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 EARTH, SOLAR SYSTEM & UNIVERSE
1. Shape of earth
2. Latitudes & Longitudes
3. Rotation & Revolution
4. Seasons
5. Time zones & International Date Line
6. Universe & Origin of Universe
7. Life cycle of a star
8. Galaxies & stars
9. Origin of solar system
10. Sun
11. Planets, Satellites & other bodies
12. Eclipses
 CLASS 01 - Eclipse is the total or partial • The distance b/w two parallel of
08/03/2025 covering of one celestial body by latitudes decreases towards poles.
another. • The distance b/w any two parallel of
INTRODUCTION — - During lunar eclipse, the circular latitude (1° & 2°) is 111 K.m
• Geography is study of earth. shadow of earth is visible on moon’s anywhere.
• It is the study of places & surface. • Please note that 1° = 60` & 1` = 60``.
relationships b/w people & their • Shape of other planetary bodies
environment. implies earth is also a sphere. LONGITUDES —
• The term geography was coined by • The angular distance of a place
Eratosthenes, a greek philosopher, GEOID SHAPE — east or west of prime meridian is
who is also called as Father of • Earth is attened at poles & bulged known as longitude.
Geography. at equator because of its • Meridians or Meridians of longitudes
• Geography was developed initially as continuous rotation. are semi circles running from pole
a science of writing atlas or maps • This was proposed by Issac to pole connecting places with same
for exploration purpose. Newton. He also said that the same longitude.
applies for other planets too. • Please note that the meridians of
SHAPE OF THE EARTH — • This shape of earth is known as longitude are not parallel to each
• Flat, Spherical & Geoid. Geoid or Oblate spheroid. other & the distance b/w them is
maximum at equator i.e 111 K.m &
SPHEROID SHAPE — CLASS 02 minimum at poles, in-fact they
• CIRCUMNAVIGATION by Magellan 08/03/2025 intersect at poles.
in 1519.
• CIRCULAR HORIZON — COORDINATE SYSTEM — GREAT CIRCLE —
- Horizon is the line where the earth & • Consider an example of a point on a • It is a circle with longest possible
sky appear to meet. piece of paper. circumference drawn on the earth’s
- The horizon appears circular when • Please note that latitudes are surface dividing it into equal halves.
viewed from a tall building or a ship. horizontal lines or complete circle • An in nite no. of great circles can be
- Please note that the horizon widens while longitudes are vertical lines drawn on the surface of earth.
with an increase in altitude. or semi circles. • It is used in navigation to nd the
• SHIP’S VISIBILITY — shortest distance b/w any two
- At distant ship appears to be rising LATITUDES — locations on the surface of earth.
out of water. • An angular distance of a place
• BEDFORD LEVEL EXPERIMENT — measured in degrees towards north MOVEMENTS OF EARTH —
- It used poles to measure earth’s & south of the equator. • Earth shows two types of
curvature, which proved the • Parallels or parallels of latitude are movements simultaneously —
spherical shape. the imaginary lines connecting Rotation & Revolution.
• SUNRISE & SUNSET — places with same latitude.
- The di erent time of sunrise & • They are always parallel to each ROTATION —
sunset at di erent places is other & equator. • The movement of earth on its own
possible only if earth is spherical in • The length of parallel of latitude axis is known as rotation.
shape. decreases from equator to poles. • Axis of rotation is an imaginary line
• LUNAR ECLIPSE — • The parallel of latitude becomes passing through poles & the center
- Eclipse is when a celestial body gets concentric circles. of earth around which it rotates.
blocked by another. • Equator is the longest parallel of • Orbital plane is the plane in which
latitude. the earth orbits around the sun.
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 • The angle of tilt of axis of rotation is - 3rd January • Sun rays fall vertically at tropic of
23.5°. - 147 million K.m. cancer — 23.5°N.
• The angle b/w axis of rotation & • The point in the orbit of earth when it • Intensity of sunlight has increased in
orbital plane is 66.5°. is farthest from the sun is Aphelion. the northern hemisphere.
- 4th July • Length of the day increases from
SOLAR DAY — - 153 million K.m. equator to north pole.
• It is the time taken by the earth to • Please note that the speed of
rotate in such a way that the sun revolution of earth is 1,07,160 Km/hr. WINTER SOLSTICE —
appears at the same position in the - It is not uniform —Faster when • 22nd December
sky which is 24 hours. closer to sun & vice versa. This is • Sun rays fall vertically at tropic of
• Earth rotates 361°. because of the gravitational pull Capricorn — 23.5°S.
which is stronger when earth is near • Intensity of sunlight has increased in
SIDEREAL DAY — to sun & vice versa. southern hemisphere.
• It is the time taken by the earth to • Length of the day decreases from
rotate in such a way that a distant CLASS 03 equator to north pole.
star appears at the same position in 09/03/2025
the sky which is 23 hours 56 EQUINOX —
minutes. SEASONS — • 21st March — Spring or Vernal
• Earth rotates 360°. • Periodic repetition of atmospheric equinox
conditions. • 23rd September — Autumnal
SPEED OF ROTATION — • Season is a period of year that is equinox
• The linear speed of earth’s rotation is distinguished by de nite climatic • Sun rays fall vertically at equator.
maximum at the equator i.e 1,650 conditions. • Intensity of sunlight decreases
Km/hr. • Factors responsible for the change uniformly towards north & south
• It decreases towards the poles. of season — pole. Therefore, similar climatic
• The linear speed of earth’s rotation is - Rotation conditions in both hemispheres.
used in launching rockets into - Tilt in the axis of rotation • Length of Day = Night = 12 hours
space. Therefore, the rockets are - Revolution across all latitudes.
launched closer to equator in order - Please refer to table on next page.
to overcome higher initial thrust. • Seasons are observed on the earth OVERHEAD SUN —
• For eg — Kourou, French Guiana & because it revolves around the sun • The position of overhead sun is
Sriharikota in India. with a tilted axis of rotation whose always b/w 23.5°N & 23.5°S —
angle of inclination w.r.t orbital Tropic of Cancer & Tropic of
REVOLUTION — plane is always constant I.e 66.5°. Capricorn or tropics.
• The movement of earth around the • The changes in season are mainly - Every location b/w the tropics
sun in a xed elliptical orbit is due to variation in length of day & receive two days of 90° sunlight &
known as revolution. night as well as intensity of those lying exactly on the tropics
• The direction of revolution is counter sunlight. receive only one day of 90° sunlight.
clockwise or from west to east. - The regions receiving more intense • The regions receiving 24 hours of
• The period of revolution of earth is sunlight for longer duration of time day light increases from 90°N up to
365 days 5 hours 48 minutes or experiences summer & vice versa. a maximum of 66.5° — Arctic
365 days 6 hours. circle.
• The point in the orbit of earth when it SUMMER SOLSTICE — - These regions with 24 hours of day
is closest to the sun is Perihelion. • 21st June light experience mid night sun when
• International Yoga day they are tilted towards the sun.
• What if the absence of rotation &
tilt is accompanied by the
presence of revolution?
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 FACTORS INTENSITY OF SUNLIGHT LENGHT OF THE DAY

ROTATION X • Maximum at equator. • 24 hours day

TILT X • Decreases towards poles because of • 24 hours night
REVOLUTION X earth’s curvature.
• Minmum at poles.
ROTATION • Maximum at equator. • 12 hours day
TILT X • Decreases towards poles because of • 12 hours night
REVOLUTION X earth’s curvature.
• Minmum at poles.
ROTATION ✔ • Maximum at tropic of cancer — • 12 hours day & night at equator.
TILT ✔ 23.5°. • Increased in northern hemisphere &
REVOLUTION X • Increased in northern hemisphere & vice versa.
vice versa.

ROTATION ✔ • Maximum at tropic of Capricorn — • 12 hours day & night at equator.

TILT ✔ 23.5°S. • Increased in southern hemisphere &
REVOLUTION ✔ • Increased in southern hemisphere & vice versa.
vice versa.

- 6 months of day & night. • It passes through — speci cally in the area known as the
- Poles will receive constant sunlight - Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh. “chicken neck” at 89.5°east.
because of the absence of tilt. - Madhya Pradesh • There are certain issues in adopting
- Chhattisgarh multiple time zones —
TIME ZONES — - Odhisa - Economic integration such as
• A time zone is a region on globe - Andhra Pradesh banking, stock exchange etc.
which observes uniform standard • Given that the time in Mirzapur is - Transport synchronization such as
time. 6:00 PM, determine the time in railways.
• The entire globe is divided into 24 Toronto, which is located at 79°W - Administrative inconvenience
time zones — each 15° with longitude. - Communication gap at border areas.
Greenwich meridian as the - 7.20 P.M previous day.
standard reference. • Before independence, there were 3 CLASS 04
• Time zones are based on longitudes time zones based in Bombay, 10/03/2025
because time stays the same along Madras & Calcutta along with local
a speci c longitude. Chaibagan time in Assam. INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE —
• From Greenwich meridian — • In 1906, India adapted 82.5°E • It is an imaginary line of
- EGA — East Gain Addition longitude as Indian standard time demarcation on the earth running
- WLS — West Loose subtract zone & the local time zones of from north to south pole which
• With a change of every 15°, time Bombay & Calcutta were continued demarcates the change of calendar
changes by 60 minutes, therefore till 1955. day.
with a change of 1° time changes by • The large longitudinal extent of • It was agreed in 1884.
4 minutes. almost 30° b/w east & west has • It roughly follows 180°E or 180°W
• India follows 82.5°E longitude as its caused a mismatch between the meridian.
standard reference for time zone. sun’s cycle & human activities. • Please note that it is not a straight
This has led to a demand for a line rather it follows a zig zag path
second time zone in the to accommodate islands in the
northeastern states, paci c ocean.
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 • If someone travels from west to east - The universe has no beginning & no - The rate of expansion of universe is
across the IDL, they gain a day, but end but is always expanding known as Hubble’s constant.
they have to subtract a day from the creating new stars & galaxies at the
calendar. & vice versa. rate old ones become unobservable. LIFECYCLE OF A STAR —
• Please note time remains same on • Please refer to owchart on next
crossing IDL. PULSATING THEORY — page.
• Bering Strait is located near IDL • Arthur Eddington
which separates Asia & North • According to this — STELLAR NEBULA —
America or Russia (Siberia) & USA - Universe expands & contracts • It is a giant cloud of dust particles &
(Alaska). alternately. gas — mainly made up of hydrogen.
- It expands due to explosion & • The gaseous particles collide due to
DAYLIGHT SAVING TIME — contracts due to gravitational pull. gravity & the entire nebula starts to
• DST is a traditional practice of - Currently it is expanding. spin.
shifting time by one hour ahead by
forwarding time in the clock before BIG BANG THEORY — PROTO STAR —
the onset of summers. • The term Big Bang was given Fred • It is a spinning gaseous mass with a
• It is practiced to maximize the use Hoyle while critiquing it. very hot core due to the heat
of daylight. • Georges Lemaitre in 1927. released during the collision of
• It’s more common in temperate • According to this — gaseous particles.
regions than in tropical areas - The universe once an extremely • When the temperature of proto star
because the days get longer from compact, in nitely dense & very core crosses 15 million°C nuclear
the equator to the North Pole during hot singularity. fusion reaction begins at the core
the summer months. - There was no other matter or space resulting in birth of a star.
existed & no time too.
UNIVERSE — - 13.7 billion years ago a cosmic REDGIANT —
• The limitless expanse of space explosion took place known as Big • When the supply of hydrogen runs
surrounding us is known as universe. Bang. From that time the universe out the core starts to contract &
• It consists of — started to expand & still continuing simultaneously outer shell expands
- Stars, Solar system & Galaxies. today. resulting in the formation of red
- Matter — Contracts due to mass - The explosion unleashed a burst of giant.
which exerts gravitational pull. energy that caused the universe to
- Energy — Expand because it tends expand. PLANETARY NEBULA —
to ow. - This expansion led to the formation • When low mass star with less than
• The universe has 100 to 400 billion of the fundamental forces of physics, ten times the mass of sun becomes
galaxies as well as stars. elementary particles like bosons, a red giant its core collapses &
atoms & molecules & gaseous leads to the formation of planetary
ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE — clouds. nebula which is a spherical shell of
• Steady state, Pulsating & Big Bang - These clouds eventually became gases.
theory. stellar nebulae, stars, & galaxies.
- Bosons are particles that carry WHITE DWARF —
STEADY STATE THEORY — forces in nature. • A planetary nebula will gradually be
• Fred Hoyle • PROOF — left with core only inside the shell
• According to this — - Edwin Hubble in 1929. which is called as white dwarf.
- The overall size & mass of universe - He proposed that all observable • It is theorized to become black
remains constant at any given point stars & galaxies are moving away dwarf.
of time. from the earth. This he discovered
through redshift.
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 STELLAR NEBULA

Protostar

<10 Sun Star >10 Sun

Red Giant Massive star

Planetary Nebula Red Supergiant

Supernova
White Dwarf

Black Dwarf Chandrashekar’s limit

—
• 1.4 to 3.0S —
Neutron star
• >3.0S — Black hole

CLASS 05 • Black hole is a body with core called SPIRAL GALAXY —

11/03/2025 as singularity with in nite mass, - It is a at disc with a central bulge &
• When the mass of a star is more density & gravity. spiral arms.
than the ten times the mass of sun
it results in red super giant. GALAXIES & STARS — ELLIPTICAL GALAXY —
• All red super giants lead to • Galaxy is a sprawling system of gas, - Spherical or oval shaped with stars
supernova due to explosion of core. dust, stars & dark matter held distributed fairly uniformly
• After supernova explosion if the together by gravity of a massive throughout.
mass of remnant core is — black hole at its center.
- 1.4 to 3.0 times the mass of sun it • All galaxies contain a super massive IRREGULAR GALAXY —
results in neutron star. black hole at their center which is - No de nite shape or structure.
- More than the 3.0 times the mass of responsible for rotation of entire
sun the core collapses under gravity galaxy. • Milky Way galaxy is spiral galaxy
resulting in the formation of black • The milky way galaxy has with sun located at its Orion arm.
hole. Sagittarius A at its center. • Nearest galaxy to milky way galaxy
• A neutron star is a very high density • TYPES — Spiral, Elliptical & is Andromeda galaxy.
body composing of a closely packed Irregular. • Nearest star to sun is Proxima
neutrons. Centauri. It is 4.2 light years away.
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 • Brightest star is Sirius which is 8.6 EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES — PLANETESIMAL THEORY —
light years from sun. • According to these — • Chamberlin & Moulton
• Please note that 1L.Y = 9.44 trillion • The material of solar system was • According to this —
K.m. condensed into sun & - It assumes the existence of a binary
simultaneously planets originated system of stars — Proto star &
TWINKLING OF STARS — as isolated masses of material. Companion star.
• It is due to the turbulence in • Sun & the planets originated from a - As the companion star came near
atmosphere I.e movement of air single mass of gas, therefore both protostar the gravitational pull lead to
particles in the atmosphere. are of same age. ejection of mass from the protostar
• Light from a distant star gets which gradually condensed into
defected more as it comes from a GASEOUS HYPOTHESIS — small planetoids.
point source. • Immanuel Kant - Planetoids gradually cooled, collided
• However light coming from a nearby • According to this — & merged with each other to form
planet or satellite doesn't twinkle as - There was a cloud of gas in which planets.
it is not a point source. supernaturally hard & cold particles
• Please note that there is no twinkling were formed. TIDAL HYPOTHESIS —
in space because atmosphere is - These particles collided with each • Seans & Je ry
absent. other due to gravitational pull • According to this —
• Light year is the distance travelled by releasing heat. - It proposes a massive intruding star
light in one year at the speed of 3 x - It gradually resulted in the formation came near to the sun.
108 m/s. of a rotating structure from which - The gravitational pull of this intruding
rings of matter thrown o which star lead to the ejection of tide or
CONSTELLATION — gradually cool down to form planets. bulging out of matter which
• It is a group of stars forming gradually condensed to form planets.
recognizable pattern in the sky. NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS —
• For eg — Big Dipper or Saptrishi • Pierre Laplace LAYERS OF SUN —
which is a group of 7 stars. • According to this — • SURFACE — Convection zone,
• Pole star is a star which is aligned - A preexisting nebula was there in Radiation zone & Core.
with the axis of rotation of earth. rotating state. • ATMOSPHERE — Corona,
- In the northern hemisphere it is - With gradual cooling the nebula Chromosphere & Photosphere.
Polaris. shrank which lead to more spinning
- In the southern hemisphere it is & nebula started to heat up at the CORE —
Sigma octantis. center which evolved into the sun. • Lowermost layer of sun’s interior.
• Pole star is always xed in the sky. - Rings of matter got ejected from the • Nuclear fusion reaction happens
However the angle at which pole star disc of nebula due to centrifugal here. Thus, temperature is 15
is visible varies with latitude. force which further get condensed million°C.
• It is visible at 90° from north or south to form planets.
pole & at 0° from near to equator. RADIATIVE ZONE —
CATASTROPHIC THEORIES — • The heat released from the core is
ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM — • According to these — radiated outward through this zone.
• EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES — - The theory of catastrophism states
- Gaseous & Nebular Hypothesis that the Earth's history has been CONVECTION ZONE —
• CATASTROPHIC THEORIES — shaped by sudden & violent events. • 3rd layer in which convective
- Planetesimal theory & Tidal currents transfer heat to the surface.
Hypothesis
PHOTOSPHERE —
• Lowermost layer of sun’s
atmosphere.
• The temperature is nearly 5500°C.
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 • Visible light originates from this & outer planets on the basis of their URANUS —
layer. distance from the sun. • It rolls & rotates.
• Brightest layer of sun’s atmosphere. • Please note that the material in the • It appears to roll because its axis of
rings of outer planets is too close to rotation is tilted by 98°.
CHROMOSPHERE — form a single satellite.
• Intermediate zone NEPTUNE —
• It appears like a red rim during total MERCURY — • Farthest
solar eclipse. • 1st planet • Not visible with naked eye.
• Closet to sun. • Smaller twin of Uranus.
CORONA — • Atmosphere is absent.
• Upper most layer of sun. SATELLITES —
• It is hotter than photosphere with VENUS — • A natural or man made celestial
temperature 2 million°C. • Earth’s twin because of similar size body revolving around planet.
• It is visible only during total solar & density. • Mercury & Venus — Nil
eclipse & • Brightest planet. • Earth — Moon
• Hottest planet because its - Please note that the term moon is
SOLAR FLARES — atmosphere contains CO2. used for natural satellites of
• The sudden outburst of energy with • Morning & Evening star. planets.
a storm of hot atoms released into • Mars — Phobos & Deimos
space is called as solar are. EARTH — • Jupiter — 79
• They are not uniform I.e the intensity • Densest planet because of its core • Saturn — 82, titan is its largest.
& size of solar ares can vary. contains heavy metals such as Ni & • Uranus — 27, Miranda & Oberon
Fe. • Neptune — Triton is its largest
SUN SPOT — • Blue planet because 2/3rd is covered satellite.
• These are the dark spots on sun’s by water. - Please note that Neptune shows
photosphere with lower temperature prograde rotation while triton shows
approximately 3800°C. MARS — retrograde rotation.
• However these are the regions with • Red planet because contains Fe2O3. - This is because the latter is an
higher magnetic eld. outside body which got trapped in
• The no. of sunspots vary over a JUPITER — Neptune’s gravitational eld.
period of time in a cyclical manner. • Largest planet, 11 times the size of • Pluto — Charon
The cycle is for 11 years. earth. - Size of Pluto = Charon
• Solar maxima is when we observe • Giant red spot is its characteristic - This was the reason for demotion of
large no. of sunspots. feature which is a huge spinning Pluto into dwarf planet.
• Solar minima is when we less no. of storm.
sunspots. • It appeared recently 400 years ago. DWARF PLANET —
• It is 2 times the size of earth. • The IAU — International
CLASS 06 • Protector as well killer of earth. Astronomical Union in August 2006
12/03/2025 has set the following criteria for a
SATURN — body to be declared as planet —
PLANETS — • Presence of rings is its characteristic - An independent orbit around the
• Solar system is a system in which feature. sun.
sun exerts its gravitational pull. • Lightest planet. - Enough size & mass to achieve
• There are 8 planets in our solar • Its density is less than water, thus it hydrostatic equilibrium I.e spherical
system which are divided into inner oats over water. shape. This can happen only if the
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 body is rotating continuously. ECLIPSES — • Types — Total, Partial & Penumbral.
- Cleared neighborhood — No major - Eclipse is the total or partial
bodies of comparable size in its covering of one celestial body by TOTAL LUNAR ECLIPSE —
close vicinity. another. • It is when the moon is located within
• Umbra is the region of total eclipse the umbra of the earth & is totally
ASTEROIDS — or dark shadow, while penumbra is shadowed.
• Asteroids are mainly made up of the region of partial eclipse or light • In this position only a small portion
rocky & metallic minerals with Ni & shadow. of light from earth’s atmosphere
Fe core. reaches the moon which has red
• Asteroid belt is a belt of small rocky SOLAR ECLIPSE — light. Therefore it is called as Blood-
& metallic objects which orbit the • When moon blocks the light of sun moon.
sun in a belt b/w mars & Jupiter. from reaching the earth, it casts a
shadow onto earth causing solar PARTIAL LUNAR ECLIPSE —
METEROID — eclipse. • It is when the moon’s position is b/w
• It is an asteroid that has come near • Types — Total, Annular & Partial. umbra & penumbra regions
to the earth after coming out of resulting in partial covering of
asteroid belt. TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE — moon.
• It is when the sun is completely • In this position moon appears
METEOR — blocked by the moon. crescent.
• It is a ash of light produced due to • It is visible from Umbra.
burring of meteoroid in atmosphere. • During this, the photosphere is PENUMBRAL LUNAR ECLIPSE —
• It is also called shooting star. completely blocked while • It is when the moon is located
chromosphere & corona are visible. completely in penumbra.
MERORITE — • In this position moon appears
• It is a remnant of meteoroid that has PARTIAL SOLAR ECLIPSE — darker or dull in comparison to full
reached earth’s surface after • It is when the sun is partially moon.
surviving its journey through earth’s blocked by the moon.
atmosphere. • It is visible from Penumbra. SUPERMOON —
• It is when the moon is closest to the
KUIPIER’S BELT — ANNULAR SOLAR ECLIPSE — earth i.e perigee. Therefore it
• It is belt made up of remnants of • When the moon is farthest from the appears bigger.
planets with debris, ice, gases & earth I.e apogee, it will not be able
rocks. to block the entire photosphere BLUE MOON —
• Comets originate from this zone. creating ring in the sky called as ring • Second full moon of the month.
of re.
COMET —
• Comet is a frozen or icy body with CLASS 07
rocky & metallic mineral core 12/03/2025
surrounded by gas & dust called as
coma. LUNAR ECLIPSE —
• They develop a very long orbit • When the Earth comes between the
around the sun with tail always Sun & the Moon, blocking the Sun's
pointing away from the sun because light that was supposed to be
of solar winds. re ected by the Moon, causing
• Length of tail increases as comet Earth's shadow to fall on the Moon.
closer to the sun.
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 EXTRA STROKES — • At the International Date Line (IDL), Sun & tail orientation.
• The equator is the only latitude you will notice that the time remains - Daytime visibility is hindered by the
that’s part of a great circle. the same while the date changes. Sun’s overwhelming light.
- That’s because it’s the only latitude • As we move towards higher • A galactic year is the time it takes
that can divide the Earth into two latitudes, the length of the day will for the Sun (& our Solar System) to
equal halves. increase. So why don't we move our complete one orbit around the
- The other latitudes don’t do that watches forward by 2 to 3 hours? center of the Milky Way galaxy.
because their length gets shorter as - This is to avoid confusion. An hour - It’s estimated to be about 225-250
you move away from the equator is taken as the standard for million Earth years.
towards the poles. temperate countries. • Not every new moon or a full moon
• All the meridians are part of a great • The Andromeda galaxy is moving results in a solar eclipse or lunar
circle only if we join them from either towards the Milky Way galaxy. After eclipse because the orbital planes
side & they can divide the Earth into 7 billion years, they will merge. of the Earth & the Moon are slightly
two equal halves. • The position of the pole star always tilted — 5°.
• In November 2010, the Large remains the same because it is - As a result, the Moon typically
Hadron Collider (LHC) successfully located very far away from Earth. passes above or below the Sun.
created an initial series of mini big • A cloud is 3D, while a nebula is a at - This happens during a syzygy, when
bangs by smashing together lead disc. the three bodies are perfectly
ions. • DRAWBACKS OF CATASTROPHIC aligned.
- It is a particle accelerator used by THEORIES — • A strawberry moon is the name
physicists to study the smallest - Where did the lighter elements given to the June full moon, which
known particles - the fundamental come from? is traditionally associated with the
building blocks of all things. - Also, such hot matter would expand, start of the strawberry harvest
- Lead ions’ high mass and dense not contract. season in North America.
nuclei maximize collision energy, • The temperature at the photosphere • The diamond ring e ect occurs just
increasing the chances of creating is 3500 to 3800°C, while at the before the total phase of a solar
quark-gluon plasma—mimicking corona, it is 2 million°C. The reason eclipse.
early universe conditions to study for this is unknown. To investigate, • Hydrostatic equilibrium is when
fundamental forces and particle the Parker probe has been sent. outer pressure is equal to inner
behavior. • GALILEAN SATELLITES — pressure. That’s how only a large
• Everything in the universe is - The Galilean satellites are the four body can attain a spherical shape.
expanding—stars, galaxies, etc. largest moons of Jupiter: Lo, • The path of totality is the path taken
This doesn't mean that planets & the Europa, Ganymede & Callisto. by Umbra.
Sun are moving farther apart. They - They are named after Italian • The Oort Cloud is a hypothetical
are held together by gravitational astronomer Galileo Galilei who region of icy bodies.
pull. discovered them in 1610. - Located far beyond Neptune, it
• A supernova is like a cosmic • A habitable zone, also called the marks the edge of the solar system.
explosion that’s so big it lights up “Goldilocks zone”, is the area - Named after Jan Oort, who
the entire galaxy. around a star where it is not too hot proposed its existence in 1950.
- If one of these explosions happens & not too cold for liquid water to • Prograde rotation & revolution refers
within 50,000 light-years of Earth, it exist on the surface of surrounding to counter clockwise motion.
could wipe out all life on our planet. planets. • Retrograde rotation & revolution
• Just one teaspoon of matter from a • What prevents formation of planets refers to clockwise motion.
neutron star is as heavy as 500 in the asteroid belt? • 1 AU = Distance b/w sun & earth. It
billion kilograms. - Jupiter’s gravity, insu cient material, is 150 million K.m.
• M87 black hole & frequent collisions. • Pluto is 50 AU from sun.
• Light also comes from a neutron • Comets are visible during twilight &
star, but it is very faint. night due to their distance from the
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 • During solar maxima, increased solar • During solar maxima, increased - Earth’s elliptical path is caused by
wind particles can disturb Earth's solar wind particles can disturb the unequal gravitational pull from
geomagnetic eld, causing earth's magnetic eld particularly at the Sun and other planets.
geomagnetic storms. These storms the poles because there the - If the gravitational pull were equal,
can a ect satellites, communication magnetic lines are vertical. Earth would follow a circular path.
systems, & power grids by disrupting - These solar wind particles interact • Higher the tilt, higher the seasonal
the magnetosphere. with gaseous particles of earth's variation.
• The geocentric system places Earth atmosphere resulting in the • Sri Lanka & Nepal also follow our
at the center of the universe, while phenomena of Auroras. standard time zone i.e 82.5°E.
the heliocentric system centers the • Why earth follows an elliptical
Sun, with planets, including Earth, path not circular?
orbiting around it.

