MAPPING

24 December 2024 10:58

SECTIONS IN MAPPING:(FROM 2014-2023)

Section Number of Questions

World Political 23
World Physical 04
World Economic 06
India Political 06
India Physical 45
India Economic 07
IMPORTANT THEMES
• Political borders and coast.
• State borders and location.
• region in news national and international.
• International groupings.
• Mountains, peaks, volcanoes.
• Glaciers.
• River and waterbodies (Indian and international rivers).
• Reservoirs.
• National Parks and Wildlife.
WORLD POLITICAL
Continents:
• Australia
• Europe
• Antarctica
• South America
• North America
• Africa
• Asia
Oceans:
• Arctic Ocean
• Southern Ocean
• Indian Ocean
• Atlantic Ocean
• Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean:
• Largest and deepest ocean.
• Its overall area is decreasing on a geological scale due to subduction.
• It is surrounded by the Pacific Ring of Fire, which includes trenches.
• Connected to other oceans:
• The Drake Passage connects the Pacific with the Atlantic.
• Bering Strait connects the Pacific to the Arctic.
• The Pacific Ocean is connected to the Southern Ocean.
• The Indonesian Archipelago separates the Indian Ocean from the Pacific.
• The Malacca Strait is also connected to the Pacific Ocean.
• Challenger Deep is the deepest point on the surface of the Earth, reaching 10,900
meters.
Atlantic Ocean:
• The youngest ocean in terms of oceanic floor formation.
• The Mid-Oceanic Ridge is the longest mountain chain, a result of oceanic divergent
plate boundaries.
• The Atlantic Ocean roughly has an S shape.
• Iceland is part of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, which has emerged above water.
• Asia, Oceania, and North and South America surround the Pacific Ocean.
Arctic Ocean:
• The terrestrial ecosystem hosts the top carnivore, the polar bear, which is the largest
land-based carnivorous mammal.
• During the winter season, the Bering Sea freezes, connecting Alaska to Russia.
• Arctic amplification is observed, and the ice has high albedo, leading to faster melting of
Arctic ice.
• It is the smallest ocean.
Southern Ocean:
• The Southern Ocean surrounds Antarctica up to the 60-degree latitude.
• The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) declared it as the Southern Ocean in
2000.
• The cold ocean current, West Wind Drift, circulates around Antarctica.
• Hence, preventing it from mixing with other water bodies and thus contributing to the
separation of oceans.
ASIA
• Oceans surrounding Asia: Indian Ocean to the south, Pacific Ocean to the east, and
Arctic Ocean to the north.
• Asia is connected to Europe by land along the Ural Mountains, which serve as the
boundary between the two continents.
• Siberia, known as Asian Russia, occupies a substantial portion of the continent.
• The Ural River forms a border between Europe and Asia, flowing into the Caspian Sea.
• The Caucasus Mountains act as a land border between Europe and Asia.
• The Sinai Peninsula, belonging to Egypt, connects Asia and Africa.
• Sharm El Sheikh is located in the Sinai Peninsula.
• Asia is not connected to North America.
• It has a land connection with Oceania through New Guinea Island.
• The New Guinea island has a western part and an eastern part.
• The eastern part of the New Guinea island is considered part of Oceania.
• 30% of all land is in Asia only.
Different regions of Asia:
• West Asia, also known as the Middle East, does not include Georgia.
• Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Maldives, in South Asia.
• Central Asia lies between West Asia, South Asia, and Siberia.
• Southeast Asia and East Asia are distinct regions from West Asia, with Southeast Asia
comprising countries like Thailand, Vietnam, and Indonesia, while East Asia includes
China, Japan, and South Korea.
• The Caspian Sea and the Black Sea form a boundary.
• Within the Black Sea is the Sea of Azov.
• Between the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea lies a water body known as the Sea of
Marmara, which separates Europe and Asia.
• The Red Sea gets its name from reddish algae.
• The Gulf of Aden is also notable in the region.
• Aden is a port located in Yemen.
• Aden is a port of Call.
• The Arabian Sea is named after the Arabian Peninsula.
• The Gulf of Oman provides a very narrow passage to enter the Persian Gulf.
• A gulf is a water body with a narrow mouth, while a bay refers to the land area.
• The Andaman Sea is located in the eastern Indian Ocean, bounded by Myanmar,
Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India.
• The Malacca Strait is a narrow stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula and the
Indonesian island of Sumatra, connecting the Andaman Sea to the South China Sea.
• The Gulf of Thailand is an arm of the South China Sea, bordered by Thailand, Cambodia,
and Vietnam.
• The Sea of Japan is a body of water located between Japan and the Korean Peninsula.
• The Bering Sea is located in the northern Pacific Ocean, bounded by Alaska and the
Kamchatka Peninsula.
• The Bering Strait is a narrow passage that separates Russia's Chukotka Peninsula from
Alaska's Seward Peninsula, connecting the Bering Sea to the Arctic Ocean.
WEST ASIA
• The region is also referred to as the Middle East.
• The Fertile Crescent, located in West Asia, is known for its historical significance as the
birthplace of agriculture.
• The first agriculture practices date back to around 9000 BC during the Neolithic period.
• Countries in West Asia include Cyprus, which is geographically part of Asia but politically
and economically aligned with the European Union.
• Cyprus is located on the continental shelf of West Asia and is divided between Greek
Cyprus and Turkish Cyprus.
• Turkey, located in West Asia, is surrounded by several seas.
• The Aegean Sea lies between Greece and Turkey.
• European Turkey and Asian Turkey refer to the two geographical regions of Turkey
divided by the Bosporus Strait.
• Constantinople, now known as Istanbul, is located on the European side of the Bosporus
Strait.
• The capital of Turkey is Ankara.
• Iran's capital is Tehran, and it is located between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf.
• Iraq is known for its ancient Mesopotamian civilization, with fertile plains in the region.
• Kuwait is a country in the Arabian Peninsula.
• Saudi Arabia has a large desert area, including the Rub' al Khali desert. Its capital is
Riyadh.
• Bahrain's capital is Manama.
• Qatar's capital is Doha, and it has the highest ecological footprint globally.
• Qatar is a peninsula bordered only by Saudi Arabia.
• The United Arab Emirates (UAE) has its capital in Abu Dhabi and includes cities like
Dubai and Sharjah.
• It has a coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.
• Oman's capital is Muscat, located on the Tropic of Cancer.
• It has coastlines along the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Oman, and the Persian Gulf.
• Yemen's capital is Sana'a, but the country has faced disturbances due to civil wars,
including conflicts with Houthi rebels.
• Jordan's capital is Amman.
• Other countries in the region include Israel, Lebanon, and Syria.
• The Gulf of Aqaba is surrounded by four countries, with the port of Eilat located on its
shores.
• The Gulf of Suez lies to the west of the Sinai Peninsula, connecting to the Red Sea.
Jordan is surrounded by the following countries:
• Israel to the west
• Syria to the north
• Iraq to the east
• Saudi Arabia to the south and southeast
• The West Bank is bordered by Israel to the west and Jordan to the east, north, and
south.
• The Gaza Strip is a small territory bordered by Israel to the east and north, and Egypt to
the south.
• Jerusalem is a city considered holy by three major religions and is central to the Israeli-
Palestinian conflict.
• Haifa is a major port city in Israel.
• Lebanon's capital is Beirut.
• The Golan Heights is a strategic location between Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan, occupied
by Israel.
The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) includes:
• Bahrain,
• Kuwait,
• Oman,
• Qatar,
• Saudi Arabia,
• United Arab Emirates, and
• Serves as a political and economic union in the Gulf region.
CENTRAL ASIA
Countries include:
• Kazakhstan
• Kyrgyzstan
• Tajikistan
• Turkmenistan
• Uzbekistan
• KKUTT (code word).
• Uzbekistan is a neighbor to all.
Uzbekistan is bordered by the following countries:
• Kazakhstan to the northwest and north
• Kyrgyzstan to the northeast
• Tajikistan to the southeast
• Afghanistan to the south
• Turkmenistan to the southwest
Capitals of Central Asian countries:
• Kazakhstan: Nur-Sultan
• Kyrgyzstan: Bishkek
• Tajikistan: Dushanbe
• Turkmenistan: Ashgabat
• Uzbekistan: Tashkent
• The Bishkek Declaration on Snow Leopard Conservation was issued in 2013.
• Dushanbe hosted the Heart of Asia summit.
• Ashgabat is known for the Ashgabat Agreement for the establishment of an
International Transport and Transit Corridor.
• Uzbekistan is a doubly landlocked country.
• Liechtenstein is another doubly landlocked country.
• The Wakhan Corridor provides an entry to China from Afghanistan.
• Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan are countries situated between Asia and Europe.
• Armenia is a completely landlocked country.
• Countries surrounding Armenia include Turkey, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Iran.
• Chechnya is a federal subject of Russia.
• Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan, is located on the Caspian Sea.
• The Nagorno-Karabakh region is a disputed territory claimed by both Armenia and
Azerbaijan.
Countries surrounding the Caspian Sea:
1. Russia
2. Kazakhstan
3. Turkmenistan
4. Iran
5. Azerbaijan
Darvaza Gas Crater:
• The Darvaza Gas Crater is a massive crater that has been burning continuously since
1971.
• It was originally a natural gas field that collapsed into a crater after a drilling mishap.
• To prevent the release of methane gas into the atmosphere, Soviet engineers set it on
fire, expecting it to burn out within a few weeks.
• However, the crater has been burning continuously ever since, earning it the nickname
"Door to Hell."

SOVIET UNION
It included the following countries:
• Russia
• Ukraine
• Belarus
• Kazakhstan
• Georgia
• Azerbaijan
• Armenia
• Uzbekistan
• Turkmenistan
• Tajikistan
• Kyrgyzstan
• Moldova
• Lithuania
• Latvia
• Estonia
South Asia:

Country Capital
Afghanistan Kabul
 Bangladesh Dhaka
Bhutan Thimphu
India New Delhi
Maldives Malé
Nepal Kathmandu
Pakistan Islamabad
Sri Lanka Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte
South East Asia:
ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) countries and their capitals:
• Brunei - Bandar Seri Begawan
• Cambodia - Phnom Penh
• Indonesia - Jakarta
• Laos - Vientiane
• Malaysia - Kuala Lumpur
• Myanmar - Naypyidaw
• Philippines - Manila
• Singapore - Singapore
• Thailand - Bangkok
• Vietnam - Hanoi
Myanmar:
• India's direct neighbor.
• Was under British colonial rule.
• Formerly called Burma.
• The capital is Naypyidaw.
• Known for its Burma teak.
• Home to the Rohingya ethnic group, who face persecution.
• The Rohingya crisis is particularly prevalent in Rakhine State.
Thailand:
• Present in both the Andaman Sea and the Gulf of Thailand.
• Was never colonized.
• The capital is Bangkok, known for the Bangkok Declaration, which led to the
establishment of ASEAN.
• Famous for its white elephants.
Laos:
• The only landlocked country in Southeast Asia.
• Shares boundaries with Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, China, and Myanmar.
• Capital is Vientiane.
Cambodia:
• The capital is Phnom Penh.
• Home to the iconic Angkor Wat temple.
Vietnam:
• The capital is Hanoi.
• Has a good relationship with India.
• Faces disputes with China in the South China Sea.
Malaysia:
• The capital is Kuala Lumpur.
Singapore:
• A separate country with the capital being Singapore City.
Brunei:
• Capital is Bandar Seri Begawan.
Philippines:
• Comprised of a large group of islands, with the capital being Manila.
• Frequently hit by tropical cyclones due to the warm Kuroshio Ocean Current.
Indonesia:
• Comprises islands such as Java, Sumatra, and Borneo.
• The capital is Jakarta, though there are plans to relocate it to Borneo due to sinking
issues.

