UNIT-1

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

• Communication is the process of establish connection or link between two points for information
exchange. The electronic equipments which are used for communication purpose are termed as
communication equipment.
• Different communication equipments are when assembled together then they form communication
system. Typical example of communication systems are line telephony & line telegraphy, radio
telephony & radio telegraphy, point to point communication, mobile communication, computer
communication, radar communication, television broadcasting, radio aids to navigation and aircraft
landing etc.

CSVTU Apr-May 2022 : Describe the communication system & its parts in details (8 Marks)

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMMUNICATION SYSTEM :

The purpose of communication system is to transmit an information bearing signal from a source located
at one point to a user or destination located at another point some distance away. Figure shows the block
diagram of general communication system in which the different elements are represent by the blocks.
3. Transmitter

The function of transmitter is to process the signal from different aspects. Inside the transmitter,
signal processing such as restriction of audio frequencies, amplification and modulation are achieved. All
these processing of the message signal are done just to ease the transmission of the signal through the
channel.

4. The Channel

The term channel means the medium through which the message travels from transmitter to
receiver. In other words, the function of channel is to provide a physical connection between transmitter
and receiver. There are two types of channel namely point to point channel and broadcast channel.
Examples of point to point channels are wire lines, microwave links and optical fibers. All these
three channels operate differently but they all provide the physical medium for the transmission of signals
from one point to another point. Therefore, for these channels, the term point to point is used.
On the other hand, the broadcast channels provide capability where several receiving stations can
be reached simultaneously from a single transmitter. An example of broadcast channel is satellite in
geostationary orbit which covers about one third of the earth’s surface.

Noise

During the process of transmission and reception the signal gets distorted due to noise introduced
in the system. Noise is an unwanted signal which tends to interfere with the required signal. It is always
random in character. It may interfere with signal at any point in the communication system. However the
noise has greatest impact on signal in the channel.

5. Receiver

The main function of receiver is to reproduce the message signal in electrical form from the
distorted received signal. This reproduction of the original signal is accomplished by a process known as
demodulation or detection. Demodulation is the reverse process of modulation which is carried out in
transmitter.

6. Destination

It is the final stage which converts the electrical signal into its original form. For example in radio
broadcasting, the destination is a loudspeaker which works as a transducer that converts electrical signal in
the form of original sound signal.

COMMUNICATION CHANNEL :
The medium over which the information is passed from the transmitter to receiver is called as
communication channel. Depending on the mode of transmission, we may classify the communication
channel into following two categories:

• Channels based on guided propagation.

• Channels based on free propagation.
1. Telephone Channels

These channels are designed for providing service to voice signals and also for the worldwide internet
connection. Therefore telephone channels are best possible option for data communication over long
distances.

Features :

• Bandpass characteristics over 300-3400 Hz.

• High signal to noise ratio about 30 dB.
• Approximately linear response that means amplitude response is flats almost the entire passband.

2. Co-axial Cables

Figure shows co-axial cable. It consists of two concentric conductors separated by a dielectric material.
The external conductor is metallic braid and used for the purpose of shielding. Application of co-axial cable
is as cable modem and Ethernet LAN using co-axial cable.

Features :

• Because of the shield provided, these cables have excellent noise immunity.
• It is used for larger bandwidth and low losses.
• The cable is suitable for point to point and point to multipoint applications.
• This is most widely medium used for LANs.
• These cables are cheaper than optical fiber cables.
3. Optical Fiber Cables

The construction of optical fiber cable has been shown in figure. It consists of inner glass core surrounded
by a glass cladding which has a lower refractive index. Signals are transmitted in the form of light. Light is
launched into the fiber using light source such as LED or LASER. It is detected on the other side using a
photo detector such as phototransistor.

These are costlier than other types but it has several advantages:

• Optical fibers are small in size and light in weight.

• The material used for manufacturing optical fibers is silica glass which is easily available. Hence
optical fibers are lower in cost.
• Since the transmission takes place in the form of light rays, the signal is not affected due to any
electrical or electromagnetic interference.
• As the light rays have a very high frequency in the GHz range, the bandwidth of optical fiber is
extremely large. These allow transmission of more number of channels. Therefore information
carrying capability of optical fibers is much higher than that of co-axial cable.
• Installation is easy and flexible.

5. Satellite Channels

Satellite system transmits signals between directional parabolic antennas. These system uses satellite
which are in the geostationary orbit (36000 km above the earth). These system works in the following way:
Signal is sent through cable media to an antenna which beams the signal to satellite. The satellite then
transmits the signal back to another location on earth.
Features :

• The cost of building and launching is very high.