INNER PLANETS OUTER PLANETS

Terrestrial planets — Rocky planets Jovian planets — Jupiter like planets — Gaseous planets

Higher density Lower density

Higher temperature Lower temperature

Smaller Bigger

Thin atmosphere Thick atmosphere

Less no. of satellites More no. of satellites

Rings are absent Rings are present

Rotation speed is slow Rotation speed is high

SOLAR ECLIPSE LUNAR ECLIPSE

New moon Full moon

Umbra & Penumbra are small, thus visible from few Umbra & Penumbra are large, thus visible from more
locations & for shorter duration of time. locations & for longer duration of time.

Daytime Nighttime

The intensity is very high, making it not viewable. The intensity is very low, making it visible.
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 GEOMORPHOLOGY
1. Origin & Evolution of earth
2. Geological time scale
3. Interior of the earth
4. Types of rocks
5. Earth movements
6. Continental drift theory
7. Sea oor spreading
8. Plate tectonics theory
9. Vulcanism
10. Geomagnetism
11. Earthquakes
12. Tsunamis
13. Exogenic movements
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 GEOMORPHOLOGY — • As the earth cooled, water vapor INTERIOR OF THE EARTH —
• It is the study of landforms i.e started to condense, CO2 in the • To study this, we have two sources
physical features of the earth & the atmosphere got dissolved in of information: direct and indirect
process by which these features are rainwater & was brought down. sources.
formed. Please note that the reaction - The direct source provides materials
involved here was — H2O + CO2 —> that we study to obtain details about
EVOLUTION OF EARTH — H2CO3. It is carbonic acid. the Earth's interior, while the indirect
• Planet earth initially was barren, • The above lead to more source o ers information through
rocky & totally volatile. condensation & precipitation. various phenomena occurring
• There was a thin atmosphere of • The rainfall water got collected in beneath the Earth's surface.
hydrogen & helium. This primordial the depressions on the earth’s - Direct source includes Deep ocean
earth gradually evolved into present surface forming oceans around 4 drilling & Volcanic eruption while
stable one. billion years ago. the indirect source includes Density
• Please refer to owchart on next • Life began to evolve by 3.8 billion studies, Seismic waves,
page. years ago in oceans as non Temperature & pressure studies &
photosynthetic microorganisms. Meteorites.
FORMATION OF LITHOSPHERE — • Around 2.5 to 3.0 billion years ago
• Due to gradual increase in density Blue green algae or BGA emerged DEEP OCEAN DRILLING —
the interior temperature increased. in ocean waters which released • It provides is with the material from
• The density separation caused oxygen through photosynthesis. earth’s interior.
heavy elements to sink towards the • By 2 billion years oceans were • However the maximum depth we
center of earth & the lighter ones saturated with oxygen & it started were able to drill is 12 K.m. in Arctic
moved towards the surface. ooding the atmosphere changing Ocean.
• With time the earth cooled further & the composition making it favorable
gradually condensed into smaller to start life on land. VOLCANIC ERUPTION —
size. • The above process is known as • Through this we can analyze material
• The further process of Great Oxygenation Event (also from earth’s interior.
di erentiation lead to the formation called the Oxygen Catastrophe).
of di erent layers in the interior. • However, it led to the extinction of DENSITY STUDIES —
many anaerobic organisms that • By analyzing the average density of
EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERE & couldn't survive in the newly oxygen- earth (5.5 gm/cm3) & its comparison
HYDROSPHERE — rich environment. to density at surface (2.7 gm/cm3)
• The early thin primordial we can conclude that the earth’s
atmosphere with H & He was CLASS 08 outer layers are lighter while the
stripped o due to solar winds. 13/03/2025 inner ones are heavier (13 gm/cm3
• Due to gradual cooling of earth at core).
gases & water vapor were released GEOLOGICAL SCALE TIME —
from the interior. The process • Please refer to NCERT table & do it SEISMIC WAVES —
through which gases out poured by heart. • It is through the analysis of di erent
into the atmosphere is known as • Holocene is divided into — types of earthquake waves, their
Degassing. - Greenlandian — 8,200 to 11,700 speed & direction while passing
• The continuous volcanic eruptions years through earth’s interior.
released more water vapor & gases. - North Gripean — 4,200 to 8,200
• The important gases at this stage are years TEMPERATURE & PRESSURE
CO2, H2O in vapor, CH4, N2, & O2 in - Meghalayan — 4,200 to present STUDIES —
trace amounts. times • Temperature increases by 1°C for
every 32m near to surface.
• However with an increase in depth
pressure increases & melting point
of rocks increases.
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 Hot & Volatile Early atmosphere

Density Separation
Degassing

Condensation

Volcanic eruptions

Di erentiation

Condensation of water
vapor

Formation of Oceans

Blue Green Algae

Flooding of
atmosphere with
oxygen

METORITES — • Physical division is as follows from • It is divided into Continental &

• By analyzing the structure & surface to depth — Oceanic crust. Please refer to table
mineralogy we can conclude about - Lithosphere on next page.
the earth’s interior as meteorites are - Asthenosphere • It occupies 4% of earth’s volume.
remnants of planets. - Mesosphere
- Barysphere MANTLE —
DIVISIONS OF EARTH — • Denser than crust.
• Interior of the earth can divided into CHEMICAL DIVISION OF EARTH — • Lighter than core.
chemical & physical divisions. • Its depth extends up to 2,888 K.m.
• Chemical division is as follows from CORE — • It occupies only 83% of earth’s
surface to depth — • Uppermost layer of earth’s interior. volume.
- Crust — Continental & Oceanic • Lightest in terms of density. • Majorly composed of Mg element.
- Mantle — Upper & Lower • Majorly made up of Silica (Si).
- Core — Outer & Inner
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 CORE — ASTHENOSPHERE — • Entire earth’s element —
• Innermost layer • It is the upper portion of the mantle, - Iron — 35%
• Densest layer extending b/w 100 to 400 K.m. - Oxygen — 30%
• Ni & Fe are the major components • It is plastic in nature I.e semi solid & - Silicon — 15%
therefore called as NiFe layer. semi liquid which undergoes - Magnesium — 13%
• The core is divided into outer & deformation under heat & pressure. - Nickel — 2.4%
inner core. • It is called Low velocity zone - Sulphur — 2.1%
- Please note that the former is liquid because of slowing down of - Please note that this distribution is
while the latter is solid in state. This earthquake waves in this zone. based on the Earth’s bulk
is because of the pressure • It is the source of magma to composition and might slightly vary
di erences. surface. based on speci c measurements or
- In the inner core, high pressure models.
forces Ni & Fe atoms to stay in solid MESOSPHERE —
despite the high temperature. • It includes rest of the mantle. DISCONTINUITY —
- While low pressure in outer core • A transition zone b/w di erent
support liquid formation. BARYSPHERE — layers of earth’s interior with di erent
• It includes both outer & inner core. physical & chemical characteristics.
CLASS 09 • CONRAD — Upper & lower part of
13/03/2025 COMPOSITION OF EARTH’S continental crust.
INTERIOR — • MOHORVICIC — Crust & Mantle.
PHYSICAL DIVISION OF EARTH — • Major elements of the earth crust are Please note that is also known as
as follows — Moho in short.
LITHOSPHERE — - Oxygen — 46% • REPETTI — Upper & lower mantle
• It is a solid layer made up of crust & - Silicon — 27% • GUTENBERG — Lower mantle or
upper part of upper mantle. - Aluminum — 8% Mantle & outer core.
• It is hard & rigid covering earth as - Iron — 5% • LEHMANN — Outer & Inner core.
an outer shell. - Calcium
• Its thickness approximately 100 K.m. - Potassium
- Magnesium
- Please note oxygen makes up the
highest proportion because it is an
active element forming compounds.

CONTINENTAL CRUST OCEANIC CRUST

Lesser dense — 2.7 gm/cm3 More dense — 3.0 gm/cm3

Thicker — 35 to 45 K.m. Thinner — 8 to 10 K.m.

But at mountains its thickness may reach up to 75 to 80
K.m.

Older & static Younger & dynamic

Its rate of destruction = formation

Rocks over this crust are lighter in color. For eg — Granitic. Rocks over this crust are darker in color. For eg — Basaltic.

Silica + Aluminum — SiAl. It also contains Na & K. Silica + Magnesium = SiMa. It also contains Ca & Fe.
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 ROCKS — weight of overlying layers of sediments. ROCK CYCLE —
• Any naturally occurring - Cementation is the binding together • In nature the rocks formed do not
agglomeration of mineral particles of compacted sediments by remain the same they keep
forms rocks. cementing material. changing.
• Please refer to table on next page. • Sedimentary rocks are formed in • It starts from Magma.
• Types — Igneous, Sedimentary & di erent layers or strata. • Magma by cooling results in igneous
Metamorphic rocks. • Please note that they contain Fossil rocks.
evidences. • Then through the various
IGNEOUS ROCKS — • Sandstone, Limestone, Shale, mechanisms, these rocks result in
• Also knows as primary rocks. Chalk, Clay, Coal, Gypsum etc. are the outcrop as more exposed on the
• They are formed due to cooling, some examples of sedimentary surface of the earth.
solidi cation & crystallization of rocks. • These outcrops go through the
molten material i.e magma of the weathering and further process
earth. METAMORPHIC ROCKS — results in sedimentation.
• Subtypes — Intrusive & Extrusive. • It involves change in the form of • When the sedimentary rock goes
• Please refer to table on next page. rocks through physical & chemical further burial then it results in
• On the basis of Silica content, it is process. metamorphic rocks.
further sub divided into — • Temperature changes resulting • The rocks meltdown due to an
- Acidic & Basic rocks containing change in the form of rocks is known increase in temperature in the
>66% & <52% of silica respectively as thermal metamorphism while interior and turn into molten
while igneous rocks containing 52 to pressure changes resulting change magma, the original source of
66% of silica falls in intermediate in the form of rocks is known as igneous rock.
category. dynamic metamorphism.
- Their examples are as follows — - They act together in nature which is 14/03/2025
Granite, Basalt & Andesite as termed as thermo dynamic or Holi
respectively. regional metamorphism.
• During the process of metamorphism CLASS 10
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS — if the minerals get arranged in a 15/03/2025
• They are formed by the series of band along a plane it is
solidi cation of sediments derived called as foliation which results in EARTH’S MOVEMENT —
from original igneous rocks or banding, dark & light bands on • Various forces from earth’s interior
metamorphic or another sedimentary rocks. as well as from outside the earth’s
rock. • Lineation is when the minerals are surface cause physical stress &
• Stages in the formation of arranged in a linear manner. chemical actions on earth’s material
sedimentary rock — • Below are the some examples of bringing about changes in
- Weathering or break down of metamorphism or metamorphic con guration of surface of earth
original rock by sunlight, rain & wind. rocks — called as Geomorphic processes.
- Transportation by agents such - Granite —> Gneiss • Geomorphic processes results from
wind, water glacier etc. - Shale —> Schist 2 types of forces — Endogenetic &
- Deposition along a basin. - Sandstone —> Quartzite Exogenetic.
- Lithi cation — it is the conversion - Clay —> Slate
of loose sediments into hard rocks - Limestone —> Marble ENDOGENTIC FORCES —
which involves compaction & - Coal —> Diamond or Graphite • These are the forces acting from
cementation. earth’s interior.
- Compaction — In this, the • The sources of energy are Primordial
sediments are squeezed by the heat & Radioactivity.
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 ROCKS MINERALS

Rocks are aggregate of mineral elements. Minerals are solid inorganic substances occurring
naturally.

A rock has no de nite chemical composition. Minerals have de nite chemical composition.

Minerals are organized to form rocks. Elements are combined to form compounds, which may
organic or inorganic, the former contains carbon & vice
versa. The inorganic compounds are referred to as
Minerals.
Please note that an element is a purest form of substance.

The three types of rocks are — Igneous, Sedimentary & The four chief minerals groups are — Silicates,
Metamorphic rocks. Carbonates, Sul des & Metallic.

Some important types of rocks are Basalt, Granite, Fe, Si, Mg, Ni, Ca, K, and Na are abundant minerals of the
Sandstone, Slate & Quartz. Earth.

INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS

They are formed from cooling of magma below the earth’s They are formed from cooling of magma above the earth’s
surface. surface.

It cools down slowly resulting in crystalline structure with It cools down faster which results in glassy texture with
higher strength. lower strength.

They are also known as Plutonic rocks. They are also known as volcanic rocks.

Granite & Gabbro Basalt & Andesite

- Primordial heat is Earth's internal • The sources of energy are Sunlight for a shorter duration of time.
heat from formation, while & Gravity. • For eg — Earthquake, Volcanic
radioactivity generates heat through • The agents of exogenic forces are — eruptions etc.
decay of radioactive isotopes, wind, water, glacier etc.
driving endogenetic processes. - Please note that the water includes DIASTROPHIC MOVEMENTS —
• They result in upliftment, river water, coastal water as well • These are the movements that
subsidence, folding, faulting etc. of ground water. move, elevate & build up the
earth’s surface. • The exogenic forces result in minor portions of earth’s crust.
• They are responsible for formation of topographic features such as • These movements operate very
major topographic features of valleys, caves, beaches etc. slowly & lead to the formation of
earth’s surface such as mountains, primary landforms such as
plateaus, continents. GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES — mountains, plains, plateaus, valleys,
• Please note that these endogenic • Please refer to owchart. hills, and deserts.
forces made the continents to drift • They are of 3 types — Tectonic,
resulting in present day world. This ENDOGENIC MOVEMENTS — Isostatic & Eustatic movements.
we will study in CDT. • They are classi ed as Diastrophic &
Catastrophic movements. TECTONIC MOVEMENTS —
ENDOGENIC FORCES — • The word “Tekton” means to build or
• These are the forces acting on CATASTROPHIC MOVEMENTS — create.
earth’s surface from above the • Also called as sudden movements. • These are continent & mountain
surface I.e originated from outside • They are unpredictable movements building movements e ecting the
the surface.
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 earth’s s surface. displaced with the loss of continuity. - For eg — Vindhya is horst &
- The continental building forces are - Faulting results in the formation of Narmada is graben.
known as Epirogenic while the block or fold mountains. • When one of the blocks move
mountain building forces are known downwards in relation to another
as Orogenic. FOLDS — due to tensional force, it results in
• The sides of a fold are called as the formation of normal or Dip-slip
EPIROGENIC FORCES — limbs. fault.
• These are vertical movements • Up-folds are called Anticline which • When one block moves up in
caused by radial forces. are formed when strata is bent relation to other one due to
• These are characterized by large upwards. Please note that the compressional force it results in
scale emergence & submergence strata refers to horizontal layers of reverse or thrust fault.
of land areas. earth. • When both the blocks move across
• They are very slow & widespread • Down-folds are called Syncline each other involving no vertical
movements. which are formed when strata is movement, it is called strike slip or
• These movements lead to bent downwards. transform fault.
continental, plateaus or basin - For eg — San Andreas fault in
formation. TYPES — Symmetrical, Asymmetrical, California.
- For eg — Gradual uplifting of Deccan Overfold, Recumbent & Nappe. • Please note that the rift valley is
plateau & slow subsidence of north • If both the limbs of fold are inclined also formed faulting.
coast of gulf of Mexico. at same angle, it is called
symmetrical fold. Di erence b/w Fold & Block Mountains
OROGENIC MOVEMENTS — • If one of the limb is inclined at an — Please refer to next page.
• These are mountain building angle more than the other, it is
movements caused by tangential called asymmetrical fold. CLASS 11
forces. These forces include folding • When the strata in one limb is folded 15/03/2025
or faulting of narrow belts. beyond vertical axis, it is called as
• Tangential forces act along the overfold. ISOSTATIC MOVEMENTS &
earth’s surface. • A fold which is literally lying down ISOSTASY —
• They are of 2 types — due to continuation of pressure on • Isostasy is the state of equilibrium
Compressional & Tensional. one side of the limbs is called as or balance in earth’s crust.
- Compressional forces are the forces recumbent fold. • Isostatic movements are the up-
causing earth’s rocks to push or • When the pressure exerted upon a and-down movements of Earth's
squeeze against each other. recumbent fold is su ciently great to crust caused by the way di erent
- They result in the formation of folds. cause it to be torn from its roots & rock layers " oat" on top of each
- Folds are the structures in which the thrust upwards, it results in Nappe. other.
layers are bent or distorted without - Please note that the nappes were - Heavier (denser) rocks sink lower,
the loss of continuity. developed in Himalayas & Alps. while lighter rocks rise higher,
- Folding results in the formation of balancing out like a oating object in
fold mountains. FAULTS — water.
- For eg — Himalayas. • Faults are fractures in Earth's crust - This process helps maintain Earth's
• Tensional forces are the forces which where blocks of rock have moved surface in equilibrium.
pull the rocks apart & results in the away from each other. • For eg — Scandinavian mountain
formation of faults. • TYPES — Normal, Reverse & Strike range where meting of ice sheets is
- Faults are fractures by which the slip fault. being experienced are witnessing
primary surfaces are broken & • The upthrust block in a fault is gradual rising of land which is
known as Horst while the down evident in a series of raised beaches.
dropped block is known as graben.
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 FOLD MOUNTAINS BLOCK MOUNTAINS

Folding Faulting

Compressional force Compressional force as well as Tensional force

Continuity of layers is maintained Disruption of layers

Taller Less taller

Soft & Sedimentary rocks Hard plateau rock which are igneous or metamorphic

Greater in length Greater in width

For eg — Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rocky, Atlas, Aravalli & For eg — Vindhyas, Satpuras, Black forest, Vosges & Ural
Appalachians mountains.
NOTE — The Ural Mountains started as block mountains
but eventually became fold mountains due to the ongoing
geological processes.

EUSTATIC MOVEMENTS — were assumed to be oating over • FORCES SUGGESTED —

• They involve world wide movement oceanic crust without any resistance. - Wegner proposed following forces as
of sea level resulting from changes in • According to this — cause of continental drift — Pole
the total volume of sea water or the - During carboniferous period (275 eeing & Tidal force.
capacity of oceanic basins. million years ago), there was only - Pole Fleeing Force refers to the
• The changes in total volume of sea one super continent i.e Pangea with outward force experienced by
water can be caused either by one super ocean —Panthalassa. continental landmasses due to the
melting of ice sheets or formation of - This super continent was split into Earth's rotation.
glaciers. northern Angaraland or Laurasia & - It is linked to the concept of
• The changes in capacity of oceanic southern Gondwana land by a rift centrifugal force, which acts away
basins may result from the formation running from east to west creating from the axis of Earth's rotation.
of oceanic ridges or expansion of Tethys sea in between (which is now - This force contributed to the
basins. Mediterranean Sea). movement of continents away from
- The northern part consisted of — the poles towards the equator.
CDT — CONTINENTAL DRIFT North America, Greenland, Eurasia - Tidal force caused the continental
THEORY — without Arabia & India. movement westward due to
• INTRODUCTION — - The southern part consisted of gravitational pull of sun & moon.
- It was proposed by Alfred Wagner, a Africa with — Arabia, Madagascar,
German meteorologist, in 1912. He India, Australia, Antarctica & South • EVIDENCES —
proposed the theory to explain major America. - Juxta x, Structural evidence,
variations in world’s climate. - A north south rift separated north stratigraphic evidences, Fossils,
America from Eurasia & South Glacial Tillites & Placers.
• ASSUMPTIONS — America from Africa. They both
- The earth is made up of 3 layers — started to move towards west. JUXTAFIX —
outer SiAl, Intermediate SiMa & Inner - Australia got separated from • It refers to similarities in coastline
NiFe. Antartica & move towards north east. on opposite sides of ocean.
- SiAl was the continental mass, SiMa - Africa moved towards north & nally • All the continents can be merged
was oceanic crust & NiFe the core. Arabia got separated from Africa & together to form one big continent.
- The continental masses were merged with Asia.
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 STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES — SEA FLLOR SPREADING THEORY — • According to this —
• The mountain belts of Brazil • Mapping of oceanic oor reveled the - Plates are broaden rigid segments
terminates along eastern coast of following info. — of lithosphere which includes the
South America & same mountains - Presence of mid oceanic ridges rigid upper part of upper mantle &
appear in western Africa. along the sea oor. crust.
- These ridges are active, resulting in - Plate tectonics is the study of
STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE — continuous volcanic eruptions. deformation within plates & of the
• The eastern coast of Brazil has - Rocks on either side of the ridge interaction of plates around their
same type of rock formation are of same age with similar margin.
observed along western coast of composition & magnetic properties. - Plates are nearly 100 K.m. thick &
Africa. - The age of rocks along the oceanic have high rigidity & are unable to
oor increases away from the ridge. deform expect in response to a very
FOSSIL EVIDENCES — - The rocks of oceanic crust are way strong & prolonged force.
• The fossil remains of Mesosaurus, younger than continental crust. - There are 7 major plates on the
an aquatic reptile are found in south - Oceanic crust is thinner than earth’s surface — Paci c, North
east part of South America & South Continental crust. American, South American, Eurasian,
Africa separated by a wide ocean. • Based on the above observations, African, Indo Australian & Antarctican
• The fossil of Glossopteris, a fern Harry Hess in 1961 proposed the plates.
grown in only cold climatic theory of sea oor spreading. - There are many minor plates, some
conditions are now found in warm • According to this — of which are — Nazca, Cocos,
climatic regions separated by wide - Constant magma eruptions along Arabian & Philippines plates.
oceans. oceanic ridges cause the rupture of
oceanic crust. The new lava PLATE MOVEMENTS —
GLACIAL TILLITES — wedges or get attached onto the • Plates are constantly in motion but
• The layers of tillites are found in oceanic crust. in di erent directions with di erent
warm tropical regions like south - This pushes the oceanic crust on speed. This causes 3 types of plate
America, South Africa, Australia & either side, therefore ocean oor boundaries — Divergent,
India. spreads. convergent & transform plate
• Please note that the glacial tillites are - The spreading crust sinks down at boundaries.
fossilized glacial sediments. oceanic trenches & gets consumed. • Please note that a plane boundary is
• Please note that the marine life or the zone of interaction of two
PLACER DEPOSITS — oceanic waters aren’t a ected by di erent plates.
• These are deposits of heavy magma coming from ridges because
minerals in riverbeds or beaches. it is a very slow process. DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY —
• Rich deposits of gold placer were (OCEANIC — OCEANIC)
found near Ghana coast without any CLASS 12 • It is also known as constructive
source of gold nearby but found in 16/03/2025 margin.
Brazil. • It is the zone of tension where
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY — lithosphere splits, separates &
CRITICISM or DRAWBACKS — • The term plate was coined by JT moves apart in di erent directions.
• Forces considered for the Wilson in 1965. • Hot magma comes through the
movement of continents are • It was proposed by Morgan, cracks & solidi es leading to the
inadequate. Mckenzie & Parker in 1967. formation of new oceanic crust.
• The rocks of continental & oceanic • Please note that the term plate is • The continuous build up of solid
crust are rigid & would not permit not equivalent to continents. They magma result in the formation of
easy drifting of continents over both have di erent boundaries. mid oceanic ridge along the plate
oceanic crust. margins.
• The theory did not describe the • In this plate boundary, shallow
conditions of pre carboniferous earthquakes with focus up to 70
times. K.m. are seen.
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 DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY — - This process is known as CLASS 13
(CONTINENT — CONTINENT) Subduction & the region of 18/03/2025
• The formation of divergent plate subduction is known as Subduction
boundary along continents involve 3 zone. CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDRY —
stages — Intra continental rifting, • The process of subduction leads to (OCEANIC — CONTINENT)
Inter plate thinning & Formation of trenches, which are the deepest • When a plate with oceanic margin
oceanic ridge. regions on the surface of earth. collides with a plate continental
- For eg — Subduction of paci c margin, the latter being more
INTRA CONTINENTAL RIFTING — plate below the Eurasian plate has buoyant forces the higher density
• The upward movement of magma resulted in the formation of Japan oceanic crust into the mantle.
below a continental crust causes trench, Mariana Trench & Aleutian - For eg — Subduction of Nazca plate
fragmentation of continents through trench. below the south American plate.
creation of numerous cracks & • The subduction plate undergoes • During the subduction, the thick
faults. deformation, intense compression, sequence of rocks along the
• Such a series of faults are known as metamorphism & melting as it continental margin is compressed &
rift valleys. reaches the deeper parts. deformed to form a chain of fold
• The rising magma starts to come • Some of the molten material nds its mountains.
out through this rift valley. way upward in the form of volcanic - For eg — Andes & Rocky mountains
• For eg — East African valley activity. • As the oceanic plate sub-ducts, it
- This molten material piles up creates trenches & earthquakes are
INTER PLATE THINNING — continuously on the other oceanic generated at Benio zones.
• It involves partial melting of crust resulting in the formation of • As the oceanic plate plunges deeper,
lithosphere & gradual thinning of volcanic mountains on the sea oor. it gets melted & starts to rise.
continental crust. - When these volcanic mountains rise - This rising magma will be emplaced
• Rift valley starts to widen & may above the water level, it leads to the on the overlying continental crust
gradually get lled with ocean formation of volcanic islands. which may eventually migrate to the
water resulting in the formation of - These islands which are arranged surface leading to the formation of
shallow sea. parallel to the trenches in arc volcanoes.
• For eg — Red Sea shaped are called island arcs. - For eg — Subduction of Nazca plate
- For eg — Japan, Aleutian Caribbean below the south American plate has
FORMATION OF MID OCEANIC islands etc. resulted in a series of volcanoes on
RIDGE — • An Archipelago is a group of Andes & Rocky Mountains such as
• The continuous spreading of islands scattered in the ocean, it is — Ogos Del Saldo, Cotopaxi,
continental plates away from each formed around ocean — ocean Chimborazo & Mt. Saint Helens
other & creation of new oceanic convergent plate boundary with respectively.
crust along the rift valley by the intense volcanic activity. • This type of convergence result in all
rising magma pushes the - For eg — Indonesia, Phillipens etc. 3 types of earthquakes.
continental mass su ciently • Subduction zones are the sites of
apart. most wide spread volcanic eruption CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY —
• At this stage, there will be new & earthquakes. (CONTINENT — CONTINENT)
oceanic basin on both the sides of • In ocean — ocean convergent • Prior to the collision of continental
ridge. boundary all types of earthquakes margin, the landmasses are usually
• For eg — Mid Atlantic ridge are observed. separated by oceanic crust.
- Majority of earthquakes appear to be • As two plates converge, the
CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDRY — con ned to a narrow dipping zone intervening sea contacts & sea oor
(OCEANIC — OCEANIC) along subduction slab called Benio sub-ducts beneath one of the
• When two oceanic plates converge, zone. plates.
the oceanic plate of higher density
descends down into 17/03/2025
asthenosphere. I was tired.
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 • The continued conversions of CAUSE OF PLATE MOTION — keep the plates active & also causes
oceanic crust & the two continental • Convection currents di erential plate movement along
bases get stitched together at a • Mantle plume intra plate regions.
zone known as suture zone. • Ridge push
• When continents margins continue • Gravity slide RIDGE PUSH —
to collide, the low density of • Slab pull • Magma arising along the mid
continental material does not oceanic ridge form wedges of new
permits its subduction. CLASS 14 lithosphere on either side of the
• The oceanic material completely 18/03/2025 plates causing plates to be push
breaks from the continental block & apart.
gets assimilated in the mantle. At CONVECTION CURRENTS —
this time volcanic activity stops. • It was given by Arthur Holmes. GRAVITY SLIDING —
• Th continued conversions forces • They are generated due to intense • The spreading centers of ridges
the continental crust partially under heat released in the earth’s interior stand high on ocean oor.
the other one creating an unusually by primordial heat & radioactivity. • This results in gravitational sliding
thick layer of intense folding. • These currents are of 2 types — of lithospheric slab away from
• The sediments deposited in the - Involving the whole of mantle oceanic ridge.
basin b/w the continental margins - Involving only asthenosphere
undergoes continuous & intense • The convection currents as they rise SLAB PULL —
compression resulting in the from below, they diverge & spread • They are considered to be along the
formation of high fold mountains. laterally. subduction zones where the sub-
- For eg — Himalayas • The convection cause the ducting plates pulls rest of the slab
• Please note that at suture zone lithosphere to split resulting in the along.
experiences shallow & intermediate formation of cracks. As the plates
earthquakes are seen because of moves laterally, the convection carry DRAWBACKS OF PLATE TECTONICS
partial subduction. the slant along. THEORY —
- When these currents encounter • Plate tectonics in the past i.e
CONSERVATIVE PLATE MARGIN — similar current from opposite formation of earlier mountains &
• This is also known as transform direction, they descend into deeper movement of di erent plates & how
plate boundary. part of mantle & drag the they are di erent from present ones.
• At conservative margins, the plates lithosphere down into the mantle • Both Africa & Antarctica are
slide past or rub against each other along trenches. surrounded & have no subduction
without any formation of new crust & zones to accommodate the new
destruction of old crust. MANTLE PLUMES — lithosphere generated.
- This creates a series of faults • It is a type of mantle convention
parallel to the direction of plate which involve jet like plumes of low VULCANISM —
movements. density material from the core • Vulcanism includes all the
- For eg — San Andreas fault of mantle boundary. phenomena associated with
California. • As the plume reaches the movement of molten material from
- Such a series of transform faults are lithosphere, it spreads laterally interior of the earth to the surface. It
also found on oceanic crust where doming the surface zones of earth & involves 3 main process —
they shift the oceanic ridges moving them down along the - Generation of magma due to —
throughout their length. direction of plume. increase in temperature, decrease in
• Mantle plumes are the causes of pressure & increase in water content
Please refer to table on next page. formation of volcanic hotspots. which lower the melting point of
- For eg — Hawaii & Reunion rocks.
• Mantle plumes by supplying magma - Intrusion of magma into lithospheric
regions.
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 PLATE O—O C—C O—O O—C C—C TRANSFORM
—> DIVERGENT DIVERGENT CONVERGENT CONVERGENT CONVERGENT PLATE
BOUNDRY BOUNDARY