EAST ASIA
• China (PRC):
• Pakistan has no direct border with China.
• Kazakhstan and Mongolia do not share boundaries.
• Capital: Beijing.
• Shanghai - Economic capital.
• ROC - Republic of China - Taiwan
• Hong Kong was under British control.
• Mongolia:
• Capital - Ulan Bator.
• It is rich in Uranium reserve.
• North Korea:
• Capital: Pyongyang.
• Shares border with both Russia and China.
• South Korea:
• Capital: Seoul
• The line separating N and S Korea - 38 degrees north parallel.
• Japan:
• Island arc.
• Four major islands (north to south): Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu.
• Capital: Tokyo (largest urban area).
• Sea of Okhotsk.
EUROPE
• The land boundary with only the Asian continent (Ural mountain, Ural river, and Caucasus
mountain).
• Water bodies:
• Caspian Sea - Separates Europe and Asia.
• Sea of Marmamar, Aegean Sea, Mediterranean Sea.
• Black Sea.
• Adriatic Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea.
• Europeis called as 'the Peninsula of Peninsulas'.
• Vatican City - the World's smallest country.
• Russia - World's largest country.
• The actual location of Gibraltar belongs to the UK.
• Gibraltar - Port of Call.
• English Channel - Water body between the UK and France.
• Scandinavian countries: Norway, Sweden and Denmark.
• Nordic countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, Greenland and Denmark.
• Norway:
• Capital: Oslo.
• Sweden:
• Capital: Stockholm.
• Finland:
• Capital: Helniski
• Denmark:
• Capital: Copenhagen.
• Iceland:
• Capital: Reykjavik.
• Two big islands in Europe:
• Great Britain Island (Big): England, Wales, Scotland.
• Ireland Island (small): Northern Ireland and rest of the Ireland.
• England + Wales = Britain.
• Britain + Scotland = Great Britain.
• Great Britain + Northern Ireland = UK.
• Important city of Scotland - Glasgow.
• Important city of Ireland - Dublin.
• Baltic countries: ELL (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania).
• Russia:
• Port - St Petersburg.
• Poland:
• Capital: Warsaw.
• Germany:
• Have access to both the Baltic and North Sea.
• Capital: Berlin.
• Other important city - Munich.
• Netherlands:
• Holland is just one of the parts of the Netherlands.
• Capital: Amsterdam.
• Another important city - Rotterdam.
• Half of the land of the Netherlands is reclaimed from the ocean.
• Belgium:
• Capital: Brussels.
• Countries along the North Sea: Norway, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, UK
• France is also called Hexagon.
• Spain:
• Capital - Madrid.
• Spanish is the second most spoken language in the world.
• Portugal:
• Capital - Lisbon.
• The countries along the Mediterranean Sea: Spain, France, and Italy.
• Italy has the most number of UNESCO heritage sites in the world.
• Five countries along the coast of the Adriatic Sea: (BSC MA )- Bosnia, Slovenia, Croatia,
Monte Negro, Albania
• All these Yugoslavian countries are known for Karst topography.
• Black Sea countries - (BURGeR -T) - Bulgaria, Ukraine, Romania, Georgia, Russia and
Turkey.
• Sea of Azov - Surrounded by Russia and Ukraine.
• Ukraine:
• Capital: Kyiv.
• Important other locations: Donetsk, Dnipropetrovsk, Odesa, Kherson.
• Landlocked countries of Europe:
• Andora - Landlocked between Spain and France.
• Slovakia, Hungary, Austria, and Czech Republic (CASH).
• Moldova (was part of the Soviet Union).
• Serbia, Kosovo and Macedonia.
• Switzerland, Liechtenstein (doubly landlocked country).
• Luxembourg.

• The highest point of Asia - Mt Everest.

• The lowest point is - Dead Sea.
• Europe:
• Mt Elbrus - Highest point.
• Caspian Sea - lowest point.
AFRICA
• Surrounded by the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean.
• Water bodies: Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Suez, Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Mozambique
channel.
• Total number of countries - 53.
• The African continent is also called the dark continent.
• The highest point - Kilimanjaro (located inside Tanzania).
• The lowest point - Lake Assal.
• The countries along the Mediterranean Sea: MATLE - Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya,
and Egypt.
• Morocco:
• Important city - Marakkech.
• Tunisia:
• Arab Spring started from here (Jasmine Revolution).
• Libya:
• Capital - Tripoli (Oil port).
• The countries along the Red Sea: SEED - Sudan, Egypt, Eritrea, and Djibouti.
• Sudan:
• Disputed region - Darfur.
• South Sudan is a landlocked country.
• Djibouti is known for its Djibouti code of conduct (for maritime security).
• Horn of Africa:Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, and Ethiopia.
• Ethiopia - Landlocked, known for coffee.
• Tigray - Disputed region bordering Eritrea.
• The countries along the Indian Ocean:
• Code: SS - KTM
• Somalia, South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique.
• South Africa:
• Capital - Pretoria.
• Rio+10 Summit- Johansberg.
• Kimberley - Diamond mining.
• Swaziland: Located between South Africa and Mozambique.
• Zambia and Zimbabwe - Both are landlocked.
• Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi - Landlocked.
• Madagascar - Biodiversity-rich country.
AMERICA
• Amerigo Vespucci- called America as New World.
• North and South America is named after him.
• Central America is part of North America.
• All the countries of North and South America except the USA and Canada - Latin
America.
• North America:
• Greenland, Panama, Alaska, and the Caribbean islands are part of N. America.
• Water bodies:Pacific Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Bering Sea, Beaufort Sea, Gulf
of Alaska, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, Hudson Bay.
• Canada:
• 2nd largest countryof the world after Russia.
• Capital - Ottawa
• Toronto and Montreal are the other important cities in Canada.
• It is also called the land of lilies.
• USA:
• 49-degree north parallelseparates the USA and Canada.
• It is made up of 50 states.
• Capital - Washinton DC.
• Mexico:
• Capital - Mexico City.
• Mainland Central America:
• 07 Country.
• Code - BEGH NCP
• Guatemala, Belice, El- Salvador, Hondaras, Nicargua, Costarica and Panama.
• Caribbean islands:Greater Antilles + Lesser Antilles
• Greater Antilles:
• Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic.
• Bahamas - Towards the Greater Antilles, Tax heaven country.
• Bermuda Triangle:
• Bermuda island - UK.
• Puerto Rico - USA.
• The highest point of N.America - Mt Mckenly (Denali peak)
• The lowest point of N. America - Death Valley.
• South America
• Guiana countries- Gayana, Suriname, French Guiana.
• Ecuador:
• Capital - Quito (Almost near to the Equator).
• Argentina is named after Argentinum (Sliver).
• Brazil:
• Capital - Brazilia.
• Bolivia and Paraguay - Landlocked.
• Bolivia:
• Capital - La Paz (World's Highest Capital).
• Lithium triangle- ABC: Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile.

OCEANIA:
• Regions:
• Micronesia: Mariana Islands, Kiribati, etc.
• Melanesia: Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Solomon Island, etc.
• Polynesia: Hawaii, New Zealand, Easter Island, Samoa, Tonga Island, Cook Island, etc.
• New Zealand: Capital - Wellington.
Australia:Mostly desert.
• Capital: Canberra.
• Important Cities: Brisbane, Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Adelaide, Perth, and Darwin.
• Great Barrier Reef: It is the longest-living structure on the Earth and can be seen from
the Moon.
• The highest point of Oceana Is Mt. Wilhelm.
• The lowest point of Oceana is Lake Eyre.
POLAR REGIONS:
• Antarctica: Means Anti-Arctic.
• Earlier it was called Terra Australis Incognita("unknown southern land")
• It is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent.
• It is also called the white continent.
• It is very difficult to survive in Antarctica.
• It has the Weddell Sea, Ross Sea, Amundsen Sea, etc.
• The highest point is Vinson Massif.
• India has two active research stations — Maitri and Bharti.
• Vostok by Russia has recorded the lowest temperature on the Earth.
• Atlantic Treaty System- declared the Atlantic as a Scientific Persevere.
• The South Magnetic Pole is far away from the South Magnetic Pole.
Arctic:
• Arctic Council: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the US.
• There are observers to this council including India and China.
• Petermann Glacier shifts its position due to a change in tides.
• Svalbard - India has an underwater station INDArc, While on the surface, we have
Himadri Station.
NAMES OF COUNTRIES:
•