• It uses frequency range between 11 and 14 GHz.
• Attenuation depends on frequency, power, antenna size and atmospheric condition.
• The installation of satellite is extremely difficult and earth station antenna must be perfectly
aligned.
• The message signal transmitted from earth station to satellite is called uplink signal and the signal
from satellite to earth is called downlink signal. Generally the uplink signal is 6 GHz and downlink
signal is 4 GHz.

6. Mobile Radio Channels

CONCEPTS OF BANDWIDTH :
 CSVTU Apr-May 2022 : Define baseband and passband signals (4 Marks)

BASEBAND AND PASSBAND SIGNAL :

Baseband Signal

• The message signal generated from information source is known as baseband signal. This baseband
signal may be combination of two or more message signal.
• If the baseband signal is transmitted directly then it is known as baseband transmission. This means
that baseband transmission does not need modulators and demodulators.
• The baseband signal maybe analog or digital. The analog baseband signal continuously varies with
time and has continues amplitude. The digital baseband signal is discrete in both time and
amplitude.
• The baseband transmission is preferred at low frequencies and short distances. However Inter
Symbol Interference is the major problem associated with the baseband transmission.
• The baseband signal cannot usually transmitted through space because for this antennas required
are too long and multiple baseband signal transmitting simultaneously would interfere with each
other.

Passband Signal

• The modulated signal is Passband signal. If the modulated signal is transmitted over the channel it is
known as bandpass or simply passband transmission.
• Whenever a message signal (modulating signal) is impressed upon a carrier signal, the modulated
signal is produced. This modulated signal has fixed frequencies around carrier frequency.
• Nature of such signal is bandpass type that’s why modulated signal is known as bandpass signal
also. As an example, if 1KHz modulating signal is impressed upon 100KHz carrier signal by using
amplitude modulation technique then two sidebands will be generated. Lower sideband will be
(100-1) KHz i.e. 99 KHz and upper sideband will be (100+1) KHz i.e. 101 KHz. Thus the amplitude
 modulated signal will have frequencies from 99 KHz to 101 KHz. These frequencies are bandpass
type.
• The bandpass transmission is generally used at high frequencies and for long distances. All satellite
and television transmission are bandpass type.
• The bandpass transmission may be both analog and digital. If the digital signal modulates the
carrier then it will be digital bandpass transmission.

MODULATION PROCESS

• The purpose of communication system is to deliver a message signal from an information source in
recognizable form to a user destination, with the source and user being physically separated from
each other.
• For this, the transmitter modifies the message signal into a form which is suitable for transmission
over channel. This modification is achieved by means of a process known as Modulation which
involves varying some parameter of a carrier signal in accordance with the message signal. Also the
receiver recreates the original message signal from the degraded version of the transmitted signal
after propagation through channel. This recreation of original signal is achieved by using a process
known as Demodulation. So demodulation is the reverse process of modulation.

Definition of Modulation

Modulation may be defined as the process by which some characteristics of signal called carrier signal
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of another signal called modulating signal. Signals
containing information is modulating signal or baseband signal. The carrier frequency is greater than
the modulating frequency. The signal produced after the process of modulation is modulated signal or
passband signal.

Types of Modulation

1. Continuous Wave Modulation : When the carrier wave is continuous in nature, the modulation is
known as continuous wave modulation or analog modulation. It has two types – Amplitude
Modulation and Angle Modulation.

When the amplitude of carrier signal is varies accordance with the message signal then
amplitude modulation. When the angle of carrier signal is varies accordance with the message
signal then phase modulation. Angle Modulation may be further subdivided into Frequency
Modulation and Phase Modulation in which instantaneous frequency and phase of the carrier
respectively are varied in accordance with the message signal.