FEATURES • Sea oor • Rift valley • Trench • Trench Suture zone Series of
spreading • Shallow sea • Subduction • Subduction Partial transform faults.
• Mid Oceanic • Mid Oceanic zone zone subduction
ridge ridge • Partial melting • Partial melting High fold
• New oceanic • New oceanic • Volcanic • Fold mountains
crust crust & its mountains mountains Nappe is
spreading • Volcanic along with possible here.
islands mountains
• Island arc • Benio zone
• Archipelago
• Benio zone
EARTHQUAKES Shallow Shallow All All Shallow & Shallow
Intermediate

ERUPTION OF ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ X X
VOLCANO

EXAMPLE • Mid oceanic • East African rift • Japan • Andes • Himalayas • San Andreas
ridge valley • Indonesia mountains
• Carlsberg • Red Sea • Aleutian • Rocky
mountains

- Extrusion of molten material on to DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES — - Caldera

the surface. • Ridge - Flood basalt province
• Volcanic arc - Hotspring
MAGMA — • Volcanic chains - Geyser
• It is hot, mobile, molten silicate • Volcanic cluster - Fumaroles
material made up of combination of • Please refer to table on next page. - Mud Volcanoes
— solid, liquid & gases. - Intrusive landforms includes —
• When magma erupts on the surface VOLCANIC LANDFORMS — - Batholith, Laccolith, Lopolith, Sill &
it is called lava. • It includes extrusive & intrusive Dykes
• Lava is hotter & more volatile than landforms. • Please note that on the basis of
magma & it cools either on the • Extrusive landforms are formed shape of cone, volcanoes are of 3
surface or underwater. when magma or lava cools down types — Shield, Ash & Composite.
• Types — Granitic & Basaltic. over the earth’s surface & vice versa. • Shield volcanoes are the largest
• Extrusive landforms includes — while ash volcanoes are the
- Volcanic cone smallest.
- Crater

GRANITIC MAGMA BASALTIC MAGMA

Silica content is >66% Silica content is <52%

Contains more Si & Al Contains more Mg & Fe

Brighter in color Darker in color

High viscosity, thus lesser uidity & density Less viscosity, thus higher uidity & density

Since, lesser dense it forms oceanic crust Since, more dense it forms continental crust

Since uidity is less thus explosions intensity is very high Since uidity is more thus explosions intensity is lees
because of the greater pressure build up. because of the lesser pressure build up.

Higher temperature Lesser temperature

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 PLATE O—O C—C DIVERGENCE O—O O—C HOTSPOTS
—> DIVERGENCE CONVERGENCE CONVERGENCE
BOUNDRY

LOCATION Mid oceanic ridge Rift valley Near to trenches & On the fold Intra plate
Volcanic island mountains

CAUSE Convection currents Convection currents Subduction & partial Subduction & partial Basaltic
melting melting

TYPE OF MAGMA Basaltic Basaltic Andesitic Andesitic Mantle plumes

NATURE OF Fissure & Smooth Slightly violent & Explosive & violent Explosive & violent Smooth & results in

ERUPTION Volcano formation is the formation of

seen shield volcanoes

SHIELD VOLCANOES — COMPOSITE VOLCANOES — CRATER —

• They are formed by the eruption of • They are formed due to • A funnel shaped depression at the
highly uid basaltic magma along accumulation of viscous volcanic mouth of volcanic vent is known as
hotspots. material majorly Andesitic magma. crater.
• They are very large in size but not • They are made up of alternative • A crater may get lled with water
steep. layers of lava & ash & dust, thus forming crater lake.
• They are the largest of all volcanoes. also known as Strato volcano.
- For eg — Mauna Loa & Mauna Kea. • They are steep in slope. CALDERA —
• They are violent & explosive. • A greatly enlarged depression
ASH CINDER VOLCANO — • For eg — formed due to the collapse of
• They are formed due to - Tonga volcano caused by violent eruption.
accumulation of loose particles of - Krakatoa,Mt. Tambora & Semeru in • It may result in Caldera lake.
ash & volcanic dust around vent. Indonesia
• Sometimes, viscous lava erupts out - Mt. Fuji or Fujiyama in Japan FLOOD BASALT PROVINCE —
& solidify after short distance. - Ogos Del Salado, Cotopexi, • They are formed by highly uid
• For eg — Taal Volcano in the Chimborazo in Andes basaltic magma owing for long
Philippines - Mt. St. Helens in Rocky distance covering thousands of Km2
area.
• For eg — Deccan traps

DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES DEFINITION EXAMPLE

RIDGE • Along oceanic oor through mid • Mid Atlantic ridge

oceanic ridges. • Carlsberg ridge in Indian Ocean
VOLCANIC ARC • Along O—O convergence associated • Islands of — Japan, Indonesia &
with island arc. Philippines

VOLCANIC CHAINS • Along O—C convergence on the • Volcanoes of Rocky & Andes
continent margin

VOLCANIC CLUSTER • Along C—C convergence • Volcanoes along east Africa

VOLCANIC LINES • Near hotspots • Hawaii & Reunion

• The only active volcano above the
hotspot is currently active, while the
others remain dormant.
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 CLASS 15 BATHOLITH — • The motion of ions or charged
18/03/2025 • These are large irregular dome particles in this molten material
shaped structures formed by cooling would produce an electric current
HOT-SPRINGS of magma along deeper layers of through earth’s core that results in
• Also known as thermal springs. lithosphere. magnetic eld around the earth.
• When ground water sinks deep - Therefore, we can say
down enough to be heated by LACCOLITH — geomagnetism is caused by
hotspot or a magma chamber or a • These are mushroom shaped electromagnetism.
geothermal belt, it rises to the structures formed due to intrusion
surface without any explosion of magma along rock layers. PALEOMAGNETISM —
resulting in a hot spring. • It usually contains feeder dyke • It is the historical study of earth’s
• The water contains dissolved which maintains connection with magnetism through rocks.
minerals, thus having medicinal magma. - When igneous magma crystallize, the
value. crystal of ferro magnetic minerals
• For eg — Hot spring of USA, Iceland LOPOLITH — such has iron, titanium etc. acquire
& India. • When magma solidi es along a stable magnetism which become
• In India, there at following locations saucer shaped depression in a frozen as it cools down. This
— shallow basin, it results in lopolith. acquired magnetism is called fossil
- Manikaran magnetism.
- Manali SILL — - Such rocks will have ferro magnetic
- Rajgir • These are formed parallel to minerals aligned in the same
- Tatapani bedding planes of sedimentary direction as that of geomagnetic
- Kheerganga layers. eld at the time of its consolidation.
- When paleo magnetic evidences for
GEYSER — DYKES — a given region were checked over a
• These are fountains of hot water & • These are wall like structures long period of time a gradual
superheated steam ejected at formed due to vertical intrusion of change in the direction was
regular intervals without explosions. magma. revealed. This shows that the
• For eg — Old faithful geyser of USA position of magnetic poles has
which erupts at every 65 minutes & GEOMAGNETISM — moved steadily over time. These
Geysers of New Zealand. • The magnetic eld associated with movements are known as polar
earth is known as geomagnetism. wandering.
FUMAROLES — • Earth has outer rocky mantle layer • During the study of oceanic surface,
• A continuous jet like emission of below which there is a liquid outer it was found that some minerals
steam & other gases without water. core which surrounds solid inner within the rocks pointed towards
• For eg — Fumaroles of Iceland. core. north & some towards south.
• It is considered that the motion of - It was concluded that the minerals of
MUD VOLCANO — charges i.e iron in the liquid part of rocks did not change their polarity
• It involves the eruption of mud earth’s core creates magnetic eld. but it was earth’s magnetic eld
mixed with water & gases & may not - This motion of charges is caused by that reversed its polarity.
contain magma. — Rotation of the earth & heat - Such reversal of magnetic eld can
• For eg — Baratang island of rising from earth’s inner core be brought by change in
Andaman & Nicobar. resulting in generation of convection convection currents in the outer
currents of molten material in the core. This happens every 2 to 3 lac
outer core. years.
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 MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKE TSUNAMI — - Earthquake along normal or reverse
— • Please refer to diagram in your class faulting.
• Please refer to table below. notes. - Volcanic eruption along ocean oor.
• Earthquakes waves can be recorded • Tsunami is a Japanese word for - Landslide & subsidence along ocean
by an instrument called harbor waves. oor.
Seismograph & the record • It is also known as Seismic sea - Meteoritic impact
produced is Seismogram. waves. - Underwater nuclear explosion
• Major earthquakes — Please refer to • There are 4 stages in tsunami —
table below. - Generation PROPAGATION IN DEEP WATER —
- Propagation in deep water
• Speed ∝ Depth
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE — - Propagation in shallow water
• Ground shaking - Landfall • Amplitude ∝ 1/ Depth
• Structural collapse
• Landslides GENERATION — • In deep waters, speed of waves will
• Tsunamis • A tsunami is generated due to be very high while amplitude will be

• Fire vertical displacement of water in very low. Therefore, a tsunami is not

• Land liquefaction leading to damage ocean. This vertical displacement visible in an open ocean nor it

to infrastructure can be caused by — causes any damage.

INTENSITY MAGNITUDE

Visible damage caused Amount of energy released

It is a subjective measure It is objective measure

Decreases away from the epicenter It is constant

Measured by modi ed Mercalli scale which is a linear Measure by Richter scale in India or Moment’s scale, which
scale. are logarithmic scale.
Its range is from 1 to 12. Its range is from 1 to ___, there is no upper limit.

LOCATION MAGNITUDE YEAR

Chile, also known as Valdivia 9.5 1960

earthquake. It took place near Chile &
Bolivia.

Japan 9.1 2011

Indonesia 9.1 2004

Nepal 7.8 2015

Bhuj 7.7 2001

There is an active fault here.

Kashmir (PoK) 7.6 2006

Sikkim — Nepal border, near 6.9 2011

Kanchenjunga

Latur, Maharashtra 6.3 1993

There is an active fault here.

Uttar Kashi 6.1 1991

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 AURORAS — • Depending on the depth of focus SURFACE WAVES —
• Earth’s magnetic eld blocks the from the surface, earthquakes are • They are generated due to the
charged particles from solar winds. classi ed as — interaction of body waves with the
• But some of these charged get - Shallow — 0 to 70 K.m. surface.
trapped near polar regions where - Intermediate — 70 to 350 K.m. • They are generated mainly from
the magnetic lines are vertical. - Deep — > 350 K.m. epicenter.
• Due to the interaction of charged • They are con ned to the surface of
particles in earth’s atmosphere near earth only.
polar regions, colorful lights are CLASS 16 • They are much slower than body
released called as Auroras. 20/03/2025 waves but causes more damage.
• At north pole, they are known as
Auroras borealis. EARTHQUAKE WAVES — SHADOW ZONES —
• At south pole, they are known as • An earthquake generates two types • The earthquake wavs undergo
Auroras australis. of waves — Body & Surface waves. refraction, bending or change in
speed while passing from one
EARTHQUAKES — BODY WAVES — medium to another.
• Earthquakes are sudden shifts or • They are generated from the focus & • By studying the behavior of
disturbance in rocks layers of the move through the interior of earth. earthquake, we can come to
Earth’s crust, which can be triggered • There are two types of body waves conclusion about the earth’s interior.
by various factors like volcanic — P & S waves. • A shadow zone is a zone in interior
activity or tectonic plate of the earth where earthquake waves
movements. P—WAVES — are not reported.
• The scienti c study of earthquakes is • Also known as primary or • P waves are not detected b/w 105°
known as Seismology. longitudinal or compressional waves. to 145° from the focus, resulting in P
• Causes of earthquakes — Natural & • These are the rst earthquake waves wave shadow zone.
Anthropogenic. to b detected during an earthquake. • It is caused due to the bending of P
• Natural includes — • They cause the particle to oscillate waves as it enters outer core.
- Plate movements back & forth in the direction of • S waves can’t pass through the
- Volcanic eruptions propagation. outer core since it is liquid, therefore
- Landslides • They depend upon density & beyond 105° there is S wave shadow
- Land subsidence compressibility of material. zone.
- Meteorite impact Therefore, they can pass through all
• Anthropogenic includes — the mediums — Solid, Liquid & Gas. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
- Mining —
- Blasting S—WAVES — • Circum — Paci c belt around which
- Nuclear explosion • Also known as Secondary or the plates are converging.
- Reservoir induced seismicity — RIS transverse waves. • Mid — Oceanic ridge with divergent
• Focus is a point below the surface • The oscillation of particles occur plate boundary.
where energy is released during perpendicular to the direction of - For eg — Mid Atlantic ridge &
earthquakes. It is also known as propagation. Carlsberg.
hypocenter. • They depend on density & rigidity of • East African rift valley system with
• Epicenter is a point on the surface the material through which they are Continent — Continent divergence.

near or above the focus. passing. Therefore, they can’t pass • Mediterranean & trans Asiatic belt.
• An earthquake is felt stronger at through liquids & gases.
epicenter.
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 PROPAGATION IN SHALLOW WATER WEATHERING — • Temperature also increase the rate of
— • Rocks break down over time due to chemical reaction.
• As the tsunami waves approach the a combination of processes that
coast depth of water decreases don’t involve large-scale WATER —
resulting in decrease in speed & transportation. • Presence or absence of water
increase in amplitude. • It is in—situ. decides the chemical reactions.
• This sudden decrease in speed • It doesn’t involve transport of • When water is added or removed, it
causes the piling up of water near to degraded rock material. imposes mechanical stress on the
the coast. This is known as Shoaling rock & causes it to split.
e ect. CLASS 17
21/03/2025 ORGANISMS —
LANDFALL — • It includes the action of plants roots,
• Tsunami waves break on the land. FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING micro organisms & burrowing
— animals.
EXOGENETIC MOVEMENTS — • Rock type & structure • For eg — Earthworms, rodents & rats
• These are the geomorphic process • Slope & aspect keep the land loose.
caused due to various forces acting • Temperature
from outside the earth’s surface. • Water TYPES OF WEATHERING —
• The sources of energy for exogenetic • Biological agents • Physical or mechanical, Chemical &
movements are sunlight & gravity. Biological.
• The di erent agents of exogenetic ROCK TYPE & STRUCTURE — • Please refer to table on next page.
movements are — • It includes rock massiveness,
• Wind porosity, permeability, presence of CRYSTAL GROWTH — WATER
• Water — Rainwater, Ground water & fractures & bedding planes (rock • When water freezes, it expands &
Coastal water. layers). wedges apart.
• Glacier • For eg — Sedimentary rocks • The rock ssures & pores causing it
• Exogenetic processes involve undergo faster weathering than to crack.
aggradation & degradation. igneous rocks. • It results in frost shattering in deserts
& freeze thow in glacial region.
AGGRADATION — SLOPE & ASPECT —
• It is the action of various processes • Steep slope will greatly aid CRYSTAL GROWTH — SALT
that cause deposition on surface in weathering as disintegrated material • It involves the growth of salt crystals
order to bring uniformity of grade immediately ows down. by crystallization as moisture
(slope). • Also the slope which are exposed to evaporates creating pressure in pore
wind & rain are more prone to space & cracks.
DEGRADATION OR DENUDATION — weathering. • It is known as Haloclasty.
• It involves the combined action of • For eg — Himalayas
various processes that causes PRESSURE/THERMAL EXPANSION
wearing away of earth’s surface & TEMPERATURE — —
causes general lowering & leveling • A considerable range of temperature • Exfoliation
out of earth’s surface. both diurnal & annual subjects the • Pressure release
• It involves — Weathering, Erosion & surface layer to contraction & • Block disintegration
Mass movement. expansion. • Granular disintegration
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 PHYSICAL WEATHERING CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Disintegration of rocks takes place without any change in Disintegration of rocks takes place with changes in chemical
chemical constituents of rocks. constituents of rocks.

Factors such as temperature, moisture, frost action & wind Temperature, moisture etc. cause minerals in rocks to either
cause physical break up of rocks. dissolve in water or change their composition.

It is more rapid in desert climates. It occurs in moist & cold climates.

Rocks are a ected to greater depths. It takes place near the surface of the rocks.

Its agents are temperature & moisture. Its agents are water, oxygen, carbon & various organic
acids.

EXFOLIATION — OXIDATION — REDUCTION — ABRASION —

• Rapid expansion & contraction of • Addition or removal of oxygen. • Wearing away of surface by
surface weaken the outer shell of • They are the rst visible signs of mechanical processes like rubbing,
rocks creating ssures causing the chemical weathering as it causes scratching, polishing etc.
rock shell to peel o . discoloration. • Abrasion in water is known as
• For eg — Rusting Corasion.
PRESSURE RELEASE —
• The con ning pressure from the RUSTING — ATTRITON —
weight of overlying rocks is released • H2O + CO2 —> H2CO3 • It involves reduction in the size of
when the overlying cover is removed • When rainwater absorbs CO2, it fragments by friction & impact during
by weathering or erosion. forms carbonic acid. transportation.
• This causes rocks to expand leading • Some minerals undergo dissolution • It breaks down the load (bigger
to development of fractures. when reacted with carbonic acid. particles) into ner sediments.
• For eg — Limestone
BLOCK DISINTEGRATION — CAVITATION —
• Rocks break into glaciers. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING — • Collapse of bubbles of water in river
• It involves breaking of particles by result in explosion bending shocks
GRANULAR DISINTEGRATION — burrowing animals & pressure waves which tends to disintegrate
• Rocks disintegrate into small exerted by plant roots. the adjacent rocks.
granules. • The decomposition of organic matter
releases di erent chemicals which COROSION —
CHEMICAL WEATHERING — may increase the rate of weathering. • It involves break down of rocks
• Hydrolysis through solvent & chemical action of
• Hydration EROSION — water.
• Oxidation — reduction • It refers to wearing away of land • Please note that it takes place in
• Carbonation surface by mechanical action of running water.
debris derived from weathering as
HYDROLYSIS — they are transported to di erent DEFLATION —
• It involves chemical union of water & locations by agents like wind, water, • Lifting & removal of dust & sand by
minerals through solution. glacier etc. wind action. It involves aerial erosion
• Please note that it takes place in still • Types — removing the weathered & eroded
water. - Abrasion unconsolidated material.
- Attrition
HYDRATION — - Cavitation HYDRAULIC ACTION —
• It occurs when minerals incorporate - Corrosion • The breaking down of rocks by fast
water into their molecular structure. - De ation moving water.
• It causes swelling. - Hydraulic action
- Plucking
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 PLUCKING — MUDFLOW —
• As the glaciers move, they drag the rocks & disintegrates • It involves rapid movement of uncompacted soil which is
them into smaller pieces. suddenly saturated with water.

MASS MOVEMENT — ROCKSLIDE/ROCKFALL —

• It is the movement of weathered material along down hill • It involves rapid movement of rocks along mountain
slopes under the in uence of gravity with or without the slope.
assistance of running water.
• It is also called mass wasting. CLASS 18
• For eg — Mountains 23/03/2025
• They are of 2 types — Slow & Rapid.
• Slow includes — Creep & Soli uction LANDFORMS —
• Fast includes — Landslide, Earth- ow, Mud ow & • Riverine
Rockfall or Rockslide. • Karst
• Marine
CREEP — • Desert
• Also called soil creep. • Glacial
• It involves slow down hill movement of the soil & • Please refer to tables on next page.
weathered mantle (upper layer of rocks) along mountain
slopes.
• It is a continuous movement but very di cult to notice.

SOLIFLUCTION —
• It involves slow movement of soil mixed with water as a
viscous uid or mud.
• It is active in glacial regions.

LANDSLIDES —
• It involves the movement of a cross section of hill slope
under the in uence of gravity.
• The material maintains continuous contact with the
surface as it moves.