Important Countries
latitudes &
longitudes
Tropic of Algeria, Niger, Libya, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates,
Cancer Oman, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Taiwan, Mexico,
Bahamas, Mauritania and Mali.
Equator Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome & Principe, Gabon, Republic of
the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Uganda, Kenya,
Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia and Kiribati.
Tropic of Argentina, Chile, Namibia, South Africa, Madagascar and Australia,
Capricorn Brazil, Paraguay, Botswana, Mozambique.
Prime United Kingdom, France, Spain, Algeria, Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo,
Meridian and Ghana.
WORLD PHYSICAL:
• Mountains of the World:
• 1. Precambrian Mountains:
• Formed before 560 million years ago.
• They are highly weathered and broken.
• For example, the Laurentian Plateau.
2. Caledonian Mountains:
• They formed around 400 million years ago.
• They were fold mountains.
• For example, the Appalachian mountains(rich in iron and coal), the Scandinavian
mountains, the mountains of Greenland, the Scottish Mountain, the Aravallis of India,
etc.
3. Hercynian Mountains:
• They were formed 300 to 250 million years ago.
• Most of them are block mountains formed due to rifting.
• For example, the Black Forest mountains(Germany), and Vosges(France) -> Between
them they have the Rhine Valley.
• Ural Mountains, Tian Shan, Altai, Vindhya, Satpura, the Great Dividing Range(a Mix of
block and fold mountains), the Iberian Peninsula, etc.
4. Alpine Mountains/Tertiary Mountains:
• They are young fold mountains.
• They are formed in the last 65 million years.
ALPINE MOUNTAINS:
• Asia:
• Pamir Knot:
• Towards South - Karakoram Ranges, Kailash Range, Kulun Shan
• Himalayas, Arakanyoma, and Peguyoma.
• Hindukush Mountains, Suleman Range, and Kirtar Range.
• Khyber Pass- Located on Hindikush on the borders between Afghanistan and Pakistan.
• Bolan Pass - In Pakistan's Baluchistan area.
• This Himalayan and Hindukush region is called the Water Tower of Aisa.
Armenian Knot:
• El Burz Mountains and Zagros Mountains.
• Caucasus Mountains.
• Taurus Mountain.
Europe:
• Alps Mountain.
• The highest point is Mount Blanc.
• Matterhorn is another peak which is an example of glacial erosion topography - It is
located at the border of Switzerland and Italy.
• Jura Mountains, and Apennines mountain.
Australia:
• Southern Alps of New Zealand.
• Its peak is Aoraki or Mount Cook.
Africa:
• The Atlas Mountains formed due to continent-continent convergence.
North America:
• Rocky Mountains
• Cascade Mountains- Its southern extension is called the Sierra Nevada.
• Coast Range
South America:
• Andes Mountain - The longest mountain range on the Earth.
• It is also the second tallest mountain range after the Himalaya-Hindukush range.
• The highest point is Mount Aconcagua.
PLATEAUS AND PLAINS:
• North America:
• Labrador Plateau - Known for Cold Current and Rich in Iron ore.
• Canadian Shield - Tectonically inactive bowl-shaped depression.
• The Great Plains- One of the most fertile land.
• Prairies -> Granaries of the world.
• Columbia Plateau and Colorado Plateau - It has Death Valley.
South America:
• Guiana Highlands
• Brazilian highlands -> Known for coffee cultivation.
• Altiplano plateau -> It is the second most extensive plateau in the world after the
Tibetan plateau.
• Amazon Basin is covered by the rainforest also called the Selvas.
• Mato Grasso and Gran Chaco grasslands.
• Pampas- Temperate grasslands of South America.
• Pantanal -> It is the world's largest tropical wetland.
Africa:
• Ethiopian Highlands.
• Katanga Plateau -> Mainly in DRC, known for rich deposits of Copper and Diamonds.
• The Drakensberg.
• Congo Basin.
• Sudan,
• Sahel- Land is losing fertility very fast.
• The Great Green Wall initiative is being implemented here.
• The Sahara Desert.
Europe:
• North European Plains.
• Hungarian Plains.
Asia:
• Plateau of Anatolia.
• Mesopotamian Plain.
• Steppes- Grassland.
• Tibetan Plateau -> Largets and Highest Plateau on the Earth.
• It is also called the roof of the world.
• Loess Plateau.
• Manchurian Plains.
Australia:
• Kimberly Plateau.
• Downs - Temperate Grasslands.
 DESERTS:
• Most of the world's deserts are located in the western margins of continents in the
subtropics because the prevailing winds in the tropics are tropical easterly winds.
• Important Deserts:
• N.Amercia:
• i) Mojave Desert: Near California and Death Valley is located in the region.
• ii) Arizona Desert (Sonoran Desert).
• S.Amercia:
• i) Atacama Desert: The Driest desert due to offshore winds, and the presence of the cold
current. Receives rainfall during El Nino phenomenon.
• ii) Patagonian Desert: Cold desert due to the rainshadow effects of the Andes
Mountains.
• Africa:
• i) Namib Desert: along the Namibia coast.
• ii) Kalahari Desert: Located in Botswana, and Okavango Swamp is located in the desert.
• iii) Sahara Desert: The rocky part of the desert is known as Hamada.
• iv) Libyan Desert.
• v) The Nubian Desert.
• Australia:
• i) Sandy Desert.
• ii) Gibson Desert.
• iii) Victoria Desert.
• iv) Tanami Desert.
• Saudi Arabia:
• i) Rub Al Khali.
• Iran (Salty deserts)
• i) Dasht-e-Kavir.
• ii) Dasht-e-Lut.
• China:
• i) Takla Makan Desert (cold).
• ii) Gobi Desert (cold).
VOLCANOES:
• Volcanoes:
• They can classified under the following:
• i) Shield volcanoes.
• ii) Composite volcanoes.
• iii) Ash-cinder volcanoes.
• Volcanoes of N. America:
• i) Mt St Helens in the USA is an active volcano.
• ii) Hawai Island: A Hotspot and Mauna Loa are located here which is Shield volcano.
• iii) Mauna Kea is located in the Hawai island hotspot.
• iv) Kilauea is an active volcano in the Hawaiian Islands.
• S. America:
• i) Ojos del Salado: A strato-volcano and highly explosive and the highest active volcano
in the world.
• ii) Cotopaxi and Chimborazo are highly active volcanoes located in Ecuador.
• Africa:
• i) Kilimanjaro: Located at the border of Tanzania and Kenya.
• It is a dormant strato volcano and not located in any mountain range.
• ii) Mt. Kenya: It is an extinct volcano.
• iii) Mt. Nyiragongo: Located in the Congo and erupted in 2021.
• It is magma is highly fluid.
• Europe:
• i) Mt. Vesivious.
• ii) Mt. Etna: It is the highest active volcano in Europe, located on Sicily island.
• iii) Stromboli: Famous for explosions and eruptions.
• Asia:
• India:
• i) Barren Island is an island located in the Andaman Sea. It is the only confirmed active
volcano in the Indian subcontinent.
• ii) Baratang Volcano: Mud volcano of India.
• Indonesia:
• i) Krakatoa Volcano: part of an active volcanic island chain located in the Sunda Strait.
• ii) Mt. Merapi: It is an active volcano on Java Island and is known for pyroclastic debris.
• iii) Mt. Tambora: Example of Caldera type of volcano.
• iv) Mt. Sinabung: It is Indonesia's most active volcano.
• Philippines:
• i) Taal Volcano: Last erupted in 2020 an example of a Cinder ash cone.
• Japan:
• i) Mt. Fuji: Active volcano and highest volcano in Japan.
• New Zealand:
• i) Whakaari Volcano: Violently erupted in 2019.
• Volcanoes in News:
• i) Popocatepetl: Located in Mexico and erupted in 2022.
• ii) Nyamuragira: Located in Africa and erupted in April 2024.
• iii) La Palma: Located in the Canary Islands and belonging to Spain erupted in 2021
December.
• iv) Fuego: Located in Guatemala and erupted in 2024.
• v) Ulawun Volcano: Located in Papua New Guinea and erupted in 2023.
• vi) Hunga-Tonga: It is an undersea volcano located in Tonga.
• vii) Lewtolo: Located in Indonesia and erupted in 2021.
• viii) Semeru: Located in Indonesia and erupted in 2024.
• ix) Aira: Located in Japan erupted in 2024 April.
CONTINENT WISE RIVERS AND LAKES:
• N. America:
• i) Yukon: Famous river for Gold Placers in Alaska and drains into the Bering Sea.
• ii) Mackenoize: Longest river in Canada and drains in the Beaufort Sea.
• iii) St. Lawrence: Drains into the Gulf of St. Lawrence part of the Atlantic Ocean and
situated at the borders of USA and Canada.
• Niagara waterfalls are located on this river.
• iv) Mississippi River: Drains into the Gulf of Mexico and makes a type of Bird's foot
Delta.
• Columbia River drains the Columbia Plateau and the Colorado Plateau is drained by the
Colorado River.
• The Colorado River carved out the Grand Canyon.
• v) Rio Grande: Between the borders of the USA and Mexico and drains into the Gulf of
Mexico.
• vi) Hudson River:
• Lakes:
• i) Great Bear Lake: the Arctic Circle passes through it and is located in Canada.
• ii) Great Slave Lake.
• iii) Four Great Lakes: Huron, Ontario, Superior, Errie and Michigan formed due to glacial
erosions.
• iv) Great Salt Lake: Between the Rockies.
• v) Lake Tahoe: Huge freshwater lake in the USA.
• Canals:
• i) Errie Canal.
• ii) Welland Canal.
• iii) Soo Canal.
• Rivers in South America:
• i) Orinoco River: Angel Falls is located on this river.
• ii) Amazon River: Originates from the Andes and drains into the Atlantic Ocean, it is the
second longest river and largest river in terms of water volume in the world.
• Amazon is the widest river and the second widest is Brahmaputra.
• iii) Parana River: The Paraguay River and Uruguay River (which comes from Brazil) both
are tributaries of this river after merging it forms the La Plata River.
• Iguazu waterfall is located on this river.
• Lakes/Lagoons:
• Titicaca Lake: It is the largest freshwater lake in S. America and is located at the border
of Bolivia and on top of Andea which makes it the highest navigable lake.
• Maracaibo Lagoon: Famous for huge quantities of oil and gas reserves.
• Rivers of the African Continent:
• i) Nile River: Made up of tributaries like the Blue (originates from Lake Tana, Ethiopia),
White (originates from Lake Victoria), and Atbara rivers.
• The Nile River drains into the Mediterranean Sea.
• *The Grand Renaissance Dam is created by Ethiopia on the Blue Nile.
• ii) Congo River: Crosses the Equator twice.
• The origin of Congo is near Lake Tanganyika.
• iii) Niger River: Located in the Sahel Region, drains into the Gulf of Guinea.
• iv) Zambezi River: Between Zambia and Zimbabwe and drains into the Mozambique
channel.
• v) Limpopo River: Drains into the Indian Ocean, and it cuts the Tropic of Capricorn
twice.
• Lakes:
• i) Lake Nasser.
• ii) Lake Assal: The lowest point in Africa.
• iii) Lake Turkana.
• iv) Lake Victoria: Third largest lake on the surface of the earth, the equator passes
through it.
• It is located at the junction of three countries Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya.
• v) Lake Malawi: Second longest & deepest lake on the surface of the earth. Also, the
second lake in terms of water volume.
• vi) Lake Tanganyika.
• vii) Lake Chad: Niger, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Chad encircles the lake Chad.
• viii) Lake Fagubine.