2. Pulse Modulation : When the carrier is pulse type of waveform, the modulation process is known
as pulse modulation. In this type of modulation, the carrier consists of a periodic sequence of
rectangular pulses. Pulse Modulation can be of analog type or digital type.
CSVTU Apr-May 2024 : What is need of Modulation (4 Marks)

Need of Modulation

The modulation serves several purposes in communication system as discussed below:

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Signals may be classified as:

1. Continuous time and Discrete Time Signals

2. Real and Complex Signals
3. Deterministic and Random Signals
4. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals
5. Even and Odd Signals
6. Energy and Power Signals
7. Analog and Digital Signals

1. Continuous time and Discrete Time Signals

2. Real and Complex Signals

If signal x(t) has real value then it is real signal or if it has complex value then it is complex signal.
Examples of Real Signal :

Examples of Complex Signal :

3. Deterministic and Random Signals

4. Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals

5. Even and Odd Signals

Examples of Even Signal

Examples of Odd Signal

6. Energy and Power Signals

Examples of Energy Signal

o A short burst of sound

o A pulse signal (non-periodic signal with finite duration)

o A decaying exponential signal

Examples of Power Signal

o Sinusoidal signal

o Periodic signal

o A continuously transmitted radio wave

7. Analog and Digital Signals

Analog signal is a continuous function of time. It is typically represented by a sinusoidal wave. The analog
signals are more suitable for transmission of audio, video and other information through communication
channel. It is affected by noise easily.

A signal which is discrete function of time i.e. non-continuous in nature is a digital signal. This type of signal
use discrete values i.e. 0 and 1 to represent data and information. The digital signals are suitable for
computing and digital electronic operations such as data storage etc. Digital signals are high in accuracy
and are immune to noise. Digital signals also use less power as compare to analog signals for conveying the
same amount of information.
FOURIER TRANSFORM
SOME STANDARD SIGNALS & THEIR FOURIER TRANSFORMS

1. Gate Function

CSVTU Apr-May 2024 : Fourier Trannsform of Gate Function

Que : Find the Fourier Transform of Gate Function.
2. Sinc Signal or Sampling Function
3. Unit Impulse Signal

Que : Find the fourier transform of impulse function.

4. Rectangular Pulse

Que :Fourier Transform of Rectangular Pulse.

CSVTU Apr-May 2021 : F.T of Rectangular pulse of duration 2 sec and having a magnitude of 10
volts as shown in figure (8 marks)
5. Gaussian Pulse

Que :Fourier Transform of Gaussian Pulse.

Solution :
Example : Determine the fourier transform of the Gaussian pulse.

Solution :
6. Signum Function CSVTU Apr-May 2024 : Fourier Transform of Signum Function

Figure shows the graphical representation of signum function

Que :Fourier Transform of Signum Function.

7. Triangular Pulse

Que :Fourier Transform of Triangular Pulse.

PROPERTIES OF FOURIER TRANSFORMS

1. TIME SCALING PROPERTY

2. LINEARITY PROPERTY
3. DUALITY or SYMMETRY PROPERTY

4. TIME SHIFTING PROPERTY

5. FREQUENCY SHIFTING PROPERTY
6. TIME DIFFERENTIATION PROPERTY

CSVTU Apr-May 2021: State and prove Parseval’s theorem density of signal. (8 marks)

ENERGY SIGNAL
PARSEVAL’S THEOREM FOR ENERGY SIGNAL

From equation (3), the energy density is GE(f) given by

GE(f) = dE/df

GE(f) =

GE(f) is parseval’s theorem density of signal.

CONVOLUTION OF SIGNALS

CSVTU Apr-May 2021 : What is convolution ? Explain time convolution and frequency convolution
theorem. (8 marks)

Convolution is a mathematical operation which is used to express the input/output relationship in a linear
time invariant system. Mathematically, the convolution of two time functions x1(t) and x2(t) may be
defined as by the following expression

An encircle multiplication notation is used to represent the convolution of two time functions.

There are two convolution theorems :

1. Time Convolution Theorem

2. Frequency Convolution Theorem

1. Time Convolution Theorem

2. Frequency Convolution Theorem

CSVTU Apr-May 2022: Explain convolution and correlation of signals. (8 marks)

CORRELATION OF SIGNALS
Correlation between signals describes the mutual relationship which exists between two or more signals.
That is, correlation indicates the measure up to which the given signal resembles another signal.

In other words, if we want to know how much similarity exists between the signals 1 and 2, then we need
to find out the correlation of Signal 1 with respect to Signal 2 or vice versa.

Depending on whether the signals considered for correlation are same or different, we have two kinds of
correlation: autocorrelation and cross-correlation.
1. Cross Correlation

2. Auto Correlation
Difference Between Convolution & Correlation

Parameter Convolution Correlation

1. Definition Convolution is a mathematical Correlation is a mathematical
operation used to combine two operation used to measure or quantify
signals or function to produce a third the similarities and relationship
signal or function. between two signals.
2. Symmetry Convolution preserves the symmetry. Correlation does not preserve
preservation symmetry.
3. Mathematical Convolution involves the integration Correlation simply involves the
operation involved