EARTHFLOW —
• It ow along mountain terraces & hill slides where they are
capable of movement when saturated with water that
occurs beneath the earth layer.
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 STAGES OF RIVER FLOW

FEATURE YOUTH MATURE OLD

SLOPE Very high Moderate Low

EROSIONAL ACTIVITY Very high Moderate Low

Vertical erosion leading to V Lateral erosion leading to U Wide & shallow erosion
— shaped valley — shaped valley

DEPOSITION X ✔ ✔

MEANDERS X ✔ ✔

TOPOGRAPHY AGENT OF W/E PROCESS EROSIONAL DEPOSITIONAL

FEATURES FEATURES

RIVERINE River water • Attrition • V shaped valley • Meander — Slip o

• Cavitation • Gorge • Floodplains formed
• Corasion (likely • Canyon due to annual
meant to be • Waterfall ooding
"Abrasion") • Cataract • Levee
• Corrosion • Rapid • Ox bow lake
• Hydration • Plunge pool • Alluvial fan
• Hydraulic action • Pot holes • Delta
• Hydrolysis • River capture • Estuaries
• Meander — River
cli

KARST Ground water • Attrition • Swallow hole • Stalactite

• Carbonation • Sink holes • Stalagmite
• Corasion • Doline • When they both
• Corrosion • Uvala merge, cave pillar.
• Hydrolysis • Blind valley
• Conditions required • Caves
are — moderate to
high precipitation,
Top layer of
limestone or
dolomite & Bottom
hard resistant
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 CLASS 19 Sea waves • Attrition • Cli • Beach
23/03/2025 • Cavitation • Wave cut platform • Wave built platform
• Corasion • Bay • O shore sand bar
• Corrosion • Hanging valley • Sandpit or spit
MARINE • Hydraulic action • Sea cave • Tombolo
• Sea arch or Natural • Lagoons
bridge
• Sea stack or stack
• Stump
• Blowhole
• Headland
DESERT Wind • Abrasion • De ation hollows • San-dunes
• Attration • Venti fact - Barchans
• De ation • Mushroom rocks - Parabolic
• Forst shattering • Zeugen - Seif
• Granular • Yardang - Transverse
disintegration • Inselberg - Longitudinal
• Thermal expansion • Bolson or Playa
• Haloclasty lake

GLACIAL Glacier • Abrasion • Nivation hollows • Moraines

• Plucking • Cirque - Lateral
• Hydration • Arete - Medial
• Pressure release • Horn - End
• Col • Tillites
• U shaped valleys • Drumlines
• Hanging valleys • Esker
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 EXTRA STROKES — and understanding. • Discontinuity phenomena is not seen
• ICE AGE — - Stratigraphic classi cations are in oceanic crust because it is very
- Period of long-term reduction in systems used to categorize and thin.
earth's temperature. describe layers of rock (strata) in the • Temperature of magma is more than
- Extensive ice sheets covered much earth's crust. re because Magma is sourced deep
of the planet. • Carbonic acid is responsible for acid within the Earth's mantle, where
• GLOBAL WARMING — rain. temperatures are naturally higher
- Gradual increase in earth's average • Mponeng is a deep gold mine in due to intense pressure and heat.
temperature. South Africa, one of the world's • Andesite is an extrusive igneous rock
- Caused by human activities like deepest, reaching over 4 K.m. commonly found in volcanic regions
burning fossil fuels. underground. like the Andes mountain range.
• GLOBAL COOLING — • The deepest mine in India is the • Ores are rocks containing a speci c
- A decline in earth's average Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), which type of minerals. For eg — Bauxite
temperature. reaches depths of over 3.2 K.m. (Al), Hematite (Fe).
• ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION — • A continental shelf is a submerged • Rock = Stone, but if we talk precisely
- Natural process of species extension of a continent, gently rocks present above earth’s surface
replacement in an ecosystem. sloping, and rich in marine life and are referred to as stones.
• Most advanced reptiles were resources. • Outcrop is an elevated land.
dinosaurs. - It is typically found at a shallow • Di erent sandstones —
• EXTINCTION OF DINOSAURS — depth compared to the ocean oor. - Red in red fort
- Dinosaurs went extinct around 66 • Oceanic rocks are much younger - Grey sandstone in Gandhara school
million years ago. (less than 200 million years) due to - Red sandstone in Mathura school
- A massive asteroid impact near the dynamic nature of the Earth's - Marble in Amravati school
present-day Mexico caused crust, while continental rocks can • In folding, the continuity of layers is
widespread environmental changes. be incredibly ancient, some maintained, while in faulting, it is not.
It struck the Yucatán Peninsula near exceeding 4 billion years. • Whether folding or faulting occurs
the end of the Cretaceous period, • Oldest oceanic rocks are found in depends on the type of rocks. If the
creating the Chicxulub crater. the western Paci c Ocean, near rocks are soft, folding happens; if
- Volcanoes erupted, releasing ash the Mariana Trench. they are hard, faulting occurs.
and gases that disrupted the climate. • Oldest continental rocks are primarily • Rift valley in India — Vindhayas &
- These events led to the collapse of found in places like the Acasta Satpuras ranges are block
ecosystems and food chains, Gneiss in the Canadian Shield mountains with Narmada river in
causing mass extinction. (northwest Canada) and parts of the between.
• Young fold mountains, like the Jack Hills in Western Australia. • The depth of compensation in
Himalayas, formed during the • Western most country of Asia is geomorphology refers to the
Cenozoic Era, speci cally in the Israel. theoretical depth at which the
Tertiary period, around 50 million • Deadlock refers to a situation where Earth's crust adjusts to changes in
years ago. con icting factors prevent progress, surface topography, maintaining
• Ganga plains were formed in such as political or territorial isostatic equilibrium between crust
Quaternary period. disputes. For eg — Israel & and mantle.
• INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION Palestine. • Try to imagine pole eeing force with
ON STRATIGRAPHY — • During volcano, most of the magma merry go round.
- It standardizes geological time scales comes out from the mantle layer • There are 3 types of earthquakes on
and stratigraphic classi cations, because it is semi solid nature which the basis of point focus —
facilitating global geological research liqui es under heat easily. • Shallow — 0 to 70 K.m.
• Intermediate — 70 to 350 K.m.
• Deep — >350 K.m.
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 - Focus is the point from where energy Earth, it reaches a point where it can’t - In RQD, we take sample from earth’s
is released beneath the earth's hold in anymore. Then, it erupts core. Higher RQD values indicate
surface. through the Earth’s surface, and we call fewer fractures and better stability.
• Ridges refers to long, narrow that an eruption. • Koyna River, a tributary of Krishna
elevated landform. • Mauna Loa is the largest volcano on river in Maharashtra experiences RIS
• The term mid oceanic ridge is an earth’s surface in terms of area. It at regular intervals.
elevated portion below ocean. covers a large ocean basin width • Shallow earthquakes are the most
- For eg — Mid Atlantic ridge is the wise. dangerous.
longest oceanic ridge in the world. • Mauna kia is the highest volcano. Its • Intermediate earthquakes are caused
- It stretches for about 10,000 K.m. height is 4,000 m above the earth’s by partial subduction.
from Arctic Ocean in the north to the surface while 6,000 m below. • Deep earthquakes are caused by
southern ocean near Antartica. • Tremors or small earthquakes (also complete subduction.
- It is a divergent boundary where the called volcanic tremors) are often an • Landslide & Land subduction.
Eurasian, North American, South initial indicator of volcanic activity. • Indicators of Tsunami —
American & African are moving apart - They occur as magma moves - Retreating of coastal water
causing the sea oor to spread. towards the surface, causing stress - Wave like sound
- Iceland is also a ridge. and fracturing in the Earth's crust, • Diurnal temperature —
• Rifts are not a series of faults; they which can precede an eruption. - Maximum temperature — Minimum
are large, elongated depressions or • The “reunion hotspot” refers to a temperature of same day
valleys formed by tectonic plate volcanic hotspot in the Indian Ocean • Annual temperature —
movement, where the Earth's crust is near Réunion Island. - Maximum temperature — Minimum
stretched and pulled apart. • It is believed to be the source of the temperature of a year
• For eg — East African rift valley massive volcanic eruptions that • Both physical & chemical weathering
• Geologically, Atlantic ocean is the formed the Deccan Traps about 66 take place simultaneously in nature.
youngest ocean. million years ago. There is no absolute process. It's
• Folding creates conical peaks while • As the Indian tectonic plate moved about which one is more dominating.
faulting creates at top. over this stationary hotspot, intense • Di erence b/w corrasion & hydraulic
- For eg — Himalayas & Deccan traps volcanic activity occurred, leading to action.
• The volcanoes on the Paci c plate’s the extensive basaltic lava ows that - The former is due to chemical
boundaries di er based on the type created the Deccan Plateau. reaction while the latter is due to
of plate interaction. • A very violent volcanic eruption can physical force of water.
- On the western side (e.g., Ring of trigger — • Make a list of erosional processes
Fire), subduction zones create - Global warming taking place in air & water.
explosive volcanoes. - Global cooling - Air —
- On the eastern side (e.g., Hawaii), - Ice age - Water —
hotspot volcanism forms shield - Please note that it has very minute • Antecedent rivers are those that
volcanoes, which are less explosive e ect on earth’s rotation. existed before the uplift of a
and produce uid lava. • How to assess the strength of mountain range and maintained their
• Magma refers to molten rock rocks before building a reservoir original course by cutting through
material or molten Si material over them? the newly formed mountains,
because Si content is high. - Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) creating deep gorges.
• "Why doesn't extrusion happen & Rock quality designation (RQD). - For eg — Indus, Brahmaputra, Sutlej
directly after the generation stage of - In UCS, we measure axial strength of etc.
lava?" rocks, which refers to vertical or • Grand Canyon of India — Gandikota
• When magma builds up inside the horizontal force depending on the - Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh,
orientation of the object. carved by the Pennar River
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 • Size — Waterfall > Cataract > Rapid
• Whenever a river is meandering it results in erosional as well as depositional feature. For eg — River cli & Slip o .
• Alluvial fans — Mountains to plains
• Delta — River to sea or ocean
• Pot holes are at the riverbed, while sink holes are on the surface.
• The salinity of lagoons is lesser than the ocean water because —
• It is not getting mixed with ocean water & its salinity is decreased by fresh water lakes.
• Rub ‘al Khali — Sand dunes of Saudi Arabia.
• Largest sand dunes are in Namibia.
- The desert name is Namib desert.
- It is located on the western coast of Africa.
• Oasis is a fertile land in desert, where we nd vegetation.
• Matterhorn is in Alps at the border of Italy & Switzerland.
• Important locations of KARST —
- Erstwhile, Yugoslavia
- Yucatan Peninsula
- South east Asia — Thailand
- North east India — Meghalaya
• The eastern coast of India is depositional in nature, thus known as emergent coast.
• The western coat of India is erosional in nature, thus it is a submergence coast. Exception — Kerala. It is
depositional.
• Sriharikota is an o shore sand bar located at the border of Andhra Pradesh & Tamil Nadu used to launch rockets.
• A wind gap is a dry, former waterway passage formed by stream capture, while a blind valley (or steep-head valley) is a
valley that abruptly ends, often due to a stream disappearing into a sinkhole or cave in limestone or karst regions.
• Moraine is a glacial deposition which is caused by the accumulation of sediments.
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 CLIMATOLOGY
1. Weather and climate
2. Composition of atmosphere
3. Structure of atmosphere
4. Insolation, Heat Budget & Albedo
5. Temperature & Inversion of temperature
6. Pressure
7. Planetary winds
8. Seasonal winds & Local winds
9. Humidity, Evaporation & Condensation
10. Types of clouds & Precipitation
11. Jet Streams
12. Air masses
13. Temperate Cyclones & Tropical Cyclones
 WEATHER & CLIMATE — - In winter, especially in cold regions, • It is called the zone of turbulence
• It is the day to day state of the air holds less water vapor, due to continuous mixing of air.
atmosphere. leading to drier conditions and • It is also called as friction layer
• Climate is average atmospheric sometimes snowfall instead of rain. because it is always in touch with
conditions of an area over a • Dust Particles Variation — the surface.
considerable period of time - During summer, dry winds in desert • All weather phenomena is
calculated for minimum of 30 years. regions like the Sahara Desert or restricted to troposphere because
Thar Desert carry a lot of dust into of the presence majority of water
COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE — the atmosphere. vapor & dust particles in the entire
• Atmosphere is a layer of air - In urban areas, pollution and human atmosphere.
surrounding the earth held by activities increase the concentration • Temperature decreases with increase
gravity. of dust particles, a ecting local in altitude in troposphere at the rate
• It is a thick gaseous envelope weather and sometimes causing of 6.5°C/K.m. This is known as NLR
which surround the earth from all smog in winter, like in Delhi, India or — Normal Lapse Rate.
sides & is attached to earth’s Beijing, China. • The transition zone b/w troposphere
surface. • Please note that the dust particles & stratosphere is tropopause,
• It’s composition includes the are also known as hygroscopic mixing of air stops here. That’s why
following gases in descending order nuclei — Water absorbing. airplanes y in this zone.
—
- N2 — 78% CLASS 20 STRATOSPHERE —
- O2 — 21% 24/03/2025 • It extends from tropopause to 50
- Ar* — 0.93% K.m.
- CO2 — 0.036% STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE — • The layer is called so because air is
- Ne* • Atmosphere is divided into strati ed & non convective in
- He* Homosphere & Heteroshpere. nature.
- CH4 • Homosphere includes — • Ozone is present here. That’s why
- Kr* Troposphere, Stratosphere & the temperature in stratosphere
- Xe* Mesosphere. rises due to the absorption of UV
- H • Heterosphere includes — rays by ozone.
- Radon* Thermosphere & Exosphere. • The conditions are extremely dry
• * are noble elements i.e chemically • Please refer to table & owchart on expect few rare stratospheric
inactive next page. clouds.
• Apart from the above gases, the • Ionosphere is a part of • For eg — Mother of pearl &
atmosphere also includes water Thermosphere while Nacreous formed in polar regions
vapor & dust particles which are magnetosphere is a part of because of the extremely dry
very essential for seasons to Exosphere. conditions during winters.
change. • The top of stratosphere is known as
• They may vary from season to TROPSPHERE — Stratopause.
season or place to place. • It extends from sea level to 16 K.m
• Water Vapor Variation — in tropics & 6 K.m along polar MESOSPHERE —
- In coastal areas or during the regions. • It extends from stratopause to 80
summer season, water vapor is • This is because the troposphere K.m.
higher due to increased evaporation varies in thickness due to • Temperature here decreases with
from oceans, seas, and lakes. This temperature di erences. Warm air increase in height & reach lowest in
leads to more cloud formation and near the equator expands and rises, the entire atmosphere i.e —90°C.
higher chances of rainfall. while cold air near the poles • The top of mesosphere is
contracts, making the troposphere Mesopause.
thinner.
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 HOMOSPHERE HETEROSPHERE

Uniformity of gases Separate layer of gases

Up to 80 K.m Beyond 80 K.m

Gases exist in molecular form such as O2, N2, H2. Gases exist in atomic form such as O, N, H.

99% of water vapor & dust particles are present here, with Negligible water vapor & dust particles.
90% in the troposphere.

Exosphere

Thermosphere

Mesosphere

Stratosphere

Troposphere

THERMOSPHERE — EXOSPHERE — IONOSPHERE —

• It extends from 80 K.m to 500 — • It is above the thermosphere till • It extends from 80 to 650 K.m
700 K.m. vacuum. within thermosphere.
• It consists of lower nitrogen layer • It contains atomic O, H & He. • It is due to ionization by solar
(up to 200 K.m) & upper oxygen • It contains magnetosphere — which radiation forming di erent layers
layer (above 200 K.m). Please note is composed of electrons & protons such D, E, F, G etc. Please note that
that both nitrogen & oxygen are in derived from solar winds & other some of them disappear in night
atomic form. charged particles. because of the absence of sunlight.
• Temperature rises rapidly due to • They are arranged in 2 bands at • It re ects short wave radio waves,
absorption of high energy solar 3,000 K.m & 16,000 K.m & called as thus helping in radio
radiation. However, the heat is not Van Allen radiation belt. communication.
felt due to absence of atomic
collision or very thin air or very low
density.
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 INSOLATION — CONDUCTION — HEAT BUDGET OR HEAT BALANCE
• INcoming SOLar radiATION. • Transfer of heat through molecular —
• The amount of incoming solar activity at zone of contact. • On the global scale, the earth must
radiation is called as insolation. • For eg — Transfer of heat b/w re radiate as much heat back to
• The amount of solar energy received surface & troposphere. space as it receives from the sun.
by the earth is 2 billionth of solar This is necessary in order to maintain
energy. CONVECTION — a uniform temperature by the earth.
• The amount of solar energy received • Transfer of heat by vertical • The gains & loses in heat by way of
in surface is 1.92 cal/cm2/min which movement of mass or air. incoming solar radiation & outgoing
is called as solar constant. • For eg — Convection of air along terrestrial radiation is known as heat
equator. budget.
TERRESTRIAL RADIATION — • Please refer to ow chart in your
• The incoming solar radiation is ADVECTION — class notes.
shorter in wavelength. This • Transfer of heat by horizontal
radiation is absorbed by earth’s movement of mass or air. ALBEDO —
surface & is remitted as long • For eg — Planetary winds • It is also known as re ection
wavelength terrestrial radiation. coe cient.
• The warming of earth’s atmosphere CLASS 21 • The ratio b/w re ected amount of
& its surface by the absorption of 30/03/2025 radiation & the incoming solar
terrestrial radiation by some of the radiation by a surface is known as
gases is called as green house FACTORS AFFECTING INSOLATION Albedo.
e ect. — • The average albedo of the earth as a
• The gases responsible are known as whole is 35%.
greenhouse gases. • Transparency, Latitude or angle of • Albedo of di erent material is as
• It includes the gases — CO2, CH4, incidence or altitude of sun & length follows in descending order —
N2O, HFC, PFC & SF6 along with of the day. - Fresh snow
water vapor particles. - Ocean ice
• Since the earth’s surface absorb the LATITUDE — - New concrete
incoming solar radiation & emits • It a ects the insolation received per - Desert sand
terrestrial radiation, it acts as a unit area of surface & the amount of - Green grass
source of heat for atmosphere. solar insolation absorbed. - Bare oil
Therefore temperature decreases • In tropical regions, where sun rays - Deciduous trees
with an increase in altitude at 6.5°C/ fall vertically, insolation is - Conifer tress
Km which is known as NLR — concentrated in small areas. - Worn asphalt
Normal lapse rate. • In temperate & polar regions where - Open ocean
insolation falls at an oblique angle it - Fresh asphalt
METHODS OF HEAT TRANSFER — is distributed in large area leading to
• Radiation lesser intensity. TEMPERATURE —

• Conduction • It refers to degree of hotness or

• Convection TRANSPERANCY — coldness of a body.

• Advection • Factors such as cloud cover, dust • Heat zones on the earth — Please
particles, water vapor reduce refer to diagram.
RADIATION — transparency of atmosphere allowing • Factors a ecting temperature —
• Transfer of heat in the form radiant less insolation to reach the surface. Insolation, Albedo, Nature of the

energy. surface (Land & water),

• The incoming solar radiation — LENGTH OF THE DAY — Continentality, Distribution of

insolation is a form of radiation. • Longer the day more the insolation continents, Altitude, Winds & Ocean
received. currents.
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 INSOLATION — OCEAN CURRENTS — TYPES OF TEMPERATURE
• Higher the insulation, higher the • They transport warm water from INVERSION —
temperatures. tropics to polar & cold water from • Radiation inversion
polar to tropics helping in global • Air drainage inversion
ALBEDO — distribution of temperature. • Advection inversion
• Temperature and albedo are • Frontal inversion
inversely related. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
— RADIATION INVERSION —
NATURE OF THE SURFACE — • A line joining places with equal • During long winter nights, calm air
• The variation of temperature temperature is known as Isotherm. conditions & cloudless sky the land
depends on speci c heat of the • By understanding the distribution of surface radiate heat more rapidly
surface. isotherms, we can conclude about during the night.
• The land surface with lower speci c the distribution of temperature - This loss of radiation by the land
heat heats up more rapidly & across the earth. surface causes the land to cool
intensely than water surface. • Isotherms move north ward b/w Jan down & the air just above the surface
• Also land cools down slowly. to July & south ward b/w July to Jan also cools.
• Land — in both the hemispheres. - This colder air is overlays by warmer
- This is due to the apparent upper air which has absorbed heat
• Female —
movement of sun. from the radiation loss.
• The isotherms bend towards north - Therefore temperature increases with
CONTINENTALITY —
pole from land to ocean in northern an increase in altitude resulting in
• The locations which are in interior of
hemisphere during winters or temperature inversion.
continent have higher range o of
January.
temperature or extreme
• They bend towards equator ward AIR DRAINAGE —
temperatures than coastal locations.
from land to ocean in summers or • The mountain slopes & hill tops
• Fore eg — Delhi & Mumbai
July. experience rapid fall in temperature
• The seasonal changes are less during night.
DISTRIBUTION OF CONTINENTS —
marked in southern hemisphere than • The valley sides & oors will be
• Northern hemisphere with more
over northern hemisphere because warmer due to radiation exchange
proportion of land than ocean
of more oceanic water in the latter between the valley sides.
experiences higher range of
one. • The cooler & denser air from the hill
temperature or extreme
top will start to sink to the valley
temperatures than southern
CLASS 22 oor due to gravity.
hemisphere where there is more
30/03/2025 • After sometime, the warmer air rests
water.
over cooler air producing
TEMPERATURE INVERSION — temperature inversion.
ALTITUDE —
• The average rate of increase of
• Altitude & temperature are inversely
temperature with an increase in ADVECTION INVERSION —
related.
altitude is known as NLR — Normal • It is produced when a thick layer of
• Temperature decreases by 6.5°C/
lapse rate. warm air passes over cold water
Km, this is known as NLR — Normal
• Under certain special conditions in surface or snow covered surface due
Lapse Rate.
the atmosphere reversal of NLR to advection (horizontal movement of
occurs so that the temperature air).
WINDS —
increases with altitude. This
• They help in transporting heat from
phenomena is known as temperature
one region to another causing
inversion.
distribution of temperature.
• Please refer to graph in your class
notes.
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 FRONTAL INVERSION — • Pressure system consist of regions • This air spreads out as it reaches top
• It is caused due to frontal with concentric isobars which of troposphere & move towards the
convergence of air masses. Along include low pressure or high poles.
the fronts, the warmer air is forced pressure system. • This air as they converge towards
upward from the ground by under polar region its density increases &
cutting of cold air which leads to FACTORS AFFECTING PRESSURE — begins to sink I.e subside leading to
temperature inversion where warm • Temperature, Altitude & Rotation of high pressure belt at 30°N & 30°S.
air is lying above cold air. earth. • Some of the high pressure air move
towards equator & some towards
SIGNIFICANCE OF TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE — poles. The air moving towards
INVERSION — • Inverse relation equator replaces the air rising there
• Due to the formation of cold layer of • When air is heated, it expands & the resulting in completion of a cell.
air near to surface, fog is formed in outward pressure of molecules is • Low temperature at the poles result
the regions of temperature inversion. spread over a larger area, therefore in contraction of air & development
- Creation of fog reduces visibility in pressure of air decreases. of high pressure belt.
atmosphere near to surface & • When air is cooled, it contracts • Air moving away from poles spread
disrupts transportation network. causing decrease in pressure. out to larger space & pressure falls
• Temperature inversion result in stable leading to low pressure belt at 60°N
air near to the surface causing air ALTITUDE — & 60°S.
pollutants to be trapped for longer • Inverse relation. • Some of the air from sub tropical
duration. • When air rises (convection), volume high pressure belts moving towards
- Smoke & pollutants gets mixed up increases & pressure decreases. poles reaches 60°N & 60°S &
with fog resulting in smog which is • When air sinks (subsidence), volume converges with air from poles
hazardous for health. decreases & pressure increases. leading to convection along 60°N &
• Temperature inversion leads to 60°S.
stability suppressing convection & ROTATION OF EARTH — • The apparent movement of sun
cloud formation preventing • It causes air at the poles to be causes the pressure belts to shift
precipitation. thrown away towards equator. north & south of equator.
• Along mountainous regions, valley • If we consider the e ect of only
oors are avoided for agriculture & rotation, air piling up along the DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE —
human settlements. equator produces a belt of high PRESSURE IN JANUARY
- For eg — Fruit orchards of Himachal pressure & along poles a belt of low
Pradesh & Uttarakhand & Co ee pressure. • Equatorial low pressure belt well into
plantations of Brazil. southern hemisphere.
CLASS 23 • The sub tropical high pressure belt of
PRESSURE — 31/03/2025 southern hemisphere is found only
• It is force per unit area. over the oceans.
• Atmospheric pressure refers to the FORMATION OF PRESSURE BELTS • The low temperature in northern
pressure exerted by earth’s — hemisphere produces a continuous
atmosphere. • Please refer to diagram in your class high pressure belt linking it with high
• The average atmospheric pressure notes. pressure cells of Siberia & north
near to sea level is 1,013 millibar. • Air rising at equator due to high America.
• Pressure is measured by Barometer. temperature causes expansion &
• Its unit is Millibar. therefore development of low
• Isobar is line connecting places with pressure belt at equator.
uniform pressure.
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 DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE — CORIOLIS FORCE — equatorial low.
PRESSURE IN JULY • It is an imaginary force produced • In German trade means track as they
• Equatorial low pressure belt extends due to rotation of the earth. blow in same direction throughout
too much into the northern • It is the combined e ect of various the year.
hemisphere lining with low pressure forces & factors such as centrifugal
systems of India & Tibet. force, angular velocity, variation in SIGNIFICANCE —
• Sub tropical high pressure belt in speed of earth’s rotation at di erent • Trade winds are dry & stable in the
northern hemisphere is not latitudes. area of origin, moving towards the
continuous & exists only over Paci c • It causes any moving body to de ect equator they pick up moisture &
& Atlantic Ocean. towards the right in northern causes precipitation along eastern
• Sub tropical high pressure belts in hemisphere & left in southern margins of continents.
Southern hemisphere forms hemisphere. • Reaching the western margins they
continuous belt of high pressure • The degree of Coriolis force or we are devoid of moisture & the o shore
system. say the de ection caused by Coriolis trade winds will not result in
force depends on — Speed of precipitation causing hot desert
WINDS — moving body, Latitude at which the formation.
• Air in motion is called as wind. body is moving & speed of rotation • For eg — Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama.
of earth.
FORCES AFFECTING WIND — - Higher the speed, higher the WESTERLIES —
• Pressure gradient force, Frictional de ection. • They originate from sub tropical high
force & Coriolis force. - De ection is nil at equator while & move towards temperate low.
maximum at poles. • The vast land mass in northern
PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE — - Higher the speed of rotation, higher hemisphere obstructs the westerlies
• The rate of change of pressure w.r.t the de ection. whereas in the southern hemisphere
distance is known as pressure they are strong & consistent due to
gradient. GEOSTROPHIC WINDS — huge water expanse.
• Pressure di erentials in the • At some latitudes when isobars are • They are called roaring 40s, Furious
atmosphere causes movement of air straight & there is no friction, the 50s & shrieking 60s.
from high pressure to low pressure. pressure gradient force is balanced
- The force causing this movement is by Coriolis force & the resultant wind POLAR EASTERLIES —
known as pressure gradient force. ow in parallel direction to isobars • They originate from polar high &
• Pressure gradient force acts in the resulting in geostrophic winds. move towards temperate low.
direction perpendicular to isobars. • Please refer to table on next page. • They are extremely cold, dry & stable
- It is more when isobars placed at its origin.
closely. PLANETARY WINDS — • They blow for long distances
• The winds blowing over the planet e ecting the climate particularly
FRICTIONAL FORCE — throughout the year b/w the di erent during winters.
• Any moving body near to land pressure belts are known as
surface experiences frictional force planetary winds.
in the direction opposite to its • Types — Trade winds or Easterlies,
movement. Westerlies & Polar Easterlies.
• Frictional force experienced by
winds is maximum over land surface TRADE WINDS —
than ocean & it is more near to the • They originate from sub tropical high
surface than higher altitude. pressure belt & move towards
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 CLASS 24 SEASONAL WINDS — • Fishermen along coastal regions
31/03/2025 • Seasonal di erence in temperature & make use of land breeze & sea
pressure conditions cause the breeze for shing.
ITCZ — movement of air & subsequent winds
• Inter tropical convergence zone. blowing in particular seasons are MOUNTAIN & VALLEY BREEZE —
• A zone of convergence of trade known as seasonal winds. • During day time mountain slope
winds from both the sides of tropics. • For eg — South west monsoon & heats up rapidly compared to valley.
• It is centered on the equator North east monsoon. This result in air from valley moving
extending up to 5°N & 5°S. This zone up along the slopes known as valley
experiences calm & windless LOCAL WINDS — breeze or Anabatic winds.
conditions. Therefore, it is also • Di erences in heating & cooling of • At night, the temperature di erence
known as the zone of dole drums. earth’s surfaces & the cycles those b/w mountain slopes & valley is
develop daily or annually can create reversed causing winds to blow from
HORSE LATITUDE — several common winds known as mountain to valley causing mountain
• A zone of sub tropical high pressure local or regional winds. breeze or Katabatic winds.
belt due to vertically descending • For eg — Land & Sea breeze, • Practice world map regularly.
winds. Mountain & Valley breeze. • Please refer to tables on next page.
• This is the region of light & calm
winds. LAND & SEA BREEZE — CLASS 25
• Land gets heated more quickly than 03/04/2025
TRICELLULAR MERIDIONAL adjacent sea during day time,
CIRCULATION — therefore low pressure is developed HUMIDITY & CONDENSATION —
• The surface winds blow from high over the land & high pressure over • Water in gaseous form is known as
pressure to low pressure areas but in adjacent sea. water vapor.
the upper atmosphere the direction - This causes circulation of relatively • The amount of water vapor in air is
of air circulation is opposite to cool air from sea to adjacent land known as humidity.
surface winds. known as sea breeze. • All weather phenomena in
• This together with convection & - Sea breeze will be stronger during atmosphere (troposphere) are result
subsidence along low pressure & evenings & will have cooling e ect. of water vapor in air.
high pressure belts result in 3 cellular • Rapid loss of heat from land causes • The amount of humidity shows the
circulations along each meridian reversal of day time pressure potential the atmosphere to cause
known as tricellular meridional conditions due to high pressure on precipitation.
circulations. land & low pressure over oceans.
• The 3 cells are — Hadley, Ferrel & - Winds blow from land to sea causing
Polar cell. land breeze.
- Land breeze will be stronger by late
night.
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 HOT WINDS DESCRIPTION

CHINOOK — C • North America — USA & Canada

• West to East
• Ascending the rocky mountains, they experience a
temperature rise upon descending, melting the ice over
vast plains for wheat cultivation. That’s why they’re also
known as snow eaters.