EUROPE:
• I. Western European Region:
• Tagus River: Originates in Spain and drains into the Atlantic Ocean.
• Sienne River: On the banks of this river, Paris is situated.
• Rhine River: Originated from the Alps in Switzerland, flows into multiple countries
before it drains into the North Sea.
• Vistara River.
• Thames River: An important river in Great Britain. London is located on the banks of this
river. It drains into the North Sea.
• Rhone River: It originates from Switzerland, passes through a famous lake called Lake
Geneva, and drains into the Mediterranean Sea.
• Tiber River: Located in Italy. It is on the banks of this river that Roman Civilisation
flourished.
• II. Eastern European Region:
• Danube River: Originates from the Black Forest. It crosses a total of 8 countries in
eastern Europe.
• Dneister River: It also drains into the Black Sea.
• Dneiper River: It also drains into the Black Sea. The capital city Keiv is located on the
banks of this river.
• Pripyat River: It flows through Chornobyl.
• Don River
• Volga River: It is the longest river in Europe and drains into the Caspian Sea.
• Ural River: It originates from the Ural Mountains and drains into the Caspian Sea.
ASIA:
• I. Important Rivers of Siberia originating from Central Asia and flowing into the
Arctic:
• Ob.
• Lena.
• II. Rivers which drains towards the North:
• The Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers drain into the Aral Sea.
• Today, the Aral Sea is dried by 90%.
• III. Rivers flow towards the Mesopotamian plains (the only fertile plains):
• Tigris and Euphrates.
• IV. Along the borders of Russia and China:
• Amur River drains into the Sea of Okhotsk
• The name of Amur Tiger is named after this river.
• Manchuria Plains also emerged due to this river.
• V. China:
• Hwang Ho River: It is also known as the Yellow River, as it flows through the lowest
plateau, which carries yellow sediments.
• Yangtse River: Also known as Cong Jiong, drains into the South China Sea and is the 3rd
Largest after Nyle and Amazon.
• Chukiang: Also known as Pearl River. Two important cities are situated at the mouth of
this river: Hongkong and Makau.
• VI. Indo-China:
• In Myanmar: Irrawaddy River, Mekong, Salween, and Chao Phraya.
• Mekong: It is the most important river.
• It originates from China and drains into the South China Sea.
• It is in the same region of Cambodia, where Tonde Sap Lake is found. It is a UNESCO
Biosphere Reserve.
• (****Lake Toba: In South Sumatra, is an example of Caldera Lake).
• (****Kawah Lijen: It is an example of Crader Lake. It is the world's largest acidic lake).
• VII. Lakes in South China Region:
• Baykal lake: Deepest.
• 20% of the entire fresh water in the world is in this region.
• Between the Aral Sea and Baykal Lake, there is Lake Balkash.
• VIII. Around the Caspian Sea:
• Tarik lake.
• Near Taklamakan, Lake Lopnur is situated. It is a highly saline lake. It is also China's
nuclear testing site.
• IX. West Asia:
• Sea of Galilee: It is the lowest sea on the earth.
• Dead Sea: Saline body with salinity of 280ppt. It is also the deepest point on the
continents, located nearly 400 points below sea level.
• X. In Turkey, Lake Van or Lake Golu. It is the highest saline body in the world, 330ppt.
AUSTRALIA:
• Murray Darling Lake.
• Eyre Lake.
IMPORTANT ISTHMUS OF THE WORLD:
• Isthmus of Panama.
• Isthmus of Kra (Recently proposed Kra Canal).
• Isthmus of Suez.
• The Isthmus of Perekop connects Crimea to Ukraine.
IMPORTANT PENINSULA:
• Alaskan Peninsula.
• Baja Peninsula.
• Florida Peninsula.
• Yucatan Peninsula.
• Scandanavian Peninsula.
• Arabian Peninsula.
• Indian Peninsula.
• Inod-China Peninsula.
• Korean Peninsula.
• Senai Peninsula.
• Cape York Peninsula.
IMPORTANT CAPES:
• The cape is the edge of the land.
• Cape York.
• Cape Comorin.
• Cape Verde.
• Cape of Good Hope.
• Cape Agulhas.
• Cape Horn.
• Cape Canaveral.
IMPORTANT ISLANDS OF THE WORLD:
• Greenland is the largest island.
• New Guinea island is the second largest.
• The third largest: is Borneo Island.
• Fourth largest: Madagascar
• Baffin Island.
• Newfoundland Island.
• Galapagos Island in the Pacific. It belongs to Ecuador.
• Tierra del Fuego (South America): Southernmost inhabited island in the world. Ushuaia is
the southernmost inhabited place on the earth.
• Falkland Islands.
• Island in the Atlantic Ocean:
• St. Helena Island (UK): Napolean died here.
• Ascension Island (Port of Call).
• Canary Islands (Spain).
• Azures Island (Portugal).
• Belaric Island (Spain): Known for Karst's topography.
• Sardinia Island (Italy): known for Viticulture.
• Corsica Island (France): Napoleon was born here.
• Sicily.
• Crete Island (Greece).
• Malta Island (Malta is an independent country).
• Corfu Island (Greece): Recent forest fire.
• Cyprus Island.
• Islands in the Indian Ocean:
• Socotra Island: Yemen.
• Lakshadweep.
• Maldives.
• Seychelles.
• Comoros Island.
• Mauritius.
• Reunion: France.
• Assomption Island.
• Agoilega.
• Cocos Island.
• Chagos Archipelagos: Originally belonged to Mauritius, but the UK has control over it
for strategic purposes.
• Diego Garcia: Leased by the UK to the USA.
• Islands in the South China Sea:
• Paracel Island.
• Spratly Island.
• Scarborough Shoal.
• Natuna Island.
• Disputed Island between Japan and China:
• Senkaku Island: Recently named Tonoshiro Senkaku Island by Japan. Currently under the
control of Japan.
• Kuril Island (Under the control of Russia).
• Bougainville Island: An island of Papua Guinea, that wants to be separated from the
mainland.
IMPORTANT GULF AND BAYS OF THE WORLD:
• Important Gulf:
• Gulf of Alaska.
• Gulf of California.
• Gulf of Mexico.
• Gulf of Guinea.
• Gulf of Persia.
• Gulf of Aden.
• Gulf of Oman.
• Gulf of Khambat.
• Gulf of Mannar.
• Gulf of Thailand: Chao Phraya drains here.
• Gulf of Tongking.
• Important Bays:
• Bay of Fundy: Known for the world's highest tidal range.
• Guantanamo Bay.
• Bay of Pigs.
• Shark Bay.
• Encounter Bay.
• Hawke Bay.
• Bay of Scarcity.
• Bay of Plenty.
IMPORTANT STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF THE WORLD:
• America:
• Bering strait.
• Magellan's strait.
• Strait of Gibraltar.
• Europe:
• Dover Strait.
• Dardanelles.
• Bosporus strait.
• Strait of Kerch.
• Asia:
• Bab-al-Mandab.
• Strait of Hormuz.
• Palk Strait.
• Strait of Malacca (Singapore is situated here).
• (****Singapore is an example of an entrepot port.)
• Strait of Johore: It separates Singapore from Malaysia.
• Sunda strait.
• Taiwan Strait/ Formosa Strait.
• Korean Strait: Between South Korea and Japan.
• Africa:
• Mozambique channel.
ECONOMIC ASPECTS:IMPORTANT HIGHWAYS AND RAILWAYS:
• Pan America Highway Network:
• Connects Prudhoe Bay in Alaska to Ushuaia.
• Darian gap.
• Trans-African Highway Network:
• It is under implementation.
• It will be the longest highway network with 56000 km of highway.
• Asian Highway Network:
• From Tokyo to Istanbul and St Petersburg to Jakarta.
• It is connecting the existing highway networks.
• It passes through India also (GT Road).
• International North-South Transport Corridor:
• It includes corridors of roads, railways, and shipping as well.
• 3 seas initiative:
• Baltic Sea, Black Sea, and Adriatic Sea, to develop infrastructure and connectivity among
this region.
• One Belt One Road or OBOR:
• It is an initiative of China.
• It targets 2 components: Sea and land.
• India is not a part of it.
• A part of it is the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor, which connects Kunming to
Kyaukpyu.
• India Myanmar Thailand (IMT) Trilateral Highway:
• From Moreh (India) to Mandalay (Myanmar) to Myawaddy-Mae Sot (Thailand).
• Global Gateway:
• An infrastructural development by the EU to counter OBOR.
IMPORTANT CANALS:
• Suez Canal: Mediterranean Sea to Gulf of Suez.
• Panama Canal: By the US, in 1914. It is around approx 16 km.
• It is from Colon to Panama City.
• Nicaragua Canal.
• Volga-Don Canal.
• Main Canal: Connects Rhine with the Danube.

