Quality Control
Fundamental Statistical Models (Part 1)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou
Learning Objectives
➢Construct and interpret visual data displays, including the stem-and-leaf plot, the
histogram, and the box plot
➢Compute and interpret the sample mean, the sample variance, the sample standard
deviation, and the sample range
➢Explain the concepts of a random variable and a probability distribution
➢Understand and interpret the mean, variance, and standard deviation of a probability
distribution
➢Determine probabilities from probability distributions
➢Select an appropriate probability distribution
➢Use approximations for some hypergeometric and binomial distributions
Fundamental Statistical Models Adapted from the source: Douglas C. Montgomery, Statistical
Quality Control: A Modern Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley
2 & Sons Inc., 2013, (Book and book support resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Introduction
Definition of Statistics:
1. A collection of quantitative data pertaining to a subject or group.
Examples are blood pressure statistics etc.
2. The science that deals with the collection, tabulation, analysis,
interpretation, and presentation of quantitative data
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality
Improvement, 9th edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book
3 and book support resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Introduction
Two phases of statistics:
❑Descriptive Statistics:
Describes the characteristics of a product or process using information
collected on it.
❑Inferential Statistics (Inductive):
Draws conclusions on unknown process parameters based on
information contained in a sample.
Uses probability
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support resources)
4
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Descriptive Statistics
Fundamental Statistical Models
5
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Descriptive Statistics
Fundamental Statistical Models
6
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Collection of Data
Types of Data:
Variable:
are those quality characteristics that are measureable, such as weight in grams.
Attribute:
are those quality characteristics that are classified as either conforming or not
conforming to specifications, such as a “go/no go”
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th edition,
Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support resources)
7
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Differences Due to Location, Spread, and Shape
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
8 edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support
resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Measures of Central Tendency
The three measures in common use are the:
Average
Median
Mode
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support
9 resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Average
X i
X = i =1
n
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement,
10 9th edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book
support resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Median
The median is defined as the value that divides a series of ordered observations so that the number
of items above it is equal to the number below it.
When the number in the series is odd, the median is the midpoint of the values.
When the number in the series is even, the median is the average of the two middle numbers.
Mode
The Mode is the value that occurs with the greatest frequency.
It is possible to have no modes in a series of numbers or to have more than one mode.
Fundamental Statistical Models
11
Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th edition, Pearson,
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025 2012. (Book and book support resources)
Relationship Among the Measures of Central Tendency
Relationship among average, median and mode
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement,
12 9th edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support
resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Measures of Dispersion
Range
Standard Deviation
Variance
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th edition,
Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support resources)
13
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Range
The range is the simplest and easiest to calculate of the measures of dispersion.
Range = R = Xh - Xl
❑ Largest value - Smallest value in data set
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support resources)
14
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Standard Deviation
Sample Standard Deviation:
(X )
n 2
n
2
−X
n
i n X i − X i
2
s= i =1
s= i =1 i =1
n −1 n(n − 1)
The sample standard deviation is expressed in
the same unit of the measurement.
Variance
Variance = s², is valuable measure of variability in advanced statistics.
The units of the sample variance are the square of the original units of the data.
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th edition,
Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support resources) and Douglas
15 C. Montgomery, Statistical Quality Control: A Modern
Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2013, (Book and
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025 book support resources)
Standard Deviation
Sample Standard Deviation:
To more easily see how the standard deviation describes
variability, consider the two samples shown here:
Thus, the larger variability in sample 2 is reflected by its larger standard deviation.
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Douglas C. Montgomery, Statistical Quality Control: A
Modern Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2013.
16
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Standard Deviation
Sample Standard Deviation:
Now consider a third sample,
Notice that sample 3 was obtained from sample 1 by adding 100 to each observation.
The standard deviation for this third sample is s = 2, which is identical to the standard
deviation of sample 1.
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Douglas C. Montgomery, Statistical Quality Control: A
Modern Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2013.
17
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Relationship Between the Measures of Dispersion
❑ As n increases, accuracy of R decreases
❑ Use R when there is small amount of data or data is too scattered
❑ If n > 10 use standard deviation
❑ A smaller standard deviation means better quality
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support resources)
18
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Describing the Data
The Box Plot (or Box-and-Whisker Plot)
Comparative Box Plots
Q1 median Q3
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Douglas C. Montgomery, Statistical Quality Control: A
Modern Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2013,
19 (Book and book support resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Percentile Method
What are quartiles?