FOHN OR FOEEHN — F • Along the northern slope of Alps.

• South to North.
• Flows in Rhine valley, Germany.
• It also melts snow in Germany & Northern Europe.
HARMATTAN — H1 • Nigeria, Africa
• North east to south west.
• Doctor wind
HABOOB — H2 • Sudan, Africa
• Non directional
SIROCCO — S1 • From Sahara desert to mediterranean sea.
• South to north
• It carries red Saharan sand, moisture from the
Mediterranean Sea, and when it reaches Italy, France, and
Spain, it causes blood rain.
• Sirocco is known as Khamsin, Gibli & Chili in Egypt, Libya
& Tunisia respectively.

BERG — B1 • South Africa

• East to west
SIMOON — S • Iran & Iraq
• No speci c direction
• Poison wind! It’s super hot and dry, and it could be
deadly.

KARABURAM — K2 • Mongolia & North China.

• North east to South west.
LOO — L • North India
• West to East from Thar Desert to Ganga plains.
BRICKFIELDER — B2 • Australia
• North to South — land to coast
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 COLD WINDS DESCRIPTION
All of the cold winds move from north to south in northern
hemisphere & vice versa.

BLIZZARDS — B5 • North America

• North to south
• Very dry & extremely cold
• Blizzards are known as Norther, Norte & Buran in USA,
Mexico & Siberia respectively.

PAMPERO — P • Antarctica to Argentina

• Pampero is named after the pampas, which are
grasslands in Argentina.

SOUTHERLY — S2 • Antarctica to Australia

• Opposite to brick- elder
LEVANT — L • Cold wind along southern Spain
• East to west
• Please note that it is di erent from Levant region — It is a
region around Israel.

BORA — B3 • Erstwhile Yugoslavia

• At the coast of Adriatic Sea
MISTRAL — M • France
• North to south
• Blows in Rhone valley

MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY — - Air is said to be saturated when • It is the reversal of evaporation.

• Speci c humidity — It is the ratio of relative humidity reaches 100%. • The temperature at which
weight of water vapor in grams to condensation takes place is known
the weight of air in Kilograms EVAPORATION — as dew point.
expressed as gm/Kg of air. • Conversion of liquid water into water - If dew point is <0°C, it known as
- It indicates the actual amount of vapor is known as evaporation. Frost point.
water vapor in the air. • Factors a ecting rate of evaporation
- It remains constant with change in — Temperature, Humidity, Wind CONDENSATION FORMS —
temperature. speed. • Dew — It is the moisture deposited
• Absolute humidity — It is the ratio - Higher the temperate, higher the in the form of liquid water droplets
of water vapor in grams to the R.O.P. on land surface.
volume of air in m3 as gm/m3 of air. - Higher the humidity, lower the rate of - The conditions favorable for dew
- It varies with change in volume. evaporation due to saturation of air. formation are — long winter nights,
- It increases with contraction & - Higher the wind speed, higher the calm & windless conditions & clear &
decreases with expansion. rate of evaporation as air movement cloudless sky.
• Relative humidity — It is the ratio provides constant supply of fresh air • Frost — It is a thin layer of ice on
between amount of water vapor with lesser humidity. solid surface.
present to maximum amount of - It is formed when the temperature of
water vapor air can hold at a given CONDENSATION — the surface is below freezing point.
temperature. • The process of conversion of water
- It decreases with increase in vapor into liquid water is known as
temperature & vice versa. condensation.
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 • Rime — It is the deposition of • Stability — It is a condition where air CUMULUS CLOUDS —
needle like white, opaque icy resists vertical movement & remains • Thick cloud of cotton
crystals on the surface with in original position. • Wool like appearance with
temperature below <0°C. - It occurs in the regions of low cauli ower top.
- It occurs when super cooled water temperature & where air subsides.
droplets in air coming in contact with - In such conditions, precipitation is STRATUS CLOUDS —
surface with temperature below unlikely. • Low uniform layer of clouds near to
freezing point. ground level
• Fog — It is produced near to the TYPES OF CLOUDS — KEY WORDS • It produces light drizzle
surface when temperature of air • Cirrus — High altitude (18,000ft) &
drops suddenly near to the surface. feathery appearance STRATO CUMULUS —
- The visibility will be <1K.m. • Alto — Mid altitude (12,000ft) • Layered cotton wool like
- The conditions required for the • Stratus — Layered appearance.
formation of fog are same as the • Cumulo — Cotton wool like • Regularly arranged in layers at low
conditions of temperature inversion. appearance or globular mass altitude.
Therefore, conditions favoring fog • Nimbus — Rain causing
formation are long winter night, calm CUMULONIMBUS —
air & cloudless sky. CLASS 26 • It is an over grown cumulus clouds.
- Types of fog include — Radiation fog 03/04/2025 • Very dark, heavy & dense with anvil
(Radiation inversion), Valley fog (Air top.
drainage inversion), Frontal fog CIRRUS CLOUDS — • It causes very heavy precipitation
(Frontal inversion) & Advection fog • Thin feather like clouds with thunderstorms & lighting.
(Advection inversion). • Fibrous appearance
• Mist — It consists of small water • White in color RAINFALL —
droplets suspended in the air. • Present at high altitude • Conditions necessary for rainfall —
- It is very similar to fog but with lower • Indicates fair weather - A mechanism to uplift the moist air
density of water droplets in air. • It results in halo around sun. (humidity or water vapor).
- The visibility is b/w 1 to 2 K.m. - Saturation & cooling of air below dew
• Haze — It is caused by smoke & CIRROCUMULUS — point.
dust particles along with humidity. • Patches of globular masses at high - Presence of hygroscopic nuclei such
- Its visibility is <2K.m. altitude, also known as Mackerel sky. as dust particles around which water
droplets accumulate & form clouds.
PRECIPITATION — CIRROSTRATUS — • Types of rainfall — Convectional,
• Instability — It is a condition where • Layered at high altitude giving milky Orographic & Frontal.
air has a tendency to rise upwards & appearance.
doest not resist vertical movement. CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL —
- It is observed in the regions of high ALTOCUMULUS — • It occurs in the regions of intense
temperature & in the regions of • Globular masses of cloud with heating near ground surface.
convergence of winds due to low cotton wool like appearance at • It causes air to rise & expand
pressure. middle altitude b/w 6,000 to through convection.
- It leads to convection of air, cloud 18,000ft. • Often it results in the formation of
formation & precipitation. cumulonimbus clouds accompanied
ALTOSTRATUS — by thunderstorms & lightning.
• Layer of clouds in sheets along • They are experienced throughout the
middle altitude. year in equatorial regions & in
summers in tropical regions.
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 OROGRAPHIC RAINFALL — of clouds. • They are observed in all the
• When a warm & moist air is forced to • When both the types of charges are continents except Antartica.
rise across mountains slopes, it attracted a ash of light is produced • They are more prevalent in USA.
cools down causing precipitation due to ow of charges known as • The tornadoes which are formed
along windward side. lighting. over water bodies with whirling
• However on the leeward side, the • Lighting causes vacuum in the cloud column of air & water mist is known
descending air will not cause due to rapid expansion of air. as water spout.
precipitation resulting in rain shadow • It is led by the surrounding cold air - Commonly seen in Africa.
region. producing clap of thunder.
• For eg — Western ghats of India & JET STREAMS —
Ladakh. CLOUD BURST — • WMO — World meteorological
• IMD — Indian Meteorological organization de ne jet streams as
FRONTAL RAINFALL — department clouds bursts as rainfall strong narrow air currents
• It occurs along frontal zones due to over 10 cm in one hour concentrated concentrated along a quasi
convergence of di erent types of air over small area of few kilometers. horizontal axis in the upper
masses. • The conditions favoring are — troposphere or lower stratosphere
• The warm air mass rises above the - Strong & rapid convection of highly characterized by strong vertical &
cold air mass causing precipitation. humid & warm air over a steep lateral wind shear & featuring one or
topography resulting in dense clouds more velocity maxima.
DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL — without rain. • CHARACTERISTICS —
• Near equatorial zone precipitation is - When such air is funneled into the - They are thousands of kilometers in
very high above 200 cm per annum valleys across mountainous region it length.
due to convectional rainfall. results in rapid upliftment of air. - They are hundreds of kilometers in
• Near sub tropical regions — 30°N & - After a point raindrops become too width.
30°S minimum rainfall of 25 cm per heavy for the clouds to hold on & - Normally, blows from west to east.
annum due to subsidence & high drops together in a quick succession - Winds are faster during winter.
pressure belt. resulting in ash oods. - The entire system follows the sun
• Temperate regions b/w 40° to 60° • For eg — Mumbai (2005), Leh (2010), changing its position with season.
north & south 100 to 120 cm per Kedarnath (2013), Dharamshala - They follow zig zag path in the form
annum due to frontal rainfall. (2021). Rossby waves.
• Near to polar regions low
precipitation mainly in the form of TORNADOES or TWISTERS — CLASS 27
snowfall. • They are violently rotating column of 06/04/2025
• Please note that oceans receive air that extends from a thunderstorm
more rainfall than land surface & to the ground. CAUSES OF JET STREAMS —
coastal regions receive higher rainfall • It appears like a funnel descending • Jet streams are generated due to
than continental interior. from a cloud. temperature di erence b/w two
• The wind speed goes up to 400 km/ regions i.e tropical to temperate or
THUNDERSTORMS — hr. temperate to polar.
• Due to intense heating & strong - It is formed when changes in wind • The di erence in pressure gradient
vertical convection cumulonimbus speed & direction create a horizontal with altitude above cold & warm air
clouds are formed. spinning e ect within a storm cell. masses causes strong movement of
• The rain drops formed in this cloud This e ect is tipped vertical by rising winds in the upper troposphere.
move up & down due to strong air air moving up through thunder • Larger the temperature di erence,
currents creating electric charges clouds. stronger the winds.
which accumulate on opposite sides
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 TYPES OF JET STREAMS — - This changes the weather conditions TYPES OF AIR MASSES —
• Polar front, Sub tropical westerly, by suppressing or encouraging • On the basis of —
Tropical easterly, Polar night & Local. precipitation. - Source —Continental (c) & Maritime
• They help in the formation of fronts & (m)
POLAR FRONT — temperate cyclones. - Temperature — Warm (w) & Cold (C)
• They are formed where the ferrel & • They are used in aircraft navigation. - Pressure — Stable (s) & Unstable (u)
polar cell meet. • The monsoon of south Asia is - Latitude — Arctic (A), Antarctic (AA),
• They are irregular & discontinuous. controlled by sub tropical westerly & Polar (P), Tropical (T) & Equatorial (E).
• They blow from west to east. tropical easterly jet streams.
• Sub tropical westerly jet streams are DISTRIBUTION OF AIR MASSES —
SUB TROPICAL WESTERLY — responsible for winter rainfall in north • Please refer to Map.
• It is associated with temperature west India through western
gradient at the pole ward limit of disturbance. SIGNIFICANCE —
Hadley cell. • The polar night jet streams along • Air masses transport heat from one
• It is more regular & strong. with polar stratospheric clouds region to another & help in global
• It blows from west to east. causes ozone depletion in polar distribution of temperature.
regions during winters. • They change the temperature
TROPICAL EASTERLY — • It helps in transport of pollutants into conditions of destination regions by
• It is formed over India & Africa in upper troposphere from urban causing warmer or colder conditions.
summers due to intense heating of regions. • For eg —
Tibetan plateau & surrounding - The cold air mass formed over
regions. AIR MASSES — Siberia a ects the surrounding
• It blows from east to west. • It is an extensive portion of regions & causes cold conditions.
atmosphere whose physical - Maritime air masses bring more
POLAR NIGHT — properties such as temperature, moisture towards continental regions
• They are observed around the polar pressure, humidity etc. are increasing its humidity & causing
regions above troposphere during homogeneous — horizontally & precipitation.
winters. vertically for hundreds of kilometers. - The interaction of warm & cold air
• They are associated with the • Conditions required — masses in temperate regions results
formation of ozone hole. - The temperature of source area shall in the formation of fronts &
• It blows from west to east. remain uniform horizontally with very temperate cyclones.
a gradual change in vertical direction. - The maritime tropical & equatorial air
LOCAL JET STREAMS — - The humidity conditions should also masses in Indian & Atlantic oceans
• They are formed due to local thermal be uniform with least variability. help in the development of tropical
& dynamic conditions. - The surface area shall remain cyclones.
• For eg — Somali jet streams homogenous for few hundreds of - The maritime air masses of Indian
kilometers. ocean play an important role in
SIGNIFICANCE OF JET STREAMS — - The regions with light divergence precipitation in Indian monsoon.
• Jet streams are responsible for winds, high pressure belts & anti - The dry continental air masses along
cyclonic & anti cyclonic circulations cyclonic circulations are more sub tropical regions help in
along surface. favorable for the formation of air maintaining the aridity conditions
- Upper divergence in jet streams masses due to stable conditions. along deserts.
causes lower convergence while
upper convergence causes lower
divergence.
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 TEMPERATE CYCLONES — resulting in heavy rainfall over a small TROPICAL CYCLONE —
• A narrow zone of transition dividing 2 area. • It is a low pressure high velocity
air masses of di ering temperature & wind system originating within the
humidity conditions is known as OCCLUDED FRONT — tropics over the oceans.
front. • It is the later stage of front formation • A tropical is known as —
• They are usually formed in mid where the air in warm sector is not - Hurricane in Atlantic ocean
latitude or temperate regions. longer at the ground surface due to - Typhoon in south China sea
• The process of formation of front is the meeting of cold front & warm - Typhoo in Japan
known as frontogenesis while the front. - Bagui in Philippines
decaying process is known as • It is compound zone with both warm - Willy Willy in Australia
frontolysis. & cold front characteristics.
STAGES OF CYCLONE —
CLASS 28 STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT OF • Please refer to table on next page.
06/04/2025 TEMPERATE CYCLONE —
• Convergence of 2 air masses with CONDITIONS —
TYPES OF FRONTS — di erent characteristics. • Temperature — More than or equal
• Stationary, Warm, Cold & Occluded. - Air masses parallel to each other & a to 27°C over ocean to ensure
stationary front is formed. su cient evaporation.
STATIONARY FRONT — • The warm & cold air masses • Depth of warm water —
• When the surface position of a front penetrates into the territories of each Temperature of 27°C should extent
is not changing & the two air masses other forming a wave like front. up to 60 to 70 meters of depth.
are unable to push each other, it is • With warm & cold wave fronts • Humidity — High humidity of 50 to
known as a stationary front. starting to move towards each other 60%.
• When this front is disturbed it results the warm sector is wedged b/w the • Coriolis force — It causes wind
in warm or cold front. cold sectors. de ection. Therefore, cyclones are
• The warm sector is narrowed in developed only b/w 5° to 25° north &
WARM FRONT — extent due to advance of cold front. south.
• The boundary b/w warm & cold air • The occlusion starts with warm air • Minimum wind vertical wind shear
mass where the warm air is rising completely above the cold air — So that humid & warm air is not
advancing & over riding over cold air & the cold front completely over swept away.
mass is known as warm front. taking the warm front. • Divergence in upper troposphere
• The gradient of front is gradual • The warm sector completely — causing convergence near the
leading to slow upliftment of warm disappears, occluded front is surface.
air resulting in nimbo stratus clouds eliminated & the cyclone dies out. • Pre existing low pressure
& steady rainfall over a large area. conditions — which get intensi ed
ROLE OF JET STREAMS IN to form cyclones.
COLD FRONT — TEMPERATE CYCLONES —
• The boundary b/w warm & cold air • Jet streams being quasi horizontal in FORMATION OF TROPICAL
mass, where the cold air mass is nature results in upper divergence in CYCLONES —
advancing & undercutting the warm some locations, which causes • A strong convection result in the
air mass is known as cold front. surface convergence which helps in build up of huge cumulonimbus
• This results in a steeper gradient bringing together the warm & cold air clouds.
along the front leading to rapid masses & the subsequent formation - The release of latent heat provides
upliftment of warm air & the of fronts. more energy to the system
formation of cummilo nimbus clouds supporting further strong convection.
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 *CLASSIFICATION USED IN INDIA FOR TROPICAL CYCLONES —

TYPE WIND SPEED

KM PER HOUR (KPH) KNOTS

Low Pressure area Less than 31 Less than 17

Depression 31 to 49 17 to 27

Deep Depression 50 to 61 28 to 33

Cyclonic Storm 62 to 88 34 to 47

Severe Cyclonic Storm 89 to 118 48 to 63

Very Severe Cyclonic Storm 119 to 221 64 to 119

Super Cyclone More than 221 More than 119

Note: One kph = 0.54 knots; one knot = 1.852 kph

- When the winds start to descend • OUTER CONVECTIVE BAND — At - Iran

along the sides, the entire system is the edge of main cloud mass with - Maldives
stabilized. instability & convection. - Myanmar
• The lateral winds near to surface - Oman
start to rotate around the low CLASS 29 - Pakistan
pressure center due to Coriolis force. 06/04/2025 - Qatar
- After some time, some of the dense - Saudi Arabia
air rising near the center starts to NAMING SYSTEM OF CYCLONES — - Sri Lanka
descend at the center resulting in the • In 2004, 8 countries of Indian Ocean - Thailand
formation of eye of cyclone. agreed to have a common naming - UAE
system of cyclones in Indian Ocean. - Yemen
STRUCTURE OF CYCLONE — • Each of the country arranged in
• EYE — It is the center of the storm. alphabetical order submitted a set of RECURVATURE OF CYCLONE —
- 5 to 50 K.m. in diameter with clear 8 names. • When the air currents in local
sky, calm conditions, lowest pressure - The regional specialized atmosphere push the cold air from
& highest temperature. meteorological center of WMO poles towards equator & intensify the
• EYE WALL — A wall of thick located in New Delhi maintains the cyclone which is about to diminish
cumulonimbus clouds with 10 to 20 list arranged in sequential order & by supplying more wind the cyclone
K.m. width. assigns the name whenever the de ect right under the in uence of
- It has the strongest winds in the winds speed of a depression crosses westerlies.
cyclone. 62 Kph. - This phenomenon is known as
- Thunderstorms occur in this region • The suggested names shall be recurvature of cyclones.
due to intense convection & rainfall. neutral — Politically, religiously, • The recurvature is very di cult to
• SPIRAL BANDS — Also known as culturally as well as w.r.t gender. predict.
rain or feeder bands. • It should be easy to pronounce. - For eg — Cyclone Ockhi of 2018.
- It extends for hundreds of kilometers • All the names in earlier metrics
leading to galaxy type appearance. expired in 2019 & a new metrics
• ANNULAR ZONE — It is the zone of suggested by 13 countries were
suppressed cloudiness, high agreed. These are as follows —
temperature & low humidity. - Bangladesh
- India
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 CYCLONES IN INDIA — sends the cold air south ward along CLASS 30
• In India, there are 2 cyclone seasons with jet streams. 06/04/2025
— April, May & October, November. - This brings down the temperature in
• The no. of cyclones in bay of bengal southern regions to colder levels of MONSOON TYPE —
is more than the Arabian Sea in the below 0°C. • Also known as hot zone eastern
ratio 4:1. This is because — margin.
- Higher water temperature in bay of CLIMATIC REGIONS — • These regions experience seasonal
bengal due to large in ux of fresh • Please refer to page 119 & 120 of reversal of winds & precipitation.
water. GC leong. • Precipitation is concentrated during
- Higher wind shear in Arabian Sea. • The world is divided into several one of the seasons only.
climatic zones or regions each with • One or more months of speci c dry
COLOR CODED WARNING OF IMD its own characteristic climate — season.
FOR CYCLONES — Temperature & Precipitation, soil, • Vegetation is deciduous type &
• It is used by IMD to signify the vegetation & human activities. sheds leaves during dry season.
intensity of the situation & the • The regions include — South Asia —
warning associated with it. HOT & WET EQUATORIAL CLIMATE India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indo
• It uses 4 colors — Green, Yellow, — China area, eastern Africa, northern
Orange & Red in the increasing order • It experiences high temperature Australia etc.
of intensity. throughout the year with daily • In some regions within monsoon
- Green — No warning or no severe maximum of 30°C & daily minimum type on shore trade winds cause
weather of 21°C. rainfall throughout the year. This type
- Yellow — Be aware • The diurnal range of temperature is of climate is known as Tropical
- Orange — Be prepared more than annual range of marine climate.
- Red — Take action temperature. - It is seen in — Central America, SE
• The warning is universal in nature & - That’s why there are no speci c Brazil, NE Australia.
is issued during oods, heavy rainfall seasons.
& cyclones. • The annual average rainfall is 250 cm SUDAN TYPE —
• For cyclone it is represented through through convectional rainfall. • Also known as hot zone continental
a metrics for di erent regions for • Relative humidity always remains or Savanna.
next few days. high. - These are the grasslands in tropical
• The objective is to alert people of • The vegetation is evergreen with high regions, therefore also known as
hazardous weather & be prepared for biodiversity due to high temperature tropical grasslands.
handling disaster like situation. & high precipitation. • Precipitation is lesser than eastern
• High precipitation causes leeching margin with annual average 70 cm.
POLAR VERTEX — making the soil fragile or infertile. • Rainfall occurs in summer due to
• It is large area of low pressure & cold • Sunlight is the limiting factor due to convection.
air surrounding the earth’s poles. multi layered arrangement of trees. • Vegetation is dominant tall grass
• The term vertex refers to the counter • Regions — Amazon forests, with scattered drought resistant
clockwise ow of air which keeps the Colombia, Ecuador, Congo basin, trees.
cold polar air locked inside. Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, • Fire is the limiting factor which
• The polar winter night jet streams Borneo island of Indonesia & papua checks the spread of vegetation.
keeps this region covered with new guinea. • Regions include — Savanna of
strong winds. Occasionally, when the Africa, Llanos & Campos of south
vertex weakens due to weakening of America, northern Australia.
jet streams the vertex expands &
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 HOT DESERTS — known for large scale wheat cultivation. causing anti cyclonic circulations
• They are formed by — • Regions are — Steppes in central impacting the surrounding regions.
- Sub tropical high pressure belt Asia, Eastern Europe, Prairies in • Vegetation is coniferous & is the
- O shore trade winds north America, Pampas in south single largest stretch of vegetation
- Cold ocean currents America, Veld in Africa & Downs in on the earth approximate 30%.
• They are located along western Australia. • It is low in biodiversity but high in
margins of continents within the economic value.
tropical regions. WARM TEMPERATE ZONE — • It is the only which is exclusively
• Precipitation is very low & is less • Also known as Mediterranean type. present in the northern hemisphere.
than 25 cm per annum. • In summers, ITCZ shifts northward • Regions are — Siberia, Russia,
• High diurnal range of temperature. bringing o shore trade winds with no Poland, Scandinavia, Canada &
• Vegetation is xerophytic. precipitation. Alaska.
• For eg — Sahara, Mohave, Atacama, • During winters, ITCZ shifts
Namib, Kalahari & deserts of southward bringing onshore BRITISH TYPE —
Australia. westerlies causing good rainfall. • Also known as cool temperate
• In winters, they are also under the western margin.
CHINA TYPE — in uence of temperate cyclones. • They are under the in uence of
• Also known as warm temperate • It is known for its characteristic dry onshore westerlies throughout the
eastern margin. summer & wet winter. year, therefore moderate rainfall
• Summers are hot while winters are • Vegetation is drought resistant, deep throughout the year.
cold but precipitation throughout the rooted & short bushes. • They are also under the in uence of
year with more concentration during • For eg — Olives, grapes, orange & warm ocean currents which keep
summer. other citrus fruits. their ports ice free even during
- In summers, they are majorly • Regions include — Mediterranean winters.
a ected by tropical cyclones under region, California, central Chile, SW • They are known for mild winters &
the impact of onshore trade winds. Africa, SW & southern Australia. cool summers.
- In winters, they are a ected by • Vegetation is mixed type both
temperate cyclones. LAURENTIAN TYPE — deciduous & coniferous.
• Vegetation is mix of deciduous & • Also known as cool temperate • Regions include — UK, parts of
evergreen. eastern margin. western Europe, western Canada,
• Regions include — Eastern china • Temperature ranges b/w 20°C in southern Chile, Tasmania & New
(Shanghai), SE USA (Florida), SE summers & below 0°C in winters. Zealand.
Brazil ( Rio de Janeiro), SE Africa & • Rainfall throughout the year & are
SE Australia (Sydney). majorly a ected by temperate ARCTIC OR POLAR TYPE —
cyclones. • They are covered with ice throughout
STEPPE — • Vegetation is deciduous type up to the year.
• Also known as warm temperate 50°N & coniferous beyond that. • Also known as Parma frost —
continental. • Regions include — eastern Canada, meaning permanently froze or tundra
• Rainfall is moderate throughout the NE USA (NYC), northern China climate or cryosphere.
year. ( Beijing), Korea & Japan. • During summers, when ice melts
• Precipitation is higher than tropical vegetation grows as stunted
grasslands due to the in uence of SIBERIAN TYPE — mosses, lichens.
temperate cyclones. • Also known as cool temperate • The region beyond Arctic & Antarctic
• Vegetation is short grass. continental. circle.
• Soil is fertile contains Calcium • Summers are slightly warm while
carbonate. winters are extremely cold & dry
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 *Di erence between Tropical Cyclones and Temperate Cyclones —

TROPICAL CYCLONES TEMPERATE CYCLONES

Tropical cyclones are produced mainly over the sea. Temperate cyclones are produced both on land & sea.