INDIA POLITICAL
• India is part of South Asia.
• India has 7 land borders.
• Bangladesh(4000 km) > China (3500 km)> Pakistan(3000 km) > Nepal (1900) >
Myanmar(1650 km)> Bhutan (700km) > Afghanistan (100 km)
• Maritime border- 4 countries have exclusive maritime boundaries with India (Any
Maritime zones overlap).
• Maldives, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand.
• 3 countries share land and maritime
• Pakistan, Coco Island ( Myanmar), Bangladesh.
• Name between border
• India and Pakistan = Radcliff line
• India and Bangladesh: Radcliff line.
• India and China at Arunachal Pradesh: Macmahon Line.
• India and China at Aksai chin: Johnson line (between A.C and China); Mcdonald line (
LAC).
• Afghanistan and Pakistan: Durand Line.
• India and Sri Lanka: Palk Strait
• Extremes of India:
• 1st highest point: K2 on Karakoram (North)
• 2nd highest: Khangchendzonga In Sikkim Himalaya
• Lowest point in India: Kuttanad in Kerala
• Northernmost Point: Indira col
• Southmost Point: Indira Point.
• Eastern most: Kbithu Point
• Westernmost: Sir creek
• Main land Southern India: Kanyakumari
• Border states :
• Yamuna River: forms the border between Himachal and Uttarakhand.
• Haryana and Uttarakhand are not Neighbours.
• Himachal and Uttar Pradesh are neighbors.
• No border between Telangana and Odhisa.
• Chattisgarh and Andra Pradesh are neighbors.
• UP shares a border with- MP, CH, JH, and BH.
• West Bengal shares with Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, Sikkim, and Assam.
• Meghalaya has a border with only Assam and Sikkim with West Bengal.
• UP has the Highest Land border (9 states)
• Assam has 2nd highest land border (7 states)
• Chattisgarh also has 7 land borders.
• International Land border with states:
• 3 International border - Ladak has Pakistan, Afghanistan and China.
• West Bengal has international boundaries with Bangladesh in the east, Bhutan in the
North, and Nepal in the northwest
• Sikkim: Nepal, Bhutan, and China.
• Arunachal Pradesh: Bhutan, Myanmar, and China.
• Mizoram: Bangladesh and Myanmar.
• Uttarakhand: Nepal and China.
• Common Latitude and Longitude:
• The state and UT have a common latitude with Rajasthan: Punjab, Sikkim, and All
northeastern states.
• Cities along common longitude:
• Manali, Shimla, Delhi, Bhopal, Bengaluru, Kanyakumari.
• Mumbai, Surat, Gandhi Nagar, Jodhpur.
• Srinagar, Jammu, Amritsar, Ajmer, Belgaum.
• Common Lattitude:
• Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Agra, Gorakhpur, Gawhati.
• Tropic of cancer:
• Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, and
Mizoram.
• Indian Standard Time passes through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh,
Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh
• IST Tropic of Cancer meets in Chattisgarh.
• Union Territory in India:
• Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and
Diu, Lakshadweep, NCT of Delhi, Puducherry, Jammu and Kashmir, and Ladakh
• The Union Territory of Puducherry comprises the erstwhileFrench colonies viz.
Puducherry, Karaikal, Maheand Yanam.
• Diu is an island, Daman is connected to Gujrat, and Nagar haveli is between Gujrat and
Maharashtra, Dadra is an enclave surrounded completely by Gujrat.
• NCT of Delhi: 11 Districts.
• Chandigarh: Common capital of Punjab and Haryana, No border with Himachal
Pradesh.
• Jammu and Kashmir:
• Part under India's control:
• Jammu region:- Shivalik part (Hindu majority).
• Kasmir valley ( Muslim majority), Valley of Jhelum River.
• Ladakh region ( Buddhist majority).
• Part not under India's control:
• Western PoK: Pakistan called it Azad Kashmir.
• Norther Pok: Pakistan called it Gilgit Baltistan.
• Akshai China ( under China): land of the white river.
• Shaksam Valley: Ceeded by Pakistan to China.
• Siachin Glacier: Trinagular region between 3 points( NJ9842 , Karakoram pass, Indira
Col); 2nd largest non-polar glacier; Not under anyone's control.
• Location in News:
• Baulat Beg oldi: Plateau at 16,000 feet; Also has India's Air Base.
• Galwan Valley: Disputed area.
• Pangong Tso Lake between India and China.
• Chushul Valley ( Under India's control)
• Hanle ( Aurora's spotted).
• Demcho ( Western Side of LAC); Place where the Indus River enters India.
• Uttarakhand
• Disputed Area:
• Kalapaani: Dispute between India and Nepal but controlled by India.
• Limpiyadhura
• Lipulekh
• Sikkim
• Chumbi Valley ( India, China, and Bhutan share a border), Doklam Plateau (An unsettled
area between China and India).
• Gujrat:
• Sir creek ( Disputed between India and Pakistan)
PHYSICAL INDIA
• Mountain:
• Trans Himalaya includes - Karakoram Range, Ladak, Zaskar, Pir Panjal
• Karakoram Range:
• Volcanic rock found, fossils also found Age of fossils increases toward the North; Tallest
of all the Trans Himalaya mountain: pamer to Pangong (extend)
• Siachin Glacier found here.
• The Earth's second highest mountain, after Mount Everest, is K2, also known as Mount
Godwin Austen.
• The peak, 28,238 feet (8,607 meters) high, is in the Karakoram Range.
• Refer to Krishna Giri in religious text.
• Depsang plain, Soda plains, Aksai Chin.
• Ladak Range:
• Nubra Valley.
• Pangong Tso.
• Khardung la pass.
• Leh is located.
• Zaskar Range:
• Means Land of White Copper.
• Changtang plateau ( Between Zaskar and Ladakh range); Tribe lives here called the
Changpa Tribe known for Rearing Changthangi Goats we get Pashmina wool (a variety
of cashmere wool); Hanle region.
• Tso Moriri Lake (Breeding ground of Black neck crane) is also a Ramsar site.
• Hemis National Park.
• Great Himalayas:
• Average height is 6100 feet.
• Naga parbat(PoK) to Namcha barwa(Tibet).
• U-bending turn.
• Highest Point: Mount Everest.
• makalu, Kanchengunga, Mansalu, Annapurna.
• Nanda Devi and Kumet In Uttarakhand.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF INDIA

• Places in News
• Leh, Ladakh: This picturesque town in the Himalayas holds the distinction of
launching India's first hydrogen bus in August 2023.
• This is a significant step towards clean transportation and reducing dependence on
fossil fuels.
• Daulat Beg Oldi is a strategically important area in the Ladakh region, near the Line of
Actual Control (LAC) between India and China.
• Burtse, Ladakh: This village seems to be in the spotlight for the discovery of 1000-year-
old fossils.
• Unearthing these fossils can provide valuable insights into the region's past climate,
flora, and fauna.

• Lahaul and Spiti Valley: It is famous for Stargazing.

• It is also connected with the Atal Tunnel.
• There is a Cold Desert biosphere reserve.
• Spiti Valley is considered one of the best places in India for stargazing due to its high
altitude, minimal light pollution, and clear skies

• Atal Tunnel: This tunnel connects Lahaul with the rest of Himachal Pradesh
throughout the year. Previously, the region was cut off for months due to heavy
snowfall on the high mountain passes. The Atal Tunnel is the longest tunnel in Asia
at an altitude of over 10,000 feet.
MIDDLE HIMALAYAS
• It is also known as the Himachal Himalayas.
• The average height is 4000 meters.
• Middle Himalayas get heavy snow cover. During the summer, snow melts and green
grass emerges from this. It is called Bugyals.
• In the Eastern part, the Middle Himalayas and Shiwaliks are merged together.
• The middle Himalayas of Nepal is called as Mahabharat Range.
• Great Himalayas are found in Jammu and Kashmir (Union Territory), Ladakh (Union
Territory), Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim
• The Middle Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir is called as Pir Panjal Range (It extends to
both Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal).
• Pir Panjal range is between Jhelum and Beas.
• The Valley of Kashmir is located in between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal
Range.
• The deposition in Kashmir is very suitable for the Saffron, and this deposition is called
Karewas (lake deposits).

• Here Jhelum Rivers meanders in the Youth Stage (* Normally river meanders in the
Mature Stage)
• Dhauladhar Range: Middle Himalayan range in Himachal Pradesh, known for hill
stations like Mcleodganj, Dharamshala, and Dalhousie.
• Manali: Situated between the Great Himalayas and the Dhauladhar Range, famous for
adventure tourism.
• Shimla: Located south of the Dhauladhar Range, known as the capital city of Himachal
Pradesh and a popular hill station.
• Kullu Valley: Located north of the Dhauladhar Range, known for its scenic beauty and
adventure sports.
• Kangra Valley: Situated between the Dhauladhar Range and the Shiwalik Range,
famous for tea cultivation and historical landmarks.

• Why so many hill stations were set in the Lesser Himalayas? :It was accessible to the
British
• Towards the South of Dhauladhar, there is the Mussorie range.
• Towards the South of the Mussorie range, there is the Nagatibba Range.
SHIWALIKS
• The average height is 1000 Meters
• In Jammu and Kashmir- There is Jammu Hills (* Famous Vaishno Devi temple is situated
here)
• Tawang is situated in the Great Himalayas
• Middle Himalayas and Shiwaliks are merged together.
• Dafla, Miri, Abor Hills, Mishmi Hills
• Between Abor Hills and Mishmi Hills, the Brahmaputra River enters India.
• On the Eastern Side of Brahmaputra, there is the Dihang-Dibang biosphere reserve
• Below the Dihang-Dibang biosphere reserve, there is Dibru-Saikhowa and there is one
national Park- Namdhapa National Park.
• Namdhapa National Park is famous for its Tropical Evergreen forest.
• It is the northernmost extent of the Tropical evergreen forest.
• Rivers deposited the sediments at the Foothills of the Himalayas, and they are acidic in
nature hence they are favorable for Tea cultivation.
• They are also known as Duars
 PURVANCHAL HILLS
• Barak Plain
• Patkai Hills in Arunachal
• Besides the Patkai hills, in Assam, there is Dehing Patkai reserve is there.
• Towards the South of Patkai Hills, there is Naga Hills.
• They are dominated by Naga Tribes.
• Below this, there is Manipur Hills.
• There is Loktak Lake and it is India's first floating national park (Keibul Lemjao National
Park).
• Barak River originates from Manipur Hills.
• Below this, there are Mizo Hills and are also known as Lushai Hills.
• Mizoram is called a Molasses Basin (Soft unconsolidated sediment deposited in the
valley is called Molasses).
• In Tripura, there is Tripura Hills.
• Tripura shares a border with Assam and Mizoram and an international border with
Bangladesh.
• In Meghalaya, there is the Meghalayan Plateau. It is divided into three parts- Garo Hills,
Khasi Hills, and Jiantia Hills.
• Mawasynaram, the wettest place on Earth is located in Khashi hiis.
• In the Garo Hills, there is the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve.
• In between the Jiantia Hills and Nagal Hills, there is the Barail Range. Haflong hill station
is situated here.
• Above the Baraill Range, there is the Mikir Range.
• Above the Mikir range, there is Kaziranga National Park
IMPORTANT PASSES
• A pass is a navigable route through a mountain range or over a ridge.
• They are significant because they provide a pathway that facilitates travel and trade
across otherwise difficult or impassable mountainous areas.
Passes in Jammu Kashmir and Ladakh :
• a) Karakoram pass: It is the highest pass in India. The height is 5600 Meters.
• b) Khardung La pass: It is located in Ladakh Mountain. It has a second second-highest
motorable road
• c) Zojila Pass: It is between Srinagar and Leh. It is located in Zanskar Mountain.
• Between Sonamarg and Dras, there is a Zoji La tunnel and expected to be completed by
2026.
• It can provide a 14 KM tunnel. It is the Longest bi-directional tunnel.
• d) Umling La pass: It has the highest motorable road.
• e) Burjil Pass: It is located in the Great Himalayas.
• f) On Pir Panjal, there is Pir Panjal pass.
• It provides connectivity to Srinagar and Jammu
• Towards the east of Pir Panjal, there is Banihal Pass It connects Jammu with Srinagar.
• Resang La pass: It is very near to LAC. A war memorial has been constructed.
• Chennai-Nashri tunnel: It is also called as Shyami Mukherjee Tunnel.