Quartiles are values that divide a sample of data into four equal parts.
With them you can quickly evaluate a data set's spread and central tendency, which are important
first steps in understanding your data.
Source: https://support.minitab.com/en-us/minitab/21/help-and-
Minitab - Quartiles how-to/graphs/boxplot/interpret-the-results/quartiles/
20 Retrieved 24/12/2023
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Winter 2024-2025
Percentile Method
When the set of observations are arranged in ascending order the quartiles are represented as,
First Quartile(Q1) = ((n + 1)/4)th Term
Second Quartile(Q2) = ((n + 1)/2)th Term
Third Quartile(Q3) = (3(n + 1)/4)th Term
Example 1: Calculate the median, lower quartile, upper quartile, and interquartile range of the following data set of
values: 20, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 26
Solution:
Arranging the values in ascending order: 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27
Putting the values in the formulas above we get,
Median(Q2) = 5th Term = 23
Lower Quartile (Q1) = Mean of 2nd and 3rd term = (20 + 21)/2 = 20.5
Upper Quartile(Q3) = Mean of 7th and 8th term = (25 + 26)/2 = 25.5
IQR = Upper Quartile−Lower Quartile
IQR = 25.5 – 20.5
IQR = 5
Source: https://www.cuemath.com/quartile-formula/
Minitab - Quartiles Retrieved 24/12/2023
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Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Winter 2024-2025
Percentile Method
For example, for the following data: 7, 9, 16, 36, 39, 45, 45, 46, 48, 51
Q1 = 14.25
Q2 (median) = 42
Q3 = 46.50
Interquartile range = 14.25 to 46.50, or 32.25
NOTE
Quartiles are calculated values, not observations in the data. It is often necessary to interpolate
between two observations to calculate a quartile accurately.
Because they are not affected by extreme observations, the median and interquartile range are a
better measure of central tendency and spread for highly skewed data than are the mean and
standard deviation.
Source: https://support.minitab.com/en-us/minitab/21/help-and-
Minitab - Quartiles how-to/graphs/boxplot/interpret-the-results/quartiles/
22 Retrieved 24/12/2023
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Winter 2024-2025
Percentile Method
data
7
9
16
36
39
45
45
46
48
51
Minitab - Quartiles
23
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Winter 2024-2025
Describing the Data
Stem-and-Leaf Display
Best to choose between 5 and 20 stems
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Douglas C. Montgomery, Statistical Quality Control: A
Modern Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
24 2013, (Book and book support resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Frequency Distributions
➢The frequency distribution is a useful method of visualizing data and is a basic
statistical concept.
➢To think of a set of numbers as having some type of distribution is fundamental for
solving quality problems.
➢There are different types of frequency distributions, and the type of distribution can
indicate the problem-solving technique.
Fundamental Statistical Models
Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement,
25 9th edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025 support resources)
Frequency Distributions
Number non Frequency Relative Cumulative Relative
conforming Frequency Frequency Cumulative
Frequency
0 15 0.29 15 0.29
1 20 0.38 35 0.67
2 8 0.15 43 0.83
3 5 0.10 48 0.92
4 3 0.06 51 0.98
5 1 0.02 52 1.00
Σ 52
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support
26 resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
The Histogram
The histogram is the most important graphical tool for exploring the shape of
data distributions.
Frequency Histogram Relative Frequency Histogram
25 0.45
0.40
20 0.35
Relative Frequency
0.30
Frequency
15
0.25
0.20
10
0.15
5 0.10
0.05
0 0.00
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number Nonconforming Number Nonconforming
Fundamental Statistical Models Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
27 edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support
resources)
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
The Histogram
Cumulative Frequency Histogram
60
Cumulative Frequency
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number Nonconforming
Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support resources)
Between 5 and 20 bins is satisfactory in most cases, and the number of bins should
increase with the number of observations.
Source: Douglas C. Montgomery, Statistical Quality Control: A Modern Introduction, 7th edition, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 2013, (Book and book support resources)
Fundamental Statistical Models
28
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
Analysis of Histograms
Analysis of a histogram can provide
information concerning;
-specifications
- the shape of the population frequency
distribution
- and a particular quality problem
Histogram of Wash Concentration
Fundamental Statistical Models
29 Source: Dale H. Besterfield, Quality Improvement, 9th
edition, Pearson, 2012. (Book and book support
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
resources)
Thank you for your attention ...
Fundamental Statistical Models
30
Dr.-Ing. Amr Nounou - Spring 2024-2025