They generally originate in the tropical region between 8° and They originate in the mid-latitudinal region between 35°
20°N and S. latitude and 65° latitude.

They are limited to a small area. They occupy areas measuring thousands of kilometers.

They travel from east to west They travel from west to east.

They are forecasted by high temperature and humidity but They are forcasted by fall in temperature and pressure, wind
still air. shifts and a halo around the sun and the moon.

They are associated with violent winds with great speed, The wind speed is low and the rainfall is light, which
dense clouds and heavy rains. continues for many days.

They are largely a summer phenomena. They are most intense in winter.
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 OCENAOGRAPHY
1. Ocean bottom topography
2. Ocean temperature
3. Salinity
4. Oceanic deposits
5. Coral reefs
6. Oceanic currents & circulations
7. El Nino and related phenomena
8. Tides
 OCEAN BOTTOM TOPOGRAPHY — ABYSSAL PLAINS OR OCEANIC - Landmass — The seas which are
• Its classi cation on the basis of size BASIN — completely surrounded by land in
— • These are tectonically inactive tropical regions have higher
- Major — Continental shelf, oceanic oor with a relatively smooth temperature due to continental
Continental slope, abyssal plains , surface having a layer of sediments e ect.
Mid oceanic ridge & trench. & nodules of minerals.
- Minor — Continental rise, Submarine • Its average depth is b/w 4,000 to DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANIC
canyon, Sea mounts & Islands. 6,000 m. TEMPERATURE — VERTICAL
• The temperature of ocean water
07/04/2025 SEA MOUNTS — decreases with depth. However, the
CLASS 31 • They are associated with volcanic pattern of decrease is not uniform
activity on the oceanic oor such as across all the latitudes.
CONTINENTAL SHELF — hotspots. • In general, the ocean waters can be
• These are sub merged & shallow di erentiated into 3 zones based on
portions of continental crust with GUYOTS — temperature — Epilimnion,
depth b/w 150 to 200 m. • While sea mounts are sharply Thermocline &
• Its width is dependent on the slope pointed guyots are at topped hills • Epilimnion —
of adjacent land. with summits below the water level. - Up to 200 m of depth with average
- It is wider along the coastal plains & • These are the regions in deep ocean temperature b/w 20° to 25° C.
narrow along mountainous coast. which are abundant in life. - It is a zone of constant sunlight &
• It is rich in sunlight & oxygen which mixing due to winds.
favors the growth of planktons. ISLANDS — - It is zone of uniform high temperature
• They are rich in biodiversity & are • Island arc & Archipelago — Please • Thermocline —
known for rich shing grounds & refer to Geomorphology. - Also known as Metalimnion.
petroleum reserves. - It is b/w 200 to 1000 m.
MID OCEANIC RIDGES — - The temperature decrease rapidly
CONTINENTAL SLOPE — • Please refer to Geomorphology. with depth.
• It is the boundary b/w continents & - It is also called twilight zone.
oceans formed by the outer edge of TRENCHES — • Hypolimnion —
continents. • Please refer to Geomorphology. - It is the zone of uniform cold
• They are much steeper than temperature.
continental shelf. OCEAN TEMPERATURE — - The average temperature is nearly
• Factors a ecting this are — 4°C since the sea water attains
CONTINENTAL RISE — - Insolation or Latitude — Lower maximum density at this
• It is the base of continental slope latitude receives higher insolation & temperature.
with a lower slope & continuous into experience higher temperature & vice - It is also called as dark zone.
abyssal plains. versa.
- Winds — The regions of westerlies • Please note that the surface water
SUBMARINE CANYON — are more active & thus temperatures temperature lies b/w 20° to 25°C in
• These are the canyons formed along are a bit higher than the regions of tropical regions & decreases
the continental shelf & slope polar easterlies. gradually towards the poles.
because of the turbidity currents or - Ocean currents — Warm ocean - The 3 distinctive layers are visible
rivers entering the oceans. currents increases the temperature of along tropical regions.
ocean & vice versa. They help in heat
balance b/w equatorial & polar areas.
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 - However along temperate & polar Equatorial regions experience lower marine organisms.
regions, there will be double or single salinity within the tropics due to higher
uniform layer of cold temperature. precipitation. CLASS 32
• Rivers add more fresh water & 08/04/2025
OCEAN SALINITY — decreases salinity. For eg — Deltas
• It is no. of grams of dissolved salts in of Ganga & Amazon. CORAL REEFS —
thousand grams of sea water • Ice formation or Melting — The • Corals are masses of limestone &
measured as parts per thousand former increases salinity due to dolomite accumulated by lime
(‰). addition of salts while melting secreting organisms called coral
• The average salinity of earth’s ocean decreases salinity due to addition of polyps.
is 35‰. fresh water. • Coral polyps are developed due to
• SOURCES — Sediments brought by • Ocean currents help in distribution symbiotic relationship b/w coral
rivers & winds or continents, under of salinity. polyps & zooxanthellae (an algae).
water volcanic activities & - They provide habitat to nearly 31
Evaporation. DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN SALINITY phyla resulting in rich biodiversity &
• Continents — The sediments — VERTICAL therefore coral reefs are also called
brought by rivers, winds & glaciers • Along polar regions, low salinity is as rainforests of oceans.
get dissolved in ocean water. experienced near to surface due to
• Volcanic eruptions — Along lower rate of evaporation. CONDITIONS —
oceanic oor. • With increase in depth increases. • Temperature should be >20°C.
• Evaporation in oceans. • Along sub tropics, high evaporation • Latitude b/w 30°N & 30°S.
• Please note that the salinity of leads to high salinity along the • Salinity ~ 35‰.
oceans always remains constant. surface & decreases sharply to • Water must be sediments free, it
- The factors adding salinity is become uniform after certain depth. must be clear of mud.
balanced by the factors reducing it • Along equatorial regions, low • Depth of the water b/w 200 to 250ft
such as rivers bringing freshwater, evaporation & high precipitation lead where there is sunlight.
ice melting, rainfall, precipitation of to low salinity in the upper layer & • Platform or base I.e continental shelf
salts along the ocean oor. then it increases with depth to nally for the growth of coral polyps.
become uniform. • Please note that —
COMPOSITION — - Coral reefs are absent along western
• Chlorine — 18.97gm DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN SALINITY margin of continents within the
• Sodium — 10.47gm — HORIZONTAL tropical regions due to the presence
• Sulfate • Sub tropics > Equator > Temperate > of cold ocean currents.
• Magnesium Polar. - They are not present along river
• Calcium deltas due to high sediments & low
OCEAN DEPOSITS — salinity.
FACTORS EFFECTING SALINITY — • Terrigenous — Sand, gravel, mud &
• Higher the temperature, higher is silt. DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS —
the rate of evaporation causing • Hydrogenous — Salts, PMN — Poly • Coral triangle covering the regions of
higher salinity. metallic nodules, Red clay. islands of SE Asia, Australia &
• Higher the wind speed, higher is the • Biogenous — Coral reefs, Ooze, Sea Islands of paci c ocean such as
rate of evaporation causing higher shells, pearls, petroleum. Polynesia & Micronesia.
salinity. • Cosmogenous — Meteoritic debris.
• Rainfall brings more freshwater & • Please note that the ooze are shelly
decreases salinity. For eg — skeletal remains of microscopic
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 • Western & Northern Indian Ocean • Regions — CLASS 33
covering red sea, Persian gulf, - El Niño of 1997-98 where majority of 08/04/2024
Arabian Sea. Indian Ocean coral reefs were
• Atlantic Ocean covering western breached. OCEAN CURRENTS OF NORTH
Atlantic near Caribbean Sea & gulf of - El Niño of 2014-17 was the largest INDIAN OCEAN —
Mexico. bleaching event where the great • IN WINTERS —
barrier reef was bleached by 50%. - The north equatorial current ows
TYPES OF CORAL REEFS — westward above the equator
• Fringing, Barrier & Atoll. OCEAN CURRENTS & - The counter equatorial current ows
• Fringing reef — CIRCULATIONS — b/w North equatorial current & south
- A narrow coral platform lying close to • Ocean currents are the general equatorial current.
the coast & are discontinuous movement of surface water of the - The NE monsoon drives the water of
patches. ocean in a de nite direction over a bay of bengal & Arabian sea to
- For eg — Coral reefs of Caribbean long distances. circulate in an anti clockwise
Sea. • There are 2 types — warm & cold direction known as north east
• Barrier reef — ocean currents. monsoon drift.
- A wide coral platform located away - Warm ocean currents move from low • IN SUMMERS —
from the coast & is separated by a latitude to high latitude & vice versa. - The entire water of north Indian
lagoon. • Factors in uencing ocean Ocean comes under the in uence of
- For eg — Great barrier of Australia. currents — SW monsoon producing a clockwise
• Atoll reef — - Winds — A steady blowing of winds ow SW monsoon drift.
- Circular coral reefs developed drag the surface water in its direction - During this time, the north equatorial
around a sea mount or guyot. & brings about surface ow steadily current & counter equatorial current
- For eg — Islands of Paci c ocean, setting the water currents in motion. are nearly absent.
Maldives & Lakshadweep. - Variations in temperature, pressure,
salinity & density which causes the SIGNIFICANCE OF OCEAN
CORAL BLEACHING — water to move & reduce the CURRENTS —
• Corals receive their coloration from variations. Such di erences guide • The continuous movement of water
algae living in symbiotic relationship. the movements of ocean currents. from east to west in tropical regions
• Coral bleaching refers to the loss of - Coriolis force which causes ocean causes cold water upwelling along
color of corals due to stress induced currents to de ect right in northern the eastern parts resulting in drop of
expulsion of symbiotic algae. hemisphere & vice versa. temperature.
• Reasons — - Shape of the coast & topography - Accumulation of warm water along
- Changes in water temperature due to which modi es the direction of ocean the western parts of tropical oceans
thermal pollution, global warming. currents. lead to rise in the water temperature.
- Changes in salinity due to melting of • The western parts of the oceans in
glaciers leading to increased OCEAN CURRENTS OF THE WORLD tropical regions experience favorable
sedimentation. — conditions for the formation of
- Increased pollution • Don’t miss the lecture from 1:23:00 tropical cyclones. However, along
- Oceanic acidi cation till the end. the eastern parts the cyclones are
- Increased incidence of El Niño. • Please refer to PMF IAS also. less.
- Cyclones & storms • For eg — Caribbean Sea in Atlantic
- Dredging & Trawling Ocean, the coast of Philippines &
South china sea in paci c ocean.
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 • The warm conditions on the western - This brings deep & cold nutrient rich - They are also connected to surface
tropical waters support the growth of water to the surface helping large water currents in the regions of
coral reefs whereas along the scale growth of sh & large colonies upwelling. They are called great
eastern side the coral reefs are less. of birds. ocean conveyer belts.
• Near to sub tropical regions, the cold - For eg — Peru current across • AMOC — Atlantic Meridional
ocean currents along the western western coast of south America of Overturning Circulation —
margin of continents suppresses Peru & Chile has supported the - It is a part of the thermohaline
precipitation through desiccation shing industry & the fertilizer circulation in Atlantic Ocean.
e ect resulting in the formation of industry from bird droppings. - The recent AR6 of IPCC talks about
deserts along the western coast of • Ocean currents can be used in weakening of AMOC due to global
continents. For eg — navigation. warming.
- Atacama desert due to Peru current • They help in global distribution of • The factors responsible for
- Namib desert due to Benguela temperature & salinity. weakening —
current - The temperature di erence b/w
- Mojave desert due to California UPWELLING & DOWNWELLING — tropical & polar regions is decreasing
current • The o shore winds push the surface due to warming of Arctic ocean.
- Deserts of Australia due to west waters away & causes cold water - The north Atlantic drift is weakening.
Australian current. from the bottom to rise up to the - The excessive addition of fresh water
• The warm ocean currents merging surface known as upwelling. due to increased melting of ice in
with cold ocean currents create - Upwelling is more active in the polar regions reduces downwelling
favorable conditions for the regions of cold ocean currents. as the fresh water is less denser.
development of shing banks. For eg • The onshore winds piles up the • Impacts of weakening —
— water near to coast causing sinking - Western European countries will
- Grand bank near Newfoundland of water below the surface layer experience harsh winters & frozen
island due to the merging of Gulf known as downwelling. ports.
Stream with Labrador current. - It is more active in the regions where - The western parts of ocean
- Near the coast of Japan due to the warm & cold ocean currents. experience a rise in sea levels &
merging of Okhotsk & Oyashio - In polar regions ice formation leaves increased ooding.
currents. the water saltier & denser causing it - Increased occurrence of cyclones
• The merging of cold & warm ocean to sink triggering downwelling. with increased severity.
current results in fog formation which - Bleaching of coral reefs due to high
may obstruct ocean navigation. THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION — temperature of water.
• The warm ocean currents in • The deep ocean currents driven by - Disturbance of shing zone
temperate regions along western di erences in water density which is - Disturbance of marine ecosystem
coast of continents result in British controlled by temperature & salinity due to variations in temperature &
type of climate causing mild winters is known as thermohaline circulation. salinity.
& ice free ports. • The circulation begins near polar
• Near to the oceans of cold ocean regions of downwelling where ice WATER MASS —
currents which experience o shore formation leaves the water saltier & • It is a body of water with uniform
winds the surface water gets pushed denser leading to sinking. characteristics of temperature &
away & causes the cold water from - This underwater current moves in a salinity.
bottom to rise upwards to the single & continuous belt across • There are 3 types of air mass —
surface. di erent oceans.
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 • Surface — Antarctic surface water • This causes high pressure & low pressure & cold temperature
mass temperature in the eastern paci c conditions along the eastern paci c
• Intermediate — Atlantic intermediate ocean & low pressure & high & lower low pressure & higher high
water mass temperature in western paci c temperature along the western Paci c.
• Deep — South Paci c deep water ocean. • This causes very high precipitation in
mass • The resulting convective cell is Australia & India resulting in oods.
• Signi cance — known as Paci c walker circulation.
- It helps in the generation & • In normal conditions, the eastern EFFECTS OF EL NIÑO —
maintenance of thermohaline paci c coast experiences drought & • The disturbance of walker circulation
circulation the western good rainfall. causes the disturbance in global
- The movement of water mass helps • EL NIÑO — Small boy or Christ weather patterns & the convection
in distribution of temperature, salinity child — cells in other oceans are also
& oxygen. - Once in 2 to 7 years in October or disturbed.
- It helps in the generation of upwelling November, the ITCZ moves too • It causes drought & dry conditions
& downwelling. much south to the equator. along western paci c ocean
- The uniformity of conditions within - This results in weakening of trade impacting the monsoon in India &
water mass support plankton growth. winds & upwelling is reduced. Australia.
- The warm tropical surface waters - It causes dry conditions in SW Asia
Please refer to CLASS 6 NCERT — earlier owing towards west ows which triggers forest re or wild re
Major Domains of the Earth for back eastward & causes a further in India, Australia & Indonesia.
Oceans & Continents information. reduction in upwelling. • It causes heavy precipitation along
- This results in warm surface water o the coastal deserts coast of Peru &
CLASS 34 south & central American coast Chile.
08/04/2025 which is known as EL NIÑO. • The warm water inhibits the growth
- Its appearance causes air pressure of planktons & algae & suppresses
EL NIÑO & RELATED CONCEPTS — to drop over eastern paci c coast & upwelling devastating the marine
• In paci c ocean, ITCZ usually rise over western paci c coast. ecosystem.
remains near or above the equator. - This sea-saw variation of air pressure - The lack of planktons results in death
• Near the south American western & surface water temperature is of sh along Peru Chile coast, the
coast trade winds blow o shore & known ENSO — EL NIÑO Southern decomposition releases hydrogen
push the surface water westward Oscillation. sul de causing dark waters & making
away from the continent. - EL NIÑO causes heavy precipitation it toxic.
• To replace this water cold water along eastern paci c & drought - This causes a catastrophic impact on
upwells & the air above this cold condition along western coast. the shing & fertilizer industry of Peru
water is stabilized & convection is - After 1 or 2 years, the enhanced & Chile.
suppressed. Hadley circulation strengths the trade • It causes mass coral bleaching due
• The water ows westward as south winds which increase upwelling to higher temperature of ocean water
east trade winds blow towards west bringing back normal conditions. & disturbance of stable conditions.
paci c region. • During ELNIÑO, the high pressure
• These waters get heated & rises LA NIÑA — Small girl — conditions in Caribbean Sea, west
through convection causing cloud • EL NIÑO is usually followed by LA paci c & bay of bengal suppresses
formation & precipitation. NIÑA. the cyclone formation.
• The rising air ows eastward in • It is an intensi ed version of Paci c
upper troposphere & completes the walker circulation.
cell. • It refers to an intensi ed high
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 EL NIÑO MODOKI — - Less rainfall in Indonesia & Australia. - There are 2 position in Syzygy —
• While EL NIÑO is characterized by - It reduces the impact of El Niño on Conjunction & Opposition.
strong warming in eastern paci c, el India. - Conjunction refers to new moon
Nino moduli results in warming of - Higher chances of cyclone in Arabian position while opposition is full
central paci c with dry conditions Sea than bay of bengal. moon.
along eastern & western parts. • — IOD — Warm sea surface • Neap tides —
• It creates a 2 cell walker circulation temperature in eastern part than - The smaller high tides experienced
over the tropic paci c region with west. when sun & moon are perpendicular
precipitation at the central part & dry - Bad for India monsoon due to to each other.
conditions along eastern & western dryness & drought condition. - This position is also known as
parts. - More precipitation in Indonesia & quadrature.
• While El Nino results in diminished Australia. • Tides occurring twice a day are
hurricanes in the Caribbean Sea & - Increases the impact of El Niño on known as semi diurnal tides while
bay of bengal, El Niño modoki India. tides occurring once in a day are
results in increased incidence. known as diurnal tides.
- During this time, cyclones occur CLASS 35 • Signi cance of tides —
more in Arabian Sea than bay of 08/04/2025 - Generation of tidal energy.
bengal. - Navigation of tidal ports. For eg —
TIDES — Kolkata port.
MJO — MADDEAN JULIAN • The regular rise & fall of water level in - Helpful for ship building industry.
OSCILLATION — world’s ocean resulting from - Natural cleansing of coasts.
• Unlike El niño which is stationary, gravitational attraction of by moon & - Coastal erosion restricts delta
MJO is an eastward moving sun is known as tides. formation.
disturbance of clouds, rainfall, winds • The combined gravitational pull of - Helps in maintaining along the tidal
& pressure that traverses the planet sun & moon pulls the ocean water in range.
in the tropical regions & return to its a bulge.
initial staring point in 30 to 60 days - The centrifugal force due to earth’s LEGAL BOUNDARIES OF OCENAS —
on an average. revolution pulls another bulge in • Baseline — It is a water line with all
• MJO has 2 parts — Enhanced opposite direction. back waters, lagoons & deltas being
rainfall & Suppressed rainfall. - The bulges in one direction create part of the land.
• MJO can modulate the timing & low water in another direction. • Internal waters — It is landward
strength of Indian monsoon as well - As the earth rotates, this position of side of baseline.
as the impact of El Niño. high & low waters changes across • Territorial sea — Up to 12N.M from
the surface. baseline.
IOD — INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE — • Factors e ecting tides — - Sovereign jurisdiction over bottom,
• The di erence in sea surface - Gravitational pull of sun & moon. surface & air.
temperature b/w western Arabian - Relative positions of sun & moon. - However innocent passage is
Sea & the eastern Indian Ocean of - Centrifugal force earth’s revolution. allowed with restrictions.
Indonesia & Australia is known as - Coastline of continents • Contiguous zone — It is up to
Indian Ocean dipole. - Ocean bottom topography 24N.M from base line.
• Similar to MJO, it is a coupled ocean • Types of Tides — - Sovereign jurisdiction over bottom &
& atmospheric phenomena. - Spring & Neap tides. surface, not in air.
• + IOD — Warm sea surface in • Spring tides — • Exclusive economic zone — Up to
western part compared to east. - A very high tide occurring during 200N.M from baseline or up to the
- Good precipitation for India. Syzygy. edge of continental shelf.
- Resource exploration is allowed
below the surface.
• High seas — These are International
waters with common heritage of
humanity.
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 BIOGEOGRAPHY
1. Terms related to soil
2. Soil pro le
3. Soil genesis
4. Soil formation
5. Types of soil
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 BIOGEOGRAPHY — • R — Relief or Slope — It - The resultant soil is acidic & suitable
• It is the study of soil & its relation determines the thickness of soil. for plantation crops such as co ee,
with vegetation. - For eg — the soil of plains are thicker tea, rubber & spices.
• What is Soil? than the soil of mountains. • Podzolization —
- It refers to loose surface material • T — TIME — It determines the - It is observed in temperate regions &
consisting of inorganic & organic maturity of soil. higher altitude of tropical regions.
matter & is the source of water & - The slow decomposition of
nutrients for vegetation. CLASS 36 coniferous litter along with
- A true soil is characterized by distinct 09/04/2025 precipitation creates a soil solution
horizons & the capacity to support which is strongly acidic resulting in
vegetation. SOIL FORMATION PROCESSES — the formation of organic acids.
• Weathering —> Erosion —> - It leads to removal of Fe & Al along
REGOLITH — Sediments —> Soil. When sediments with organic matter expect Si.
• It is the layer of unconsolidated undergo a transformation into soil, - The top soil is rich in Si & strongly
material derived weathering of two processes occur: transformation acidic which is known as podzol soil.
parent rock. and translocation. • Calci cation —
• Transformation — - In the regions of temperate
HORIZON — - These are the processes which grasslands, where evaporation
• A distinguishable layer in the soil that involve change of soil constituents exceeds precipitation but the
has certain chemicals & a distinct from one form to another through evaporation is not too high, Calcium
color. weathering, breakdown, decay etc. carbonate is moved upwards through
- It includes — Eluviation, Illuviation, capillary action of water & is
SOIL PROFILE — Leaching, Laterisation, Podzolisation, deposited in the upper layers.
• The vertical arrangement of horizons Calci cation & Salinization. - This increases the fertility of soil.
down to the parent rock material is • Eluviation — - For eg — Prairies
known as soil pro le. - The downward transport process • Salinization —
through which the minerals are - It involves accumulation of highly
FACTORS EFFECTING SOIL removed from the top layer is known soluble sodium & magnesium salts in
FORMATION — as eluviation. soil which is active in the regions of
• PCORT • Illuviation — arid & semi arid conditions.
• P — Parent rock — It in uences - It is the reversal of eluviation where - The salt deposition occurs very near
texture, color, pH etc. of soil. the matter accumulates in the lower to the surface reducing fertility of
- For eg — Quartzite rocks results in horizons due to deposition of soil.
sandy soil. minerals in the lower layers. - It also active in the regions of faulty
- However the in uence of parent rock • Leaching — irrigation practice such Punjab &
decreases with time. - The percolating water removes Haryana.
• C — Climate — It a ects the soil humus & soluble bases from the • Gleyisation —
directly by controlling weathering, upper horizons & deposits them in - It is observed in water locked
percolation etc. & leads to the lower ones. conditions.
development of di erent horizons. - It is more seen humid areas. - It involves the accumulation of
• O — Organisms — Plant roots & • Laterisation — organic matter in the upper layers of
burrowing animals help in loosening - In hot & wet equatorial regions, the soil.
up of soil, thus promoting better air heavy leaching removes silica & - The color of top soil changes due to
circulation. For eg — Earthworm other minerals expect Fe & Al which reduction reactions.
accumulates at the surface leading
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 • Translocation —
- It involves the movement of soil constituents from one horizon to another within the soil pro le.