Passes of Himachal
• a) Rohtang Pass:
• b) Bara Lacha La pass: It is in the Great Himalayas
• c) Shipki La pass: It is located between India and Tibet.
• d) Atal Tunnel: Near to Rohtang Pass. It is located on the Pir Panjal range. It is 9 km. It is
the longest tunnel above 10000 feet in the world.
• e) Shin Kun La pass or Shinglo pass: It provides connectivity from Manali to the Ladakh
region
Passes of Uttarakhand
• Thaga La, Mana, Niti, Karma Pass, and Lipulekh Pass (It is a trijunction of India, Nepal,
and China)
• Darchula Lipulekh Road: The road connects the town of Darchula in Uttarakhand, India,
to the Lipulekh Pass near the India-China border.
Passes of Sikkim
• Jelep La is located at the trijunction of India, Nepal, and China.
• Chumbi Valley Is located here
• Nathu La pass:
• Naku La pass:
Passes in Arunachal
• Bum La
• Tunga pass
• Diphu Pass: It is located at the trijunction of India, Myanmar, and China. It is the
easternmost pass of India.
• Sela Pass: Sela Tunnel is there. This provides throughout the year connectivity to
Tawang.
GLACIERS OF INDIA
• Non-polar regions: Andes, Alps, Rockies, African Mountains, Hindukush.
• The largest glacier other than the poles is found in the Hindukush range. It is also called
as "Third Pole".
• In the Karakoram range, some of the glaciers are gaining in size.
• The second largest non-polar glacier: Siachen Glacier

• World's largest non-polar glacier (Fedchenko Glacier in Tajikistan is the largest

non-polar glacier in terms of area.)
• Above the Siachen, there is Baltoro Glacier
• Ispat Glacier is located above the Baltoro Glacier and is considered the world's longest
glacier.
• Parkachit Glacier is melting at a fast rate, highlighting the impact of climate change on
glaciers worldwide.
• Sonapani Glacier- Near to Rohtang
• Bara Shigri Glacier: Largest glacier in Himachal. It is the source of the Chandra River. It
becomes Chenab.
• Chota Shigri Glacier:
• In Uttarakhand (Choti Chardham and Badi Chardham)

• Choti Char Dham: Located in Uttarakhand and includes Yamunotri, Gangotri,

Kedarnath, and Badrinath.
• Badi Char Dham: Spread across India and includes Badrinath (North), Dwarka
(West), Puri (East), and Rameswaram (South).
• Near Yamunotri, there is Bandarpunch glacier which is the origin of the Yamuna River.
• Bandarpunch Glacier: This glacier is near Yamunotri and is the primary source of the
Yamuna River. It is a significant glacial formation in the Garhwal Himalayas.
• Gangotri Glacier: Located near the temple, this glacier is the actual source of the
Bhagirathi River.
• Chorabari Glacier: Located near Kedarnath, this glacier is the source of the Mandakini
River, which flows past the Kedarnath Temple.
• Satopanth Glacier: Located above the Badrinath area, this glacier is one of the sources
of the Alaknanda River.
• Alaknanda River: Originates from the Satopanth Glacier, the river flows past Badrinath
and joins the Bhagirathi River at Devprayag to form the Ganges.
• Milam Glacier
• Below Milam Glacier, there is Pindari Glacier.
• In Sikkim, there are three Glaciers
• At the base of Kanchenjunga, there is Zemu Glacier
• Towards the north of Kanchenjunga, there is Lhonak Lake.
PENINSULAR REGION
Mountains of the Peninsular Regions
• Arvallis
• Old fold mountains of earlier times.
• It passes through Gujarat, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Delhi
• The height of Aravallis increases from South to North.
• The highest point of Aravallis is Guru Shikhar. It has Dilwara Temple.
• Recent news of Aravallis: Mining is banned in the entire Aravallis by the National Green
Tribunal.
• The southern part of Gujarat is called as Saurashtra Range.
• It has Girnar Hills/ Gir Hills. It has Gir National Park. It is the only location of Asiatic Lion
in the world.
• Towards the west of the Aravallis, the rainfall decreases and it is called Marusthali.
• Between Marusthali and Aravallis, the semi-arid region is drained by the Luni River. It is
called as Rajasthan Bagar region.
Vindhyas and Satpuras
• Both are Block Mountains.
• It acts as a water divide between the Himalayan river and the Peninsular rivers
• Vindhyan range originates from Gujarat- MP border
• Satpura is towards the south of Vindhyas
• Satpura originates from Gujarat and passes through Maharashtra and then MP.
• In between Vindhyas and Satpuras, Narmada flows.
• Between Aravalli and Vindhyas: Malwa Plateau (It is a Lava plateau)
• Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary is part of the Malwa Plateau. It is in the news for the
Cheetah Reintroduction after the Kuno National Park.
• Above the Malwa Plateau, there is Bundelkhand Plateau. It is much drier than the
Malwa. It is known for its Chambal Ravines and Badland Topography.
• Kuno National Park is located in this region. It is news because of Buxwaha (Known for
Diamond Mining).
• Diamond Mining requires a huge amount of water and hence this region is facing the
issue of water crisis.
• Dhala crater is in Bundelkhand Plateau. It is of Urielite meteorite.
• It is also in the news due to the Ken-Betwa river interlinking. Due to this, a part of the
Panna Biosphere Reserve will be submerged.
• Between the Vindhya and Bundelkhand plateau, there is the Bhander Plateau.
• Below the Vindhya, there is Kaimur Hills. It is the eastern extension of Vindhya.
• Below the Kaimur Hills, there is the Baghelkhand Plateau.
• Below the Satpura, there is Mahadeo Hills, which is also an extension of Satpura Hills.
• One of the parts of Mahadeo Hills is Betul Plateau and it is the origin of the Tapi River.
• The northernmost part of the Maikala Range is Amarkantak Plateau and it is the origin
of Narmada and Son.
• The Amarkantak Plateau is also part of the Achanakmar-Amarkantak biosphere reserve.
• Beside the Maikala range, there are Ramgarh hills.
Chotanagpur Plateau:
• It has very rich deposits of Minerals. It is also called as "Ruhr of India."
• Above the Chotanagpur Plateau, there is the Hazaribagh Plateau. It is between Bihar and
Orissa.
• Rajmahal Hills was earlier connected to the Meghalayan plateau. Millions of years ago,
there occurred a gap and Rajmahal hills were separated by the Meghalayan plateau. This
gap is called as Rajmahal-Garo Gap or Malda Gap.
• Dandkaranya Plateau: Mahanadi originates from Dandkaranya
WESTERN GHATS
• States: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu
• Extent: Gujarat (south of Tapi) to Kanyakumari
• Ghat means Steep sided mountains or Pass [Palghat, Bhorghat] or highly elevated
regions
Parts of Western Ghats
In Maharashtra- Called Sahayadri.
• Sahayadri is known for Deccan traps or step-like topography.
• The highest peak in Maharashtra is called Kalsubai.
• Mahabaleshwar is the origin of the Krishna River.
• Salher Peak
• Lonavala hill station
• Towards the eastern side of Western Ghat, there are many hills.
• The order is important. Ajanta range, Satamala range, Balaghat range and then
Harishandra range.
• Marathwada region: Water Crisis due to Sugarcane cultivation
• Vidarbha region: Towards Nagpur.
• Hingoli District in Maharashtra: LIGO India is going to be established here
• Kaas Plateau: Part of Western Ghat in Maharashtra.
Sahayadri of Karnataka
• Mullayanagiri is the highest peak in Karnataka. Near Chikmagalur district.
• Baba Budan Hills: The peak is part of the Baba Budan Giri Range, which is known for its
coffee plantations and historical significance in the introduction of coffee to India.
• Pushpagiri is the second-highest peak in Karnataka. It is situated in the Kodagu district
and is part of the Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Kudremukh: The region has rich deposits of iron ore.
• Kudremukh National Park: Known for its biodiversity, the park is a part of the Western
Ghats UNESCO World Heritage Site and features dense forests, grasslands, and
numerous species of flora and fauna.
• Agumbe: "Cherrapunji of South India": Known for receiving one of the highest
amounts of rainfall in South India, Agumbe is renowned for its lush rainforests and
scenic beauty. In the Shimoga district. It is a hotspot for biodiversity, especially known
for its population of king cobras and other wildlife.
• Coorg Hills (Kodagu): Coorg, or Kodagu, is famous for its extensive coffee plantations,
contributing significantly to India's coffee production. The region is known for its
picturesque landscapes, rolling hills, and lush greenery.
• Kaveri River: The Kaveri River originates from Talakaveri in the Kodagu district.
Nilgiri Hills:
• Facts related to Nilgiri Hills

• At the trijunction of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka. Known for their scenic
beauty and biodiversity.
• Neelakurinji Flowers: The hills are named after the Neelakurinji
flowers (Strobilanthes kunthiana), which bloom once every 12 years, covering the
slopes with a blue hue.
• Geographical Significance: The Eastern Ghats and Western Ghats converge at the
Nilgiri Hills.
• Highest Peak: Doddabetta (2,637 meters) is the highest peak in the Nilgiris and is
located near the hill station of Ooty (Udhagamandalam).
• Shola Grassland: The region is known for its unique shola forests and grasslands,
contributing to its rich biodiversity.
• Biosphere Reserve: The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, recognized by UNESCO,
encompasses parts of the Nilgiri Hills, protecting its diverse ecosystems.
• Makurti Peak: Another notable peak near Doddabetta, known for its natural beauty
and trekking opportunities.
• Bandipur National Park and Tiger Reserve: Located in Karnataka, it is a significant
protected area within the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. Known for its tiger population
and diverse wildlife, including elephants, leopards, and various species of birds.
• Recently in the news due to a proposal for a railway line, which raised concerns
about potential impacts on the wildlife and ecosystem.
• Between Nilgiri and Anaimalai hills, there is the Palghat gap.
• Anaimalai Hills has the highest peak in the entire south India i.e. Anaimudi.
• The Anaimalai Hills extend into Tamil Nadu, where they are known as the Palni Hills.
• Notable Hill Station: Kodaikanal is a famous hill station located in the Palni/Palani Hills,
known for its cool climate, lakes, and scenic beauty.
• Below the Anaimalai Hills, there is Cardamom Hills which ends at Kanyakumari. In the
Cardamom Hills, there is the Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve.

• Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve

• Location: Spanning parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala within the Cardamom Hills.
• Significance: Named after the Agasthyakoodam peak, the reserve is known for its
unique flora and fauna, including several endemic species.
• It is part of the larger Western Ghats, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

•
EASTERN GHATS
• The Eastern Ghats extend from the Mahanadi River in Odisha to the Nilgiri Hills in
Tamil Nadu.
• States: Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamilnadu, Karnataka
• The Highest Peak of the Eastern Ghats is Mahendragiri in Orissa (NCERT) or Jindagada in
Andhra Pradesh.
• Nallamala Hills: Located in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Known for dense forests and
rich biodiversity.
• Eramala Hills: Situated in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh.
• Velikonda and Palkonda range: These ranges are located in Andhra Pradesh
• Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve is part of the Palkonda Range.
• Thirumala Hills: Home to the famous Lord Venkateswara Swamy Temple in Tirupati.
• The biosphere reserve is known for the Red Sanders, a rare and valuable wood species.
• Javadi and Shevroy
• In Shevroy, there is a famous hill station called Yercaud. Yercaud is famous for its coffee
plantations and scenic beauty.
• Nandi Hills is also part of the Eastern Ghats. It is the source of the Pennuru and Palar
rivers.
PLATEAUS OF PENINSULAR INDIA
• Maharashtra Plateau
• Karnataka Plateau: Towards western ghat, it is a hilly region called Malnad and on the
other side it is a plain region called Rolling Plain/ Maidan
• Telangana Plateau: It is also known for its Black soil.
• Rayalseema Plateau: It was ruled by Rayas of the Vijaynagar Empire. It is one of the
driest parts.
• The border between the Telangana Plateau and Rayalseema Plateau is the Krishna
River.
• Pandavalagutta: It is famous for Rock Climbing. It has a paleolithic cave painting.
• Passes
• a) Thalghat: Mumbai to Pune
• b) Bhorghat: Mumbai to Bangalore
• c) Palghat- Kochi to Coimbatore
COASTAL PLAINS
Eastern Coastal Plain
• Extent: From Sundarbans to Kanyakumari
• Utkal coast, Northern circar/ Andhra Coast, Coromanadal coast

• Utkal Coast has two major deltas: Subarnrekha Delta and Mahanadi Delta. The largest
lake in India is situated here i.e. Chilika Lake (Ramsar Site; Not under the Montreaux
record). Chandipur Beach is situated here (On a daily basis the water recedes 5 km
during High tide and Low tide)
• Andhra Coast is divided into two parts: The northern part of Andhra Coast is called the
Northern Circars (From the KG delta to the Orissa border). From KG delta to
Rameshwaram is the Coromandel coast
• Tamilnadu coast is made up of the Southern part of the Coromandel coast
• Pulicat Lake is located on the border between the states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra
Pradesh in South India. It is the second-largest brackish water lake in India, after Chilika
Lake in Odisha.
• Shriharikota is an island situated between Pulicat Lake and the Bay of Bengal, in the
state of Andhra Pradesh. It is connected to the mainland by a road
• Between Chennai and Pulicat Lake, there is Ennore Port, and it was recently in the news
as an oil spill was reported when a cyclone passed.
• The entire Eastern coast is an emergent coast in nature.
Western Coastal plain
• Gujarat Coast: Kathiawad coast, from Kachchh to Daman. It is Sumbergent coast
• Konkan coast: From Daman to Goa. It is a submergent coast.
• From Goa to Kanyakumari: Malabar coast
• The part of the Malabar coast in Karnataka is called as Canara coast.
• The Malabar coast is Emergent in nature.
• The Malabar Coast, located along the southwestern shoreline of India, is renowned for
its unique coastal features, including the formation of sandbars and an extensive
network of backwaters known as "Kayals."
• These backwaters are a series of interconnected lagoons, lakes, rivers, and canals that
parallel the coast, particularly in the state of Kerala.
• These backwaters are called Kayals.
• The largest Kayal is Vembanad Kayal.
• It is the longest lake in India and it is also a Ramsar site.
• Minchipadavu was in the news because of Endosulfan.

• The incident involving the burial of Endosulfan took place in a disused well at
Minchipadavu, Kasaragod.
• Endosulfan is an organochlorine insecticide and acaricide that has been widely used
in agriculture to control pests on crops such as cotton, tea, fruits, and vegetables.

PHYSICAL MAP OF INDIA:

• Two major groups of Islands- Andaman and Nicobar
• Andaman Group
• They are Volcanic Islands
• The Andaman islands are divided into 4 main islands i.e. North, Middle and South and
Little Andaman
• Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar Islands lies in the South Andaman.
• Northernmost Island- Landfall Island
• Coco Island- Belongs to Myanmar
• Saddle peak in North Andaman is the highest peak
• THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic
islands. Barren Island is the only active volcano in India.
• It is known for Evergreen Vegetation
• In Andaman- Ross Island was renamed as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose Island; Neil
Island as Shaheed Dweep Island; and Havelock Island as Swaraj Island.
• The Centre has recently renamed Mount Harriet (South Andaman), a historical
tourist spot in the Andaman and Nicobar islands, as ‘Mount Manipur’.
• Nicobar Island-
• Tillangchong Island- It is an island in the Nicobar district of Andaman and Nicobar
Islands, India.
• Among the Nicobar islands, the Great Nicobar is the largest. It is the southernmost
island and is very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia. The Car Nicobar is the
northernmost.
• The southernmost point of the country is Indira Point (Nicobar Islands)
LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS
• Lakshadweep Islands situated in the Arabian Sea is a group of 36 islands
• The entire Lakshadweep group of islands has been declared an organic agricultural
area under the Participatory Guarantee System (PGS) of India (Which is
implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare.)
• Lakshadweep is the first Union Territory to become 100% organic.
• In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands- Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi
Islands
• Amendivi Islands are the northernmost while the Minicoy island is the southernmost.
• Kavaratti is the administrative capital of the Lakshadweep Islands. It is also the principal
town of the Union Territory.
OTHER ISLANDS:
• New Moore Island:
• Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or
stations located on it, both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over it
because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the region
• Majuli Island: Mājuli is a large river island in the Brahmaputra river, in Assam.
• APJ Abdul Kalam Island: Dr Abdul Kalam Island, formerly known as Wheeler Island, is
an island off the coast of Odisha. It is India’s most advanced missile testing site.
• Sriharikota Island:
• Sriharikota is a barrier island off the coast of Andhra Pradesh.
• It houses India’s only satellite launch centre in the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (also
known as SHAR) and is used by the Indian Space Research Organization to launch
satellites
• Pamban Island:
• It is located between India and Sri Lanka in the Gulf of Mannar and in the
Ramanathapuram district of the state of Tamil Nadu.
• It is also known as Rameswaram Island.
• Adam's Bridge also known as Rama's Bridge or Rama Setu is a chain of limestone
shoals, between Pamban Island, also known as Rameswaram Island, off the southeastern
coast of Tamil Nadu, India, and Mannar Island, off the northwestern coast of Sri Lanka.
Geological evidence suggests that this bridge is a former land connection between India
and Sri Lanka.
• St. Mary Island: Coast of Karnataka. They are known for their distinctive geological
formation of columnar rhyolitic lava
• Willingdon Island is the largest artificial island in India, which forms part of the city of
Kochi, in the state of Kerala.
• Diu Island: It is located off the south coast of Kathiawar. Diu is an offshore island on the
western coast, off the Gulf of Cambay, bordering the Junagarh district. It is separated
from the Gujarat Coast by a tidal creek.
• The Great Channel is located six degrees north of the equator and is popularly referred
to as the 'Six Degree Channel'
• The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten Degree
Channel from the Nicobar group in the south.
• The Coco Strait is between the North Andaman islands and the Coco Islands of
Myanmar.
• Duncan's passage separates Little Andaman from South Andaman.
• 9 Degree Channel separates the island of Minicoy from the main
Lakshadweep archipelago.
• 8 Degree Channel separates the islands of Minicoy and Maldives.
• St. George's Channel is located between Little Nicobar and Great Nicobar.
RIVERS
INDUS RIVER:
• It originates on Kailash Mountain and flows in a narrow valley north-westward through
Tibet, where it is known as Singi Khamban or Lion’s Mouth.
• It follows a long, nearly straight course between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges in
Ladakh.
• The river flows northwest and enters in Ladakh region in India from a place
called Demchok, after entering India Indus river flows in between the Karakoram and
Ladakh ranges but closer to the Ladakh range.
• It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh.
• Zaskar river, Suru river, Soan river, Jhelum River, Chenab River, Ravi River, Beas river,
Satluj river, and Panjnad river are its major left-bank tributaries.
• Shyok River, Gilgit river, Hunza river, Swat river, Kunnar river, Kurram river, Gomal River,
and Kabul river are its major right-bank tributaries.
• Nubra River-It is the main tributary of the Shyok River (Rising from the Karakoram
Range)
• The Kabul River empties into the Indus River near Attock, Pakistan. It is the main river
in eastern Afghanistan and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan.
• Chenab:
• The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the
Zaskar Range.
• Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its
headwaters. The united stream Chandrabhaga flows in the northwest direction through
the Pangi valley.
• It flows through the Jammu region of J&K into the plains of Punjab in Pakistan. The river
is crossed in J&K by the world’s highest railway bridge named Chenab Bridge.
• Recently, the Power Minister inaugurated the diversion of the Marusudar River of
the Pakal Dul Hydroelectric Project. River Marusudar, a tributary of Chenab in district
Kishtwar of UT of J & K.
• A holy pilgrimage to Vaishno Devi- in the Ban Ganga river
• Jhelum- It is a tributary of the Chenab River. The river Jhelum rises from a spring at
Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the southeastern part of the valley of
Kashmir in India. It flows northwards into Wular Lake. It flows Inside J and K.
• Ravi River: The Ravi River originates Dhauladhar range of the Himalayas in the Chamba
district of Himachal Pradesh. Ravi has its source in the Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in
Himachal Pradesh.
• Beas River: The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass on the southern end of the Pir
Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi. It meets the Satluj river at Harike in
Punjab. The Pong Dam is situated on the Beas River
• Satluj:
• The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes in western Tibet.
• Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly course up to the Shipki La on the Tibet-
Himachal Pradesh boundary.
• Bhakra Dam
• Construction of Ujh multipurpose project: This project will create storage of water on
river Ujh, a tributary of Ravi for irrigation and power generation in India.
• Indus Water Treaty 1960- The Indus system comprises of main Indus River, Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. The basin is mainly shared by India and Pakistan with
a small share for China and Afghanistan.
• Under the treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960, all the waters of three
rivers, namely Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas ( Eastern Rivers) were allocated to India for
exclusive use.
• While, the waters of Western rivers – Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab were allocated to
Pakistan except for specified domestic, non-consumptive, and agricultural use
permitted to India as provided in the Treaty.
• Dulhasti- It is a run-of-the-river hydroelectric power station on the Chenab River,
Kishtwar district of the Indian Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
• Kishanganga- It originates at Drass in the Kargil district of J&K. The Neelam River enters
Pakistan from India near the Line of Control and then runs west till it meets the Jhelum
River.
GANGA RIVER:
• The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi District of
Uttarakhand
• Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag. From Devapryag the river is called as
Ganga.
• The five confluences of Ganga river are :
• Vishnuprayag – Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda;
• Nandprayag – River Mandakini joins
• Karnaprayag – River Pindar joins
• Rudraprayag – River Mandakini joins
• Devprayag – Bhagirathi river and Alaknanda river form Ganga river
• Alaknanda:
• It rises at the confluence and feet of the Satopanth and Bhagirath glaciers in
Uttarkhand.
• It meets the Bhagirathi River at Devprayag after which it is called the Ganga.
• Its main tributaries are the Mandakini, Nandakini, and Pindar rivers.
• The Hindu pilgrimage centre of Badrinath lies on the banks of Alaknanda.
• Dhauliganga:
• It originates from Vasudhara Tal, perhaps the largest glacial lake in Uttarakhand.
• Dhauliganga is one of the important tributaries of Alaknanda. Dhauliganga is joined by
the Rishiganga river at Raini. It merges with the Alaknanda at Vishnuprayag.
• Tapovan Vishnugad Hydropower Project is being constructed on the Dhauliganga.
• The Ganga river mainly passes through the states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,
Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
• Left Tributaries of Ganga
• Ramganga; Gomti River; Ghaghra River; Kali River; Gandak River; Burhi Gandak;Kosi
River
• Right Bank Tributaries:
• Yamuna River: Chambal River; Banas River; Sind River; Betwa River
• Ken River; Damodar;Son River
• Ramganga
• A tributary of the Ganga river, it drains south-western Kumaun. Ramganga River
originates in the southern slopes of Dudhatoli Hill in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
• It also flows through the dun valley of Corbett National Park. It finally meets the Ganga
near Kannauj. Bareilly city is situated on its banks
• Gomati:
• This river originates from Gomat Taal near Pilibhit in th state of Uttar Pradesh. The
Markandey Mahadeo temple is at the confluence of th Gomti and the Ganges. This river
meanders through Lucknow city.
• Ghaghara
• The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo. Alternatively known as
Karnali
• Rapti, Chhoti Gandak, Sharda, and Sarju are the major tributaries of this river
• Kosi
• It is also known as Saptakoshi for its seven upper tributaries. It originates in Triveni in
Nepal. It carries heavy silt during the rainy season and causes extreme floods. So this
river is also known as the” Sorrow of Bihar “ It joins with the Ganges in the state of
Bihar.
• Yamuna
• It is the largest tributary. It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch
Peak. Its main affluent in the upper reaches is the Tons which also rises from the
Bandarpunch glacier. Tons, Pabar and Giri are important tributaries.
• Chambal:
• The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills in the Vindhyan Range. It flows
through the Malwa Plateau. The Chambal River flows in Kota. It forms the boundary
between Rajasthan & MP.
• The Betwa rises in the Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna near
• The Ken river rising from the Barner Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna near
Chila.
• Son: The Son River rises in the Amarkantak Plateau. Its source is close to the origin of
the Narmada. It passes along the Kaimur Range. The Indrapuri Barrage and Bansagar
Dam are built along this river. Koilwar Bridge is located across this river.
• The Damodar river rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift
valley. Meets Hoogli at Falta
• Hooghly River: It is the distributary of the Ganga river. The Ganga river splits into the
Padma and the Hooghly river near Guria in Murshidabad. The Padma flows eastward
through Bangladesh whereas Hooghly flows through West Bengal.
BRAHMAPUTRA:
• Source-Chemayungdung glacier (Kailash Range). Its source is very close to the
sources of Indus and Satluj.
• In Tibet, known as TSANGPO; In China, known as YARLUNG ZANBO; In Assam: Dihang or
Siong; Bangladesh: Jamuna; In Bangladesh known as Padma River when Combined
Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra; Called Meghana- From the confluence of Padma
and Meghna
• It Turns southward near Namcha – Barwa. Enters Arunachal Pradesh as Dihang River at
Sadiya, emerging from the mountains. Joined by the Dibang river from the north &
Lohit river from the south Known as the Brahmaputra. It turns at Dhubri to enter into
Bangladesh. After joining Teesta, known as Jamuna in Bangladesh. Joins Ganga & Megna
then Merges to the Bay of Bengal.
• Tributaries: Dihang, Lohit, Subansiri, Teesta, Meghna (Barack in Assam), Manas
• The Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary and the Kaziranga National Park are located near the
Kameng River.
• Manas: The river valley has two major reserve forest areas, namely the Royal Manas
National Park in Bhutan and the contiguous Manas Wildlife Sanctuary.
• The Mishmi hills are found along the upper course of the Dibang River.
• The Brahmaputra River is bounded by: North – Himalayas; East – Patkai Hill Ranges;
South – Assam hills; West – Bangladesh Plain
• Majuli, an island, also a district of Assam, is known as the oldest and largest inhabited
riverine island of the world, recognised by UNESCO.
• The Brahmaputra Mainly covers Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal, Meghalaya,
Nagaland, and Sikkim.
MAHANADI:
• The Mahanadi basin extends over the states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and
comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.
• It has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya in the Raipur District of
Chhattisgarh
• Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo, the Mand, and the Ib.
• Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel, and the Jonk.
GODAVARI:
• The Godavari river is the largest river system in Peninsular India.
• The River rises in the Sahyadris, near Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of
Maharashtra. Godavari river originates from the Bramhagiri mountains at
Trimbakeshwar.
• Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita, Pench,
Kanhan, Sabari, Indravati etc.
• Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
• Pranahita river is a confluence of various other smaller tributaries like Wardha,
Penganga and Wainganga Rivers
• Kaleshwaram Project: The project starts at the confluence point of the Pranahita River
and the Godavari River
KRISHNA RIVER:
• Krishna river is the second largest river in peninsular India,1st being Godavari river.
• River Krishna originates in the Western ghats at the Jor village of Maharashtra
near Mahabaleshwar
• Krishna river starts from Maharashtra and then flows through Karnataka, Telangana
and Andhra Pradesh it merges into the Bay of Bengal.
• Left Bank Tributaries: Bhima; Musi
• Bhima: Bhima river is also known as the Chandra Bhaga river. Originates from the
Western Ghats at Bhima Shankar near Karjat village in Maharashtra is a tributary of the
Krishna River.
• Right Tributaries: Ghatprabha; Malprabha; Tungabhadra
• Tungabhadra is the largest tributary of the river Krishna.
• It is formed by the confluence of river Tunga and river Bhadra
• The famous Hampi site (UNESCO WHS) lies on the bank of the river Tungabhadra.
• The famous Virupaksha temple also is on the banks of river Tungabhadra.
• The tributaries of the river Tungabhadra are:
• Left bank of Tungabhadra : Tunga, Varada.
• The right bank of Tungabhadra: Bhadra, Vedavati, Handri.
• Finally, Tungabhadra merges into river Krishna in Andhra Pradesh.
CAUVERY:
• The Cauvery River (Kaveri) is designated as the ‘Dakshin Bharat ki Ganga’ or ‘the Ganga
of the South.
• The Cauvery basin extends over the states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and the
Union Territory of Puducherry
• The Cauvery River rises at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala village
of Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka.
• The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through
the Sivasamudram waterfalls.
• The falls at this point are utilized for power generation by the power station at
Shivanasamudram.
• At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes a Southerly direction and enters the Mettur Reservoir.
• Mekedatu project is located in Muguru and Mekedatu villages, Kanakapura and
Kollegal taluks of Ramanagara and Chamarajanagar Districts of Karnataka.
• The dam site is located about 3.0 Km downstream of the confluence of Arkavathy with
the Cauvery river called ‘Sangama’.
• Two more tributaries Noyil and Amaravathi join on the right bank and flows
as ‘Akhanda Cauvery’.
• Immediately after crossing the Tiruchirapalli district, the river divides into two parts, the
Northern branch being called ‘The Coleron’ and the Southern branch remaining as
Cauvery and from here the Cauvery Delta begins.
• After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two branches join again to form ‘Srirangam
Island’.
• Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha, and the Arkavati.
• Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil, and
the Amaravati joins from the right
VAIGAI:
• The Vaigai river rises on the Eastern slopes of the Varushanadu hills near Kottaimalai in
the Madurai district
• The Vaigai basin lies entirely in the state of Tamilnadu
RAMSAR SITES:
• There are 80 Ramsar sites in India.
• Maximum are in Tamil Nadu followed by UP.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES
• There are 18 Biosphere reserves in India
• UNESCO MAB (Man and Biosphere Reserve) = gives recognition to biosphere reserves
• India's 12 Biosphere reserves have UNESCO-MAB recognition:
• 1. Great Nicobar = Important NP found here = Campbell Bay NP, Galathea NP, this
entire region is actually part of Sundaland Biodiversity Hotspot, saltwater crocodile,
giant leatherback turtle, Nicobarese and Shompen tribes are found here
• 2. Gulf of Mannar = Pamban island, From Rameshwaram to Kanyakumari, part of both
Srilanka (Talai manner) and India, corals, mangroves, Dugongs (Sea cow)
• 3. Agastyamalai = Neyyar, Peppara, Shendurni Wildlife Sanctuaries, Kalakkad
Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,
• 4. Nilgiri = trijunction of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, associated with Kaveri and
its tributaries, Waynad, Bandipur, Nagarhole, BR Hills Tiger Reserve, Satyamangalam
Tiger Reserve, Mukhurti NP, Silent Valley NP, Species = Tiger, Elephant, Balck Leopard
(Kabini river)
• 5. Panna = latest UNESCO recognized associated with Ken river, Species = Tiger,
Sambhar, Sloth Bear, Swamp Deer, region is known for Gonds tribe
• 6. Achanakmar Amarkantak = Narmada and Son river, Part of Maikal hills, species = 4-
horned antelope, White Rumped Vulture (CE),
• 7. Panchamrhi Biosphere Reserve = associated with the Tapi river, Satpura NP, and
Bori NP, Species = Giant Squirrel, and Flying Squirrel
• 8. Simlipal = Orissa, it is known for Semal Trees (red silk cotton tree), the Black tiger was
found here,
• 9. Nanda Devi = Uttarakhand, snow leopard, Himalayan black bear, Valley of flowers
NP,
• 10. Kanchandjunga = Sikkim, Snow Leopard, Red Panda,
• 11. Nokrek = Meghalaya, Garo hills, receives very high precipitation, Red Panda
• 12. Sundarbans = Largest Delta, Tiger, only tiger capable of swimming and hunting,
fishing cat (E),
• 13. Manas = In Assam, On Manas River tributary of Brahmaputra, Red Panda, Golden
Langur, Pygmy Hog,
• 14. Dibru-Saikhowa = Brahmaputra and Lohit and Dibru River, Tiger, water bufallo,
Capped Langur,
• 15. Dihan-Dibang = Musk Deer
• 16. Sheshachalam = Part of Tirupati, Red Sanders, Slender Loris,
• 17. Rann of Kutch = largest BR of India, Indian wild Ass, wild ass sanctuary,
Felmingos, Banni Grasslands, known for night time fire (chirbatti)
• 18. Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve = Pin Valley NP, Chandra Tal, Kibber Wildlife
Sanctuary, snow leopard,