Wickham. 2017. R for Data Science. First. Sebastopol, CA:
O’Reilly Media. https://r4ds.had.co.nz/.

Robbins, Naomi. 2013. Creating More Effective Graphs. First. New York, NY: Chart House.

Wickham, Hadley, Winston Chang, Lionel Henry, Thomas Lin Pedersen, Kohske Takahashi,
Claus Wilke, Kara Woo, Hiroaki Yutani, and Dewey Dunnington. 2022. Ggplot2: Create Elegant
Data Visualisations Using the Grammar of Graphics. https://CRAN.R-
project.org/package=ggplot2.

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Wilkinson, Leland. 2005. The Grammar of Graphics (Statistics and Computing). First.
Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag.

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