TRANSFORMATION

Precipitation > Evaporation Precipitation < Evaporation

Eluviation Calci cation

Illuviation Salinization
Leaching
Laterisation
Podzolisation

PEDSOIL

PADOCAL PEDALFER

Precipitation < Evaporation Precipitation > Evaporation

Desert soil Podzol soil

Chestnut soil Red & yellow soil
Chernozem Laterite soil
Prairie soil
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 INDIA — PHYSICAL
1. Physiography
2. Drainage system
3. Climate
4. Soil
 CLASS 37 HIMALAYAS — - The rivers of Himalayas are in youth
08/04/2025 • Origin — stage with high energy levels & high
- Please refer to C — C divergent erosional capacity.
PHYSIOGRAPHY OF INDIA — boundary from Plate tectonics. - The recent adjustment in the height
• Mountains — Himalayas, Aravalli, • Phases of upliftment — of peaks.
Western & Eastern ghats, Central - There are 3 phases of upliftment of - Recent drying up of lakes of tibet.
Indian & Purvanchal. Himalayas — • Fractures or faults in Himalayas —
• Plateaus — Deccan, Malwa, Chota - Before this, there were already trans - ITSZ — Indo Tsangpo suture zone
Nagpur & Meghalaya. Himalayas present which were - MCT — Main central thrust
• Plains — River & Coastal plains formed due to subduction of - MBT — Main boundary thrust
- River plains include plains of Indus, eurasian plate - MFT — Main frontal thrust
Ganga & Brahmaputra. - The Trans-Himalayas includes the • Division of Himalayas —
- Coastal plains include western & Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar - Trans, Great, Middle, Shiwaliks &
eastern. ranges, all of which are volcanic in Purvanchal.
• Islands — Andaman Nicobar & origin, as shown by the volcanic - Trans Himalayas — They were
Lakshadweep rocks in the region. formed before great Himalayas & its
- Phase 1 — 120 to 70 million years rocks are volcanic in nature.
INDIA AS A SUB CONTINENT — ago — Great Himalayas were - Great Himalayas — Tallest & longest
• A large landmass that is part of a formed. mountain range. It extends for 3,200
continent but is considered separate - Phase 2 — 30 to 25 million years k.m from west to east I.e Nanga
from rest of the continent with ago — Middle Himalayas were Parbat to Namcha Barwa.
distinctive characteristics. formed. - Middle Himalayas — They are also
• For eg — Indian sub continent, - Phase 3 — 20 to 2 million years ago known as lesser Himalayas or
Alaska continent etc. — Shiwaliks were formed. Himachal. Its average height is 6,000
• Reasons for considering India as a • Shape of Himalayas — meters. It includes Mahabharata
sub continent — - Arcuate with syntaxial bend on both range (in Nepal), Da a & Mishmi hills
- Geographical reasons — the sides. This bending is due to — (in Arunachal Pradesh).
Geographically, Indian sub continent - The maximum push o ered at both - Shiwaliks — They are also known as
has well de ned physical boundaries the ends of Indian peninsula during outer Himalayas with an average
such as Himalayas & Hindukush in its north ward drift. height of 1,000 meters. It includes
the north, Purvanchal mountain in - In NW, it is due to the Aravallis & Jammu hills.
the east, the Indian Ocean in south. along NE the Assam ranges. Both of - Purvanchal — These are the hills of
- Geological reasons — The them acted as the 2 extended arms north east expect Arunachal
countries of Indian sub continent while the central area sagged giving Pradesh. They were formed due to
share a common geological history. an arcuate shape. collision with Arakan yoma. It
- Political reasons — These countries - The syntaxial bend is a deep knee includes Naga hills, Mizo hills,
share a common political identity i.e bend where the strike of the ridges Meghalaya plateau.
south Asia — SAARC. suddenly turns at right angles. - Please note that Meghalaya plateau
- Historical & cultural reasons — - It is also the regions where the rivers includes Garo hills, Khasi hills &
Shared common culture like take U turn. Jaintia hills over it.
language, festivals, food habits & • Evidences of rising Himalayas — • Regional division of Himalayas —
historically ruled by large empires - Frequent earthquakes in Himalayas. - Punjab or Jammu Himalayas
such as Mauryas, Mughals etc. - Continued disturbance in topography - Kumaon Himalayas
causing landslides. - Nepal Himalayas
- Nepal Himalayas
- Please refer to diagram.
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 WESTERN HIMALAYAS EASTERN HIMALAYAS

Indus & Kali Teesta & Brahmaputra

Taller Shorter than western Himalayas

Wider Narrower

It rises gradually, thus less steepness. It rises abruptly, thus more steepness.

Lower snow line Higher snow line

Middle Himalayas & shiwaliks are separate Middle Himalayas & shiwaliks are merged

Lower precipitation Higher precipitation

Temperature is lower Temperature is higher

Vegetation is coniferous Vegetation is rainforest or evergreen

Biodiversity is less Biodiversity is more

Podzol soil Laterite soil

PENINSULAR INDIA — CLASS 37 - It is divided into — Rajasthan plains,

• The peninsular region of India is a 10/04/2025 Punjab — Haryana plains Ganga
great complex of ancient rocks plains & Brahmaputra plains.
which has existed as a single rigid PLAINS OF INDIA — • Rajasthan Plains —
block for millions of years. • Indus, Northern & Brahmaputra - It is widely accepted that Rajasthan
• It extends from Gujarat in the west to plains. plains are formed due to the
Meghalaya in the east & from plains • Northern Plains — sedimentary depositions of an earlier
in the north to the southern tip of - The northern plains are the largest river which may tributary of Indus,
India in the south. alluvial plains in the world. which was also referred to
• The peninsular region was subjected - They are formed by the deposition of mythological Saraswati river.
to a few episodes of tectonic sediments being brought by - The river may have dried up to
activities which are as follows — Himalayan rivers into the basin which natural or anthropogenic factors.
- Submergence of western sides of was remnant of Tethys sea. - The monsoon winds blowing parallel
western ghats. - This basin existed b/w the Himalayas to Aravallis will not cause
- Formation of rift valleys such as & peninsular block. precipitation in this region.
Narmada, Tapi etc. - The rivers of Himalayas being in - The western part of Rajasthan plains
- Formation of Deccan traps due to youth stage carry high amount of with desert proper is known as
the eruption of basaltic magma when sediments due to erosion & they Marusthali while the eastern part is
Indian plate encountered reunion deposit these sediments once they known as Rajasthan Bagar which is a
hotspot. enter the plains. semi arid region due to the presence
• Please refer to table on next page. - The northern plains extend for a total of river Luni.
of 3,200 K.m. of which Indian part
accounts for 2,400 K.m.
 WESTERN GHATS EASTERN GHATS

Tapi to kanyakumari Mahanadi to Nilgiris

Taller Shorter

They are continuous in length. Discontinuous or broken because of the presence of rivers
which cut them.

Broader Narrower

Higher precipitation Lower precipitation

Evergreen vegetation Deciduous vegetation

Biodiversity is rich Biodiversity is less

Closer to the coast, they come closest at north Karnataka Away from the coast

Height increase towards south Height increase towards north

Highest point is Anamudi peak at Anamalai hill in Kerala. Highest point is Mahendragiri or Jindhagada Peak.

Ranges are as follows as — Ranges are as follows —

• Sahaydris in Maharashtra & Karnataka • Mahendragiri in Odhisa
• Nilgiris at the junction of Karnataka, Kerala & Tamil Nadu • Nallamala in Telangana & Andhra pradesh
• Cardamom hills in Tamil Nadu • Palkonda in south Andhra pradesh
• Shevroy in Tamil Nadu
The Western And Eastern Ghats meet at the Nilgiri Hills in southern India.

• Punjab — Haryana plains — - In this region, the smaller river COASTAL PLAINS —
- These are parts of Indus plains in streams disappear & start to ow • These are the plains formed by
India made up of di erent “DOABS” underground. deposition of sediments brought by
of Indus system. • Terai — peninsular rivers.
- Please refer to diagram. - A marshy region after bhabar where • Please refer to table on next page.
• Ganga plains — the rivers start to reappear.
- It extends from Delhi to Kolkata. - It is very fertile & is widely used for EVOLUTION OF HIMALAYAN
- It has 4 parts from west to east, agriculture of rice & sugarcane. DRAINAGE —
these are — Doab, Rohikhand, - The region is water locked & is prone • The widely accepted regarding the
Avadh & lower Ganga plains. to water borne diseases. evolution of Himalayas proposes the
• Brahmaputra plains — • Khadar — existence of single river all along the
- They extend from Sadya to Dhubri. - It is an alluvial plain just next to river entire stretch of Himalayas owing
- Covers entire north Assam. valley & is made up of fresh alluvium from east to west known as Indo
which gets replenished every year. Brahm or Shiwalik river. It drained
TYPES OF RIVER PLAINS — - It is more fertile. into gulf of sindh.
• Bhabar —> Terai —> Khadar —> • Bhangar — • This earlier drainage system was
Bangar. - It is a river plain away from the river disturbed by 3 main events —
• Bhabar — valley & is made up of older alluvium - More rising of western Himalayas
- It is the region of porous gravels & & is more settled. - Up liftment of Potwar plateau & Delhi
boulders deposited by rivers entering - Less fertile. ridge.
the plains from mountains. - Down-thrusting of Malda gap or
Garo Rajmahal gap.
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 WESTERN COASTAL PLAINS EASTERN COASTAL PLAINS

Extends from Kutch to Kanayakuamri Extends from Sunder-bans to Kanayakuamri

Narrow Wider
Average width is 65 K.m. Average width is 150 to 200 K.m.

More no. of estuaries More no. of deltas

They are intercepted are mountains, making them They are continuous.
discontinuous.

Western coast is broken or Indented Eastern coast is smooth

It has many natural ports. It has man made ports.

Erosional activity is dominant, thus also known as Depositional activity is dominant, thus also known as
submergence coast. Exception — Malabar coast of Kerala. emergent coast.

Broader continental shelf Narrower continental shelf

Higher precipitation Lower precipitation

- This divided the entire river into 3 • Antecedent rivers are those rivers • Rectangular —
river systems — Indus, Ganga & which are able to maintain its coarse - It seen where the river takes a sharp
Brahmaputra & their tributaries. in spite of change in its topography. right turn.
- For eg — Indus, Kosi, Satluj & - It is prevalent in plateau regions with
EVOLUTION OF PENINSULAR Brahmaputra which originate from high structural control.
DRAINAGE — tibet & cut through Himalayas - For eg — Mahanadi, Krishna, Kaveri,
• The peninsular drainage system is forming deep gorge. Godavari etc.
in uenced by 3 major events — • Consequent rivers are those which • Trellis —
- Submergence of western side of follow the slope in topography. - The main river ows in a rift valley &
western ghats which disturbed the • For eg — Peninsular rivers the tributaries join at 90°.
symmetrical pattern of earlier river - For eg — Narmada & Tapi.
system. DRAINAGE PATTERN — • Radial —
- Upliftment of Himalayas which • It refers to ow characteristics of a - A drainage pattern in which di erent
caused the Northern portion of river. rivers are originating & owing in
vindhyas to tilt towards north & • Types — Dendritic, Rectangular, di erent directions from a mountain
caused the further deepening of rift Trellis, Radial & Parallel. or high land.
valleys of Narmada & tapi. • Dendritic — - For eg — Amarkantak where
- The slight tilting of peninsular block - The rivers & its tributaries owing Narmada & sone rivers originate.
towards south east direction causing through plain area of alluvial soil form • Parallel —
slope in bay of bengal drainage. a dense network appearing branches - The rivers ow parallel to each other
of a tree or veins of a leaf. & enter oceans.
• Please refer to table on next page. - It is prevalent in the regions with lack - For eg — West owing rivers of
of structural control. western ghats.
- For eg — Ganga & Indus system.
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 HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE SYSTEM PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Himalayas are the origin. Originates from peninsular block.

They are perennial I.e throughout the year. They are seasonal.

They are fed by glaciers. They are rain fed.

River basin & catchment area is large. River basin & catchment area is small.

They form V shaped valleys due to vertical erosion. They form shallow valley.

High meandering since they ow through plains Low meandering since they ow through plateau

They are dominated by youthful stage. They are dominated by mature & old stage.

Huge no. of deltas are formed Smaller no. of deltas or estuaries

They are antecedent in nature. They are consequent in nature.

In terms of drainage pattern, they follow dendritic pattern They follow rectangular or trellis pattern.

CLASS 39 due to which it is known as the - During summers, high temperature &
09/04/2025 monsoon climate. low pressure attracts winds from
- Jet streams — The sub tropical Arabian Sea.
• Do watch the lecture till 2:16:00 for westerly jet streams & tropical - During winters, the low temperature
mapping part marking rivers of India. easterly jet streams in uence the & high pressure causes winds to
winter & summer weather conditions blow from plains towards sea.
CLIMATE OF INDIA — in India.
• Factors e ecting Indian climate — - Cyclones — The tropical cyclones MODERN THEORY —
- Latitudinal extent of 30° is largely impact the coastal states of • Winter conditions (Nov to Feb) —
responsible for varied climatic India. - Temperature is low & pressure is high
conditions from tropical to sub - Events such as — El Niño, La Niña, due the sun’s position over tropic of
tropical types. MJO & IOD are responsible for Capricorn.
- Location near to Indian Ocean — It variation in Indian monsoon. - Anticyclonic conditions cause winds
causes the major part of the country to blow outward from the land over
to experience moderating e ect of CLASS 40 which winds are subsiding.
oceans. 10/04/2025 - The winds dry & cold with clear sky.
- Presence of Himalayas — The - The sub tropical westerly jet stream
Himalayan range protects India from MECHANISM OF MONSOON — is strong & well established. It is
central Asia during winters. It also • The word monsoon is derived from bifurcated into 2 branches over north
acts as a major factor in the Arabic word Mousam which means & south of Tibetan plateau.
formation of Indian monsoon. season. - The southern branch is stronger & is
- Other topographical features — • Classical theory — located along northern Ganga plains.
Such as western ghats, Aravallis etc. - This explains the phenomena of - This intensi es surface anti cyclonic
causes local change in precipitation. monsoon as huge land & sea breeze circulations causing winds to blow
- Monsoon winds — It is the most due to the reversal of temperature & from land to sea I.e from north east
dominating factor of Indian climate pressure conditions in northern to south west which are known as
plains from summer to winter. north east monsoon.
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 • Spring conditions (Feb to Apr) — - In some regions, due to local stability DISTRIBUTION OF SW MONSOON —
- The land has started to heat up & the conditions & also due to winds • Bay of bengal branch —
weather is hot & dry. blowing parallel to topography a - It moves parallel to coromandel
- The sub tropical westerly jet stream break in monsoon occurs. coast causing no precipitation along
begins to weaken & the southern • Autumn condition (Sept to Oct) — Tamil Nadu & Lower Andhra Pradesh.
branch eventually moves entirely to - This season is also known as season - From KG delta, precipitation
the north of Tibetan plateau. of retreating monsoon. increases towards west bengal.
- Temperature starts to rise & pressure - ITCZ or monsoon trough starts to - Along Ganga delta, bay of bengal is
falls. move back gradually towards the divided into eastern & western by
- This condition leads to convection in south. Himalayan foothills.
some regions resulting in pre - This also brings back the maximum - The eastern branch hits Meghalaya
monsoon showers. extent up to which south west winds plateau perpendicularly causing very
• Summer conditions (May to Aug) blow. heavy precipitation.
— - The south west winds slowly get - The western branch moves across
- Low pressure cells are completely replaced by north east winds. Ganga plains & precipitation
developed over the northern plains & - The sub tropical westerly jet streams decreases from east to west.
desert. reappear to the south of Tibetan - Precipitation increases towards
- ITCZ shifts north & is lying over plateau creating dry conditions. Himalayas from south to north.
Ganga plains as the monsoon - The high temperature with dry • Arabian sea branch —
trough. conditions in October along the - It hits western ghats at a right angle
- This attracts southern trade winds northern plains is known as October causing heavy precipitation along the
towards the north of equator which heat. western side.
after crossing the equator turns right - Along eastern side, the descending
under the in uence of Coriolis force CHARACTERISTICS OF MONSOON winds result in rain shadow e ect
& start to blow as south west — causing dry conditions.
monsoon winds. • The onset of monsoon is a gradual - The Arabian sea branch advances
- The temperature strati cation in air process & withdrawal is more towards Gujarat & Rajasthan & blows
does not allow upward movement of gradual. parallel to Aravallis resulting in very
air preventing major storms. • The precipitation decreases from sea less precipitation.
- The tropical easterly jet streams to land. - Arabian sea branch meets bay of
which a low level jet stream existing • The duration of monsoon decreases bengal branch near Agra & the
over south Asia & Africa in summers from south to north. combined branch causes
disturbs the strati ed air & causes • Breaks in the monsoon is a common precipitation in the regions to the
the change of divergence to characteristic. north.
convergence on the surface. • Temporal variations —
- Low pressure depression in bay of - Variation of rainfall with time at a WESTERN DISTURBANCES —
bengal are also responsible for location. • It is active from October to April.
disturbing the strati ed air. • Spatial variation — • During the winters, the northern India
- This causes bursting of monsoon - Variation of rainfall from one region to experiences cold & dry conditions
which is the sudden onset of another. along with strong westerly jet
moisture laden winds associated streams.
with thunder & lightning. • The Mediterranean region receives
- This monsoon gradually gets rainfall due to onshore westerlies &
distributed throughout India. temperate cyclones.
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 • Sub tropical westerly jet streams • Relief — southern Gujarat, western Madhya
along the Mediterranean regions pick - The soil of Himalayas are thin while Pradesh, parts of Telangana.
up the moisture content & low the soil of Ganga plains are very
pressure conditions & are brought to thick. LATERITE SOIL —
India. • Time — • High precipitation with some dry
• When the winds accumulate near - Khadar is fresh alluvium with not conditions causing laterization.
north west Himalayas it causes much layers while bhangar is older • It is rich in Fe, Al & potash.
precipitation. alluvial with some layers. • Poor in Si, Bases such as Na, Ca, K
• The precipitation due western & humus.
disturbance decreases from west to TYPES OF SOIL — • It is acidic in nature but suitable for
east along the Ganga valley. • Refer to diagram in the lecture itself. plantation crops.
• Signi cance — • 5 + 2 = Alluvial, Red, Laterite, Black, • Region are western ghats, parts of
- It causes abrupt decrease in northern Arid + Forest or Mountain soil & Odhisa, Meghalaya & southern part
plains. Peaty soil. of Aravallis.
- It causes snowfall in Himalayas. - Peaty soil is found in deltas.
- It is good for winter crops of wheat & • All of them are poor in nitrogen. ALLUVIAL SOIL —
mustard. • All major soils are poor in humus • Due to the deposition of sediments
- It might cause cloud burst & ash content. Exception — Black, Forest from rivers.
oods. For eg — 2010 Leh cloud & Peaty soil. • Poor in N2 & humus.
burst. • Iron is rich red & laterite soil. • Not much marked di erences of
layers.
IMPACT OF EL NINO, LA NINA, MJO RED SOIL — • Regions are Ganga & coastal plains.
& IOD ON INDIAN MONSOON — • The climate should be dry with
• Please refer to oceanography. moderate to low precipitation. ARID & DESERT SOIL —
• Parent rock material is granite & • Due to high evaporation & low
CLASS 41 gneiss. moisture content salts get
11/04/2025 • It is rich in Fe, Al & Mg. accumulated in the top layer.
• Poor in N2, humus & P4. • Poor in N2 & humus.
FACTORS EFFECTING SOIL OF • Regions include southern Karnataka, • Regions include north west
INDIA — parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan.
• Parent rock material — Tamil Nadu, Jharkhand, Odhisa &
- Deccan traps have resulted in black North east. MOUNTAIN OR FOREST SOIL —
soil. • In case of mountains, the thickness
- Granite rocks of peninsular plateau BLACK SOIL — is very less.
has resulted in red soil. • Black color due to the presence of • Rich in organic content.
• Climate — titaniferous magnetite. • They are acidic in nature due to
- High rainfall & temperature in • Parent rock material is basaltic rock podzolization.
western ghats has resulted in laterite of Deccan traps. • Regions include Himalayas, parts of
soil. • It is rich in humus content. Vindhyas, Satpuras & parts of
- Lower rainfall in desert, Rajasthan • Poor in N2 & P4. western ghats.
has resulted in saline soil. • It is sticky when wet & form crack
• Organism — when dry. Thus also known as self PEATY SOIL —
- The soil of central India are rich in ploughing soil. • Found in the regions submerged in
humus content than the soils of rain • Regions include whole of water I.e along deltas.
shadow regions of western ghats. Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, • Rich in organic matter & is saline in
some regions.
• Regions include deltas of West
Bengal, Odhisa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu & Kerala.
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 ECONOMIC & HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
1. Water resources
2. Natural Vegetation
3. Agriculture
4. Mineral & Energy resources
5. Industries & Transportation
6. Human geography
 OCEAN RESOURCES

MINERAL ENERGY FOOD FRESH WATER

DISSOLVED DEPOSITED Petroleum Fish • We can extract

fresh water by
Salts such as CONTINENTAL OCEANIC BASIN Natural gas Prawns
desalinization
NaCl SHELF
which includes
Na Sand • PMN — Poly Tidal energy Crabs RO &
metallic Electrodialysis.
Cl Gravels O shore energy Lobsters
nodules. They • RO — Reverse
are also known Wave energy Sea weeds Osmosis
as manganese
Ca Mud OTEC — Ocean
nodules
thermal energy
because they
conversion
are rich in
Mg Sea shells manganese. Biomass energy

Br Pearls
• PMS — Poly Thorium
metallic
I Placer deposits sul des. REE — Rare earth
such as gold elements

Phosphorite — Heavy water —

Deposits of P4. Deuterium

Magnetite — It is
a form of Fe.

• PMN — Poly Metallic Nodules found only in the continental shelf, warm surface waters and the cold deep
- Aggregate of metallic minerals found that’s why petroleum & natural gas are waters of the ocean to generate
on the oceanic oor in a widely found only there. electricity.
distributed manner. • In regions such as countries and - Ammonia is utilized in this method
- They are rich in Mn, Fe, Cu, Ni, Co Libya, how can we locate the due to its low boiling point, which
etc. That’s why they are known as location of the continental shelf on facilitates its conversion into heat
poly metallic nodules. land? and steam.
• PMS — Poly Metallic sul des - They may have been a part of the • Biomass energy — It is growing
- They are found near to volcanic Tethys Sea continental shelf. algae at a large scale on oceanic
mountains & hydrothermal vents & • Electricity from ocean waves is surface & extracting biofuels from
are rich in S, Cu, Pb & Zn. generated by various devices that them such as biodiesel.
harness the kinetic energy of waves, - It is also known as marine biomass
ENERGY — converting their motion into energy.
• Petroleum & Natural gas are electricity through mechanisms like • Thorium — It is a nuclear fuel which
formed under high temperature & turbine. can undergo nuclear ssion.
high pressure under anaerobic • OTEC is a renewable energy • It is found in the beach soils of
conditions. They are formed when technology that harnesses the Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
microorganism related to temperature di erence between the Odhisa & West Bengal as Monazite.
zooplanktons & algae which are
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 • REE — Rare earth elements • Technological issues — INDIA’S FISHING INDUSTRY —
- They are a group of 17 metallic - Extraction of PMN • Potential —
elements comprising scandium, - Thorium extraction & utilisation - India is the second largest producer
cerium, titanium etc. - Extraction of REE of sh in the world after China.
• Deuterium — It is used as coolant & - Desalinization methods - The majority of shing in India is
moderator in nuclear reactors. - Wave energy OTEC conducted in inland areas. Marine
- All of the above require high-end shing also possesses signi cant
FOOD — technology, and the cost-bene t ratio potential due to the extensive
• Seaweed, or macro algae, refers to is also lower. coastline (7,516.6 kilometers), but
thousands of species of • Environmental issues — there are certain challenges that
macroscopic, multicellular, marine - Due to oil spill need to be addressed.
algae. - Deep ocean mining, • Problems —
- It is least utilized. - Unsustainable shing - Low investment
- More nutritious. - Thermal pollution - Manual shing
- Seaweed holds great promise for the - Disturbance of coral reef - Traditional methods such as manual
future, particularly in ensuring global boats
food security. CLASS 42 - Less infrastructure
12/04/2025 - Absence of cold storage &
ISSUES ASSOCIATED WITH transportation facilities.
OCEANIC RESOURCES — FISHING — - Not having e cient transportation
• Distribution — • Conditions favorable for growth of network.
- Petroleum and natural gas are sh in temperate regions — - Warm ocean water because India is
distributed evenly throughout the - Shallow & wider continental shelf. a tropical country.
globe, leading to a number of issues For eg — North east USA & Canada. - Higher self consumption
such as — - Mixing of warm & cold ocean - Unorganized sector
- Price control currents. - Fishing in India is a caste based
- Energy insecurity - Regions of coastal upwelling which occupation.
- Wars & con icts bring nutrients from deep water. - More focused on inland shing.
- Limits to growth - Moderate temperatures are helpful in - Technological issues
- Impact on International relations preservation of shes. - Climatic conditions: During the entire
• Poly Metallic Nodules — - Rugged interior land which is not monsoon season, the winds are
- They are widely distributed but suitable for agriculture. For eg — exceptionally strong, which impairs
concentrated along few regions only Japan. shermen’s ability to work and poses
such as — - Indented or broken coastline which a risk of cyclone formation, both
- Peru basin are suitable for natural harbors. before and after the monsoon.
- Near cook island in Paci c ocean - Forest resources for boat making. - Territorial issues with neighbors —
- Clarion Clipperton zone b/w - Presence of coral reefs which Sri Lanka & Pakistan.
California & Hawaii provides natural habitat. - However, the Government of India
- Central Indian Ocean • Why Fishing is not well developed has implemented numerous
• Physical Barriers such as — in tropical regions? initiatives, including: Blue revolution,
- Volcanic mountains - High temperature regions which are NFDB NMFP, IDMF, Matsya
- Mid oceanic ridges not suitable for plankton growth & Sampada Yojna & Sagar Mala
- Very cold temperature sh preservation. project.
- High pressure - High diversity of shes making it less
- Absence of sunlight economical.
- Too deep to go - Low investment & Infrastructure.
- Low demand
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 BLUE REVOLUTION — MATSYA SAMPADA YOJNA — as well as ground because it is made
• It was a part of 5th & 6th ve year • To promote aquaculture. up of hard rocks.
plan. • Bene t all shermen with social - El Nino, La Nina will impact
• Implanted in 2 phases — security & to expand coverage to precipitation.
- First phase from 1980 to 1991. include accidental insurance. - Peninsular India is rainfall dependent
- Second phase from 1991 to 2005. because of the seasonal nature of
• During the initial phase, the Fishing SAGAR MALA — peninsular rivers while Ganga plains
Farming Development Agency • It was launched by the GoI in 2015. receive water throughout the year
(FFDA) was established. • It aims to transform India's coastal because Himalayan rivers are
Subsequently, during the second infrastructure, enhance port perennial.
phase, the Fish Seed Development connectivity, and boost maritime • Demand side —
Program (FSDP) was established. trade and connectivity. - Water intensive activities such as
• The initial phase was predominantly agriculture. For eg — Sugarcane in
focused on inland shing, while the FRESH WATER — Maharashtra & Rice in Kaveri delta.
subsequent phase encompassed • Earth is also known as blue planet - Excessive extraction of ground water
both inland and marine shing. because 2/3rd is covered by water. for agriculture & urban areas.
- The second phase targeted the • 97% — Saline water - Water pollution deceases the
coastal states of west bengal, • 03% — Fresh water availability of good quality water.
Gujarat, Kerala, Tamil Nadu & Andhra - 68.7% — Ice caps - Rapid & unplanned urbanization
Pradesh. - 30.1% — Ground water causing the destruction of natural
• The nal result was that the output - 01% — 0.3% Surface water lakes. For eg — Bangalore
was doubled. - 87% — Lakes - Deforestation which increases
- 11% — Swamps surface run o & deceases ground
NFDB — - 02% — Rivers water recharge.
• National shery development board • Surface water withdrawals — - Global warming & climate change is
in 2006. - 89% — Agriculture e ecting the availability of good
- 09% — Domestic quality of water.
NMFP — - 02% — Industrial - Interstate disputes.
• National shies marine policy in • Groundwater withdrawals —
2016. - 92% — Agriculture WATER STRESS —
- 05% — Industrial • It occurs when the demand for water
IDMF — - 03% — Domestic exceeds the available amount during
• Integrated development & a certain period or when poor quality
management of shes. FRESH WATER PROBLEMS IN INDIA restricts its use.
• It is also referred to as Mission Neel — • Measured using Falkan mark index
Kranti. • Supply side — or indicator.
• 2015 to 2020. - Nature of monsoon • How to measure?
• It was aimed at enhancing the - Temporal & spatial variation - Per capita availability of water.
economic prosperity of the country - Physical features such as Thar - Per person / Per year.
by augmenting sheries, sh farmers desert, rain shadow region of - If less than 1,700 m3/person/year
& contribute towards food & western ghats, coromandel coast, then we consider it as water scarcity.
nutritional security. peninsular region with less capacity - If less than 1,000 m3/person/year
to hold the water both surface then we consider it as water scarce.
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 • According to 2011 census, it was harming the environment. • Sustainable agriculture —
1545 m3/person/year. - It involves conservation & - It involves practices which make use
• India is the 13th most stressed management of both surface & of locally available resources such as
country in the world. ground water using water shed as a indigenous crops, cropping as per
single unit. rainfall, drip irrigation, sprinkler
REGIONAL WATER STRESS INDIA — • Rainwater harvesting — irrigation, mulching.
• Please refer to table below. - It is a technique of collection & - Please note that mulching refers to
storage of rainwater into natural the practice of covering soil with a
WATER MANAGEMENT — reservoirs or tanks or in ltration of layer of agricultural waste.
• RRR — Reduce, Reuse & Recycle. surface water into sub surface or • River linking —
• Reforestation & Deforestation Aquifer. - NRLP — National river linking
• Reducing pollution - Please note that Aquifer refers to project.
• Water shed management — rocks below the ground which are - It was proposed by KL Rao former
- An area of land where all the water, capable of holding the water. irrigation minister.
whether it’s under the ground or - Di erent methods of rainwater - This project aims to transfer water
drains o it, collects into one water harvesting are rooftop methods, from surplus basin to de cit basin
body. recharge pits, underground tanks, involving 30 links connecting 37
- Water shed development is all about surface water collection through rives.
using land and water wisely to ponds, lakes etc. - The Himalayan component involve
produce as much as possible without 14 links & the peninsular component

PARTS OF INDIA REASONS FOR WATER SCARCITY

NORTH INDIA • Water intensive crops due to green revolution

• Erratic monsoon
• High population density
• Industries polluting water bodies
• The Yamuna River stretches before and after Delhi, it has
become severely polluted.
• Rapid urbanization
• Faulty irrigation practice
WEST INDIA • There is natural scarcity of water in south India. Why?
- It lies within the rain shadow region of western ghats.
- Water intensive crops such as sugarcane in Maharashtra.
- Deforestation in Madhya Pradesh
- Arid & semi arid climatic conditions

SOUTH INDIA • It lies within the rain shadow region of western ghats.
• Plateau region, thus more surface run o .
• Rapid urbanization
• Inter state dispute. For eg — Kaveri river dispute b/w
Karnataka & Tamil Nadu.

EAST INDIA • Mining & Deforestation

NORTH EAST INDIA • Nil water stress

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 Involves 16 links. • The tall trees are like little sun- such as olive, oranges, grapes etc.
• Advantages — blockers, blocking out most of the
- Flood management in north India sunlight and keeping the MIXED FOREST —
- Drought management in south India undergrowth nice and low. • It is a mix of bread leaf deciduous &
- Electricity production • Densely growing coniferous forests. Why?
- Irrigation • High biodiversity - Temperature & moisture are
- Inland navigation • Regions are — moderate & uniform throughout the
• Why not implemented or issues? - Amazon basin year.
- Economical issues — It requires a - Ecuador • Regions are —
huge amount of capital for - Venezuela - North east USA
construction as well as maintenance. - Congo basin - Western Europe
- Environmental issues — It will - Parts of west Africa - Eastern Asia
impact the river ecology of both the - South east Asia - Western Canada
regions — surplus as well as
de cient. MONSOON FORESTS — CONIFEROUS FORESTS —
- Construction of dams & reservoirs • Characterized by de nite dry • Largest single patch of vegetation
causes submergence of vegetation, season. because population is very less.
loss of wildlife, shifting of local • Rainfall is concentrated in few • Covers 1/3rd of all the vegetation on
communities, compensation cost months only. the surface of earth.
etc. • Deciduous type of trees because • Coniferous leaves to shed o snow
- Inter state water disputes they shed leaves during a particular easily.
- Tribal community displacement season. • Leaves are also conical to reduce
• Regions are — heat loss.
CLASS 43 - India • They stay green all year round
11/04/2025 - Indo China because they don’t lose their leaves
- Eastern Africa when it snows.
NATURAL VEGETATION — - North Australia • Very low biodiversity because low
• It depends upon temperature & temperature does not allow variety of
amount of rainfall. MEDITERRENEAN FORESTS — species to grow.
• They are broadly divided into 5 • Climate is dry summer & wet winter. - Did you know that hot temperatures
categories — • Vegetation type includes short support a wide variety of life, while
- Evergreen rainforest bushes, grass & deep root system cold temperatures are unstable
- Monsoon or deciduous plants. because any disease could wipe out
- Mediterranen • It stays green all year round because a species? That’s why diversity is so
- Mixed in summer, it absorbs moisture important for maintaining stability.
- Coniferous through its deep roots, and in winter, • Regions are —
• Please refer to map for distribution. there's always enough rain anyway. - Siberia
• Regions are — - Russia
TROPICAL EVERGREEN FOREST — - Mediterranean Sea - Scandinavia
• Climatic condition is high - California - Canada
temperature & high precipitation - Central Chile - Alaska
throughout the year. - South Africa - Some patches in southern
• They are evergreen because they - Southern & Western Australia hemisphere
don’t have any speci c season of • The type of vegetation found here is • Also known as Taiga or Boreal
shading leaves. Chaparral which includes citrus fruits forests.
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 LUMBERING ACTIVITY — TROPICAL EVERGREEN FORESTS Found at junction of Karnataka, Tamil
• It refers to extraction of timber from • Precipitation is very high. Nadu & Kerala.
forests. • If rainfall — - Sandalwood
- Timber refers to wood used in - More than 250 cm — Wet evergreen - Bamboo
carpentry. - 200 to 250 cm — Semi evergreen
• Why it is more dominant in - Winter rainfall — Dry evergreen TROPICAL THORN —
temperate countries, not in tropical • Regions are — • Precipitation is less than 70 cm.
countries? - Western side of western ghats • Xerophytic vegetation
- Tropical regions have hard wood & - Parts of west bengal, odhisa, Assam, • Regions are —
temperate regions have soft wood. & Meghalaya. - Rajasthan
- Hard wood is denser which is di cult - North east India - Gujarat
to transport & work upon. - Andaman Nicobar - Rain shadow regions of Maharashtra
- Soft wood is lighter, thus easy to - Coromandel coast & Karnataka
transport & work upon. • Trees include — Mahogany, Ebony, • Trees are —
- High diversity in tropical regions. Laurel, Rosewood, Rubber, Jamun, - Khair, Axlewood, Neem, Babool,
Thus, there is no easy replacement Irul. Prosopis Juli ora, Date palm.
of species in tropical regions while in • Please note that — - Prosopis Juli ora is an invasive
temperate countries there is an easy - Laurel is also known as water tree species. It dominates other species
replacement of spices because of because it stores water in its trunk. using local climatic conditions.
less diversi cation among them. - Rose wood is known as sheehsam in
- Thick forests of tropical region make north India & Indian rosewood in MONTANE FORESTS —
it di cult to extract, process & south India. • Found at high altitudes or latitudes.
transport. In temperate countries, • Dry evergreen forests — Tamarind, • At altitudes of 1,500m, we have
they are easy to transport along neem, Toddy palm. These are found deciduous vegetation.
snow covered surface & through along coromandel coast. - B/w 1,500 to 3,500m, we have
rivers since it is a soft wood. coniferous.
- In equatorial rainforest, shifting DECIDUOUS FORESTS — - Beyond that, we have alpine
cultivation & heavy leaching result in • Precipitation is more than 200 cm. vegetation.
soil erosion. • If rainfall — • Regions are —
- 100 to 200 cm — Moist deciduous - Himalayas
VEGETATION TYPE IN INDIA — - 70 to 100 cm — Dry deciduous - Parts of Nilgiri, Vindhayas &
• The champion & Seth classi cation • Regions of moist deciduous — Satpuras.
refers to a widely used system for - Wetter parts of Madhya Pradesh, • Trees include —
classifying Indian forests. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odhisa, - Oak
• Please refer to map. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh. - Deodar at 1,500m
• Types — • Regions of dry deciduous — - Chir pine, at more than 1,500m
- Tropical evergreen - A wide strip running north to south - Mapple
- Tropical deciduous from Himalayas to kanyakumari - Juniper
- Tropical thorn except for the regions of tropical - Rhododendron
- Mountain forest thorn & moist deciduous. • Grasslands of Himalayas are known
- Littoral vegetation or mangrove • Trees of moist deciduous — as Bugyals.
forests - Teak, sal, Badam, Jamun, Sheesham • Grasslands of Nilgiri are known as
& Sandalwood. Shola forests.
• Trees of dry deciduous —
- Red sanders or red sandalwood, it is
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 MANGROOVES — • Reasons for depletion of primitive crops before moving on to
• Also known as Littoral vegetation. mangroves — next patch.
• Characteristic feature — - Deforestation • It requires large forest area & land is
- They can grow in salty water. - Unplanned urbanization owned by the community.
• They are capable growing in partially - Over exploitation • Regions are —
submerged & salt water conditions. - Strong cyclones - Amazon forest
• Adaptations — - Water pollution - Congo forest
- Aerial roots which we call — - Changes in the river course - Parts of Venezuela & Mexico
Pneumatophores, which takes gases - Ocean warming & acidi cation - South Asia
directly from air. - North east India
- Stilt root system to survive varying Regions of coral reefs in India — - Some patches of Western ghats
levels of water. • Andaman & Nicobar islands - Sri Lanka
- Impermeable roots • Lakshadweep
- Buoyant seeds • Gulf of mannar INTENSIVE SUBSISTENCE —
- Gas absorbing barks because they • Gulf of kutch • Dominated by rice farming.
are porous in nature. • Malvan, Maharashtra • Small & highly fragmented land
• Regions are — • Angria bank, Maharashtra holding due to high population
- Largest patch in the world are found • Netrani island density.
in sunder buns delta. • Multiple crops per year.
- Please refer to map. AGRICULTURE — • Since limited land, thus can’t use
• Trees include — • World agricultural typology — mechanical methods. It is dominated
- Agar - Please refer to table on next page. by manual labor.
- Sundari • It is known for high agricultural
- Bruguiera NOMADIC HERDING — productivity in terms of per hectare
- Sonneratia • Simplest form of pastoralism — output. However, per capita
• Signi cance — Taking care of cattle. production is very low.
- Only type of vegetation which is • Dependent on animals for wool, • Regions are —
capable of salt water conditions. meat, skin, milk etc. - South Asia
- It’s a home to a wide variety of • Regions are — - Deltas of Ganga — Brahmaputra
animals, with the royal Bengal tiger - North Africa — Camels - Indo China
being the most famous resident in - West Asia — Camels - Eastern China
Sunderbans Delta. - Central Asia — Horses - Korea
- Less coastal region - North China — Yak & Lama - Japan
- Reduce the impact of cyclones & - Mongolia — Yak & Lama
tsunamis. - In arid & semi arid regions goats & PLANTATION AGRICULTURE —
- It helps in recycling of nutrients & sheep are common. • They are grown in large estates.
water ltration. • Some communities in India such as • Requires high capital.
- Good quality timber Bakarwal, Gaddis, Gujjars & Tharu • Crops produced are export
- It is also known as Umbrella practice this. orientated.
vegetation because these are the • Dominated by manual labor.
plants with leaves that spread out SHIFTING CULTIVATION — • Regions are —
from a central point. • A primitive method of agriculture - Malaysia — Rubber
- Keep the water clean. where a particular patch of forest is - Indonesia — Sugarcane
burnt. - India — Co ee & tea
• It is used for growing tubers & other - West Africa — Cocoa & Co ee
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 TROPICAL TEMPERATE

Nomadic herding Mediterranean type

Shifting cultivation Extensive commercial grain farming
Intensive subsistence Commercial live ranching
Plantation Mixed farming
Dairy farming
Truck farming

- West Indies — Banana & Sugarcane - While per capita is very high because - South east Australia
a single family owns a 1,000 hectares
CLASS 44 of land. DAIRY FARMING —
13/04/2025 • For eg — • Also known as commercial dairy
- Steppes of central Asia farming.
MEDITERRANEAN TYPE — - Prairies of north America • Requires high capital
• Summer is dry & precipitation is - Pampas of south America • Scienti cally managed
during winters. - Velds of south Africa • Highly commercialized
• Short bushes, drought resistant, - Downs of Australia • Involve both labor as well as
deep root system. machines.
• Crops are grapes, olive, orange & COMMERCIAL LIVE STOCK — • High productivity
other citrus fruits. • It is commercial raising of live stock • Regions are —
• Viticulture & wine making industries over an extensive area. • Densely populated regions of
are dominant. • The ranches are of very large with developed countries such as —
• Regions are — continuous vegetation cover & are - Northeast USA
- Mediterranean Sea scienti cally managed. - Northwest Europe — Norway,
- California • The animals kept are — sheep, Sweden
- Central Chile cattle, goats, horses & follow - Southeast Australia & New Zealand
- South Africa scienti c methods of breeding. - Eastern Argentina
- Southern & Western Australia • Regions are —
- Western USA, Mexico & Argentina TRUCK FARMING —
EXTENSIVE COMMERCIAL GRAIN - Pampas of Uruguay • It is also known as market gardening
FARMING — - South Africa or factory farming.
• It is opposite to intensive - Arid interiors of Australia • It refers to growing of fruits &
subsistence farming. vegetables near to urban centers.
• It involves large sized farm lands. MIXED FARMING RANCHING — • The perishable goods can be
• Performed in areas with low • It is a combination of crop farming & transported over night through
population density. commercial livestock. trucks.
• Highly mechanized & scienti cally • Crops grown are useful for both • Regions are —
managed. human & livestock consumption. - Major urban centers of the world
• Require a high capital investment. • For eg — Corn, Maize etc. such as Northeast USA & northwest
• Major dominant crop is wheat • It requires high capital but returns Europe.
monoculture, that’s why it is known are also high.
as grain farming. • Regions are —
• Due to monoculture, per hectare - Western Europe
output is very low compared to - East of prairies in USA
intensive subsistence. - North east Argentina
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 INDIAN AGRICULTURE • Culture-able waste land — targeted such as eastern UP, Bihar,
- Not cultivated for more than 5 years. Odhisa, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh
LAND USAGE CATEGORIES IN INDIA • Present trend — & Tamil Nadu.
— - NSA > Forest > Area under • Implications of Green revolution —
• Non Agricultural use — Forest, agricultural use > barren & waste - Please refer to table on next page
Area under non agricultural use, land.
Barren & waste land & Permanent • The categories which have AGRICULTURAL SEASONS —
pastures & tree crops. increased — • Please refer to table on next page.
• Agricultural use — Net sown area, - NSA, Forest area, area under non
Current fallow, Fallow other than agricultural use, current fallow. CROPPING CONDITIONS —
current fallow & cultural-able - Remaining decreased. • Temperature, precipitation & soil.
wasteland. • Please refer to table on next pages.
• Forests — GREEN REVOLUTION —
- The area recored as forest depends • Inputs used — What favored the rice wheat
upon green cover of an area. - HYV seeds — High yielding variety cropping pattern along the Indo —
- If 10% — Forest seeds. Gangetic plains?
- If <10% — Scrub land - Advantages — They are early • Climatic conditions
• Area under non agricultural use — maturing, fast growing, short & - Hot summers & cold winters
- It involves human settlements, dense bushes, higher productivity. • Presence of alluvial soil
infrastructure etc. - Disadvantages — Water intensive, • Good demand because part of
• Barren & waste land — extracts more nutrients from soil, staple diet.
- The land which cannot be brought prone to pests & insects. • Green revolution
under cultivation with presently - Irrigation • Government support
available technology. - Chemical fertilizers • Negative implications of such
- For eg — Ravines, Desert terrain etc. - Chemical pesticides pattern —
• Permanent pastures & tree crops - Power - Water intensive crops resulting
— - Capital ground water depletion.
- It includes commonly owned land. - Government support in terms of - Faster depletion of soil nutrients.
• Net sown area — loans & MSP. - Both require large chemicals
• The area which is under cultivation. • Phases of Green revolution — fertilizers & pesticides.
Here, it is counted once only no - 1st phase — 1961 to 1968 — - Both are labor & energy intensive.
matter how many agriculture has Premature phase. During this IADP - Stubble burning.
been done. was formed. It refers to Integrated
- Gross cropped area is total area agriculture development program. CLASS 45
under cultivation where the area Tests were performed in 8 districts of 13/04/2025
which is sown multiple times is Punjab & Haryana.
counted multiple times. - 2nd phase — 1968 to 1981 — During PULSES —
- Cropping intensity = GCA/NSA x this phase, they expanded the tests • Signi cance —
100 to western Uttar Pradesh. By the end - Protein source ( Nutritional security)
- India’s average is 150%. of the second phase, India’s total - They are leguminous — absorbing
• Current fallow — production reached a 150 million nitrogen & xing it ( Nitrogen
- It refers to land which is not tonnes. Before that, it was only 66 xation).
cultivated in last one year. million tonnes. • Conditions —
• Fallow other than fallow — - 3rd phase — 1981 to 1992 — In this - 20 to 25°C
- Not cultivated for more than 1 year phase, rice growing regions were - <75cm rainfall
but less than 5 years. - All types of soil will favor.
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 IMPLICATIONS OF GREEN REVOLUTION

+ —

• Self su ciency in the production of food grains. • Ecological issues —

• Control of epidemics & famines in India. - Lack of diversity among crops.
• Increase in rural employment - Depletion of soil quality, nutrients.
• Increase in contribution of agriculture to India's GDP. - Soil salinization
• Commercialization of agriculture. - Land degradation due to chemical fertilizers.
- Increased incidence of pests & insects.
- Excessive extraction of groundwater since HYV seeds are
water intensive.
- Water pollution
- Soil pollution
- Deforestation
- Economical issues —
- Increase in the cost of agriculture.
- Increased burden over Government for MSP & subsidies.
- Increased dependent on imports for oil seeds, pulses
which were neglected during green revolution.
• Social implications —
- Increased inequality — Interstate as well as Intrastate.
- Within the state, only the rich farmers were able to a ord
the HYV seeds while the poorer became landless laborers.
- During green revolution, northern India was more
focussed while dry land agriculture was neglected which
resulted in migration of labors from U.P & Bihar to Punjab
& Haryana.
• Rice and wheat (Food security) were prioritized over oil
seeds and pulses, neglecting nutritional security.
• Indirect implications — Drug abuse & Internal security.

AGRICULTURAL SEASONS

KHARIF RABI ZAID

SOWING SEASON June — July October — November Aug — Sept (Zaid Kharif)
Feb — Mar (Zaid Rabi)

HARVESTING SEASON September — October March — April Dec — Jan (Zaid Kharif)
Apr — May (Zaid Rabi)

CROPS Rice, Maize, Jowar, Bajra, Wheat, Barley, Gram, Oil seeds (Zaid kharif)
Ragi, Sugarcane, Pulses, Linseed, Mustard, Potatoes. Jowar, Maize, Summer
Cotton, Jute. vegetables & Zaid fruits
( Zaid Rabi)
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 TEMPERATURE CROPS

25° to 35°C Rice, Jute, Co ee, Rubber, Oil seeds, Sun ower.

20° to 25°C Pulses, Oil seeds, Cotton, Tea, Maize, Sugarcane

15° to 20°C Mustard

<15°C Wheat

RAINFALL (cm) CROPS

150 to 200 Rice, Jute, Co ee, Tea, Rubber.

100 to 150 Sugarcane

75 to 100 Wheat & Maize

<75 All of the remaining

SOIL CROPS

ALLUVIAL Rice, Sugarcane, Cotton, Jute, Wheat.

BLACK Cotton, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Citrus fruits, Oil seeds.

LATERITE Co ee, Tea, Cashew-nut, Rubber, Tapioca & Spices.

RED Groundnut, Ragi, Tobacco, Maize & Floriculture.

Please note that oriculture refers to cultivation & trade of
owering & ornamental plants.

MILLETS

Conditions BA JO RA
BAJRA JOWAR RABI

Temperature 30°C <— 20°C

Rainfall
50 cm —> 100cm

• India contributes 25% to global - Rajasthan - During green revolution, the pulse
pulse production yet we are - Utter Pradesh producing regions shifted to south
dependent on imports. Why? - Maharashtra along rain fed areas — rain
- Signi cant demand-supply gap due - Karnataka dependent area for irrigation.
to low productivity • Why our production is not - There is not much market support in
- Shifting cropping patterns su cient? terms of MSP.
- Climate challenges - More focus on food grains — rice & - MSP is not very attractive.
- Domestic demand exceeds supply wheat. - Long market supply chain.
• Madhya Pradesh is the largest - Low focus during green revolution. - Pod borer in Ganga plains.
producer of pulses. Other regions - Area under pulse production has not
are — increased since 1960.
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 • Suggestions — OIL SEEDS — - In rain fed areas, micro irrigation
- Increase land area under pulse • We extract vegetable oil from these. methods can be used to increase
cultivation. • 20°C to 25°C. yield.
- Provide better quality seeds & • <75 cm of rainfall. - Oil seeds with untapped potential
pesticides. • All types of soil favor their growth, can be utilized. For eg — Cotton
- Provide better support in terms of particularly black & red soil. seeds.
market price. • Regions — - Rice bran oil decreases risk of heart
- Pulse can be included in PDS — - Madhya Pradesh diseases.
Public distribution system. - Rajasthan - ISOPOM — Integrated Scheme on
- Improve market supply by reducing - Maharashtra Oilseeds, Pulses, Oil Palm, and
middle men in between. - Gujarat Maize, a centrally sponsored scheme
- Encourage private players & contract - Karnataka aimed at increasing the production
farming. - Andhra Pradesh. and productivity of these crops.
- Provide short duration pulses seeds. - Please note that Madhya Pradesh is • Oil seeds under MSP —
• Common pulses — the largest producer of oil seeds. - Groundnut
- Chicken pea (चना) is of two types — • Problems — - Soyabean

Normal or white & brown gram. By

- 40% of the production is consumed - Sun ower

processing them, we have gram or locally. - Sa ower

- For the remaining 60% we are - Mustard
bengal gram (चना दाल).
dependent on imports from - Rapeseed
- Pigeon peas — तुअर दाल or अरहर दाल
Indonesia, Malaysia majorly for palm - Toria
- Black gram or Black gram lentil —
oil. While we import soya from Brazil - Sesamum or Sesmum ( ल)
उ द दाल or black lentil
& Argentina & sun ower from Brazil, - Nigerseed or राम ल or काला ल
- Masoor or Brown lentil — Lentil or
Ukraine, Argentina.
• Why we import a large quantity of
मसूर दाल - Less importance during green
palm oil?
- Mung or green gram or ह मूंग — मूंग revolution - India imports a large quantity of palm
दाल or yellow lentil - People shifted from oil seeds to food
oil primarily due to its cost-
- Please note that all of the above are crops.
e ectiveness, versatility, and high
- Productivity output is low because of
under MSP. yield compared to other edible oils.
- Rajma — Kidney beans lack of better quality seeds.
• Conditions for Palm oil —
- Lohbia — Black eyed pea or cow - Low market support.
- High temperature & precipitation
- Inconsistent import export policy.
pea - Laterite soil
- Horse gram - Yellow revolution did not result
increase in production due to lack of
MINERALS & ENERGY RESOURCES
awareness & less area under
MILLETS OF INDIA — —
cultivation. We need better quality of
• Bajra — Pearl millet • Please refer to owchart on next
seeds.
• Jowar — Sorghum page.
• Ragi — Finger millet • Suggestions —
• Ores refers to a deposit in Earth's
- Processing plants through FPOS —
• सामा — Little millet crust containing one or more
Farmer producer organization can
• कु — Buckwheat minerals in more quantity.
increase the pro t for farmers.
• कांगनी — Foxtail millet • Ores of Iron —
- Even fallow land can be used for
• Magnetite > Hematite > Limonite >
• को — Kodu cultivation of oil seeds.
Siderite.
- Colors — black, Reddish-brown or
red, Yellow-brown & grey
respectively.
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 ORES OF — • Technological issues — CLASS 46
• Copper — Chalcopyrite - Old methods of mining are less 14/04/2025
• Aluminum — Bauxite e cient.
• Manganese — Manganite • Social issues — • Do watch the lecture completely.
• Migration of people at large scale
TYPES OF COAL — • Exploitation of weaker section. For
• Peat, Lignite, Bituminous & eg — Rathole mining in Meghalaya.
Anthracite.
• Anthracite — 95% of C INDUSTRIES & TRANSPORTATION —
• Bituminous — 45 to 80% of C • The word manufacture refers to
• Lignite — 38 to 45% of C make something in large quantities
• Peat — <38% of C using machines.
• Manufacturing industry refers to the
ISSUES RELATED TO MINING IN production of standardized
INDIA — commodities on large scale using
• Environmental issues — raw material, machinery, power &
- Deforestation labor in factory setting.
- Land degradation • Factors for location of industries
- Disturbance of biodiversity —
- Pollution - Please refer to diagram on next
- Earthquakes page.
- Land slides • A footloose industry is a business
- Disturbance of wildlife corridors that can be located almost
• Economical issues — anywhere, without being signi cantly
- Corruption due to illegal mining. a ected by factors like resources,
- Loss of revenue to government. transportation, or services. They are
- Damage to infrastructure. also known as industries that are
prone to relocation.
- For eg — IT industry.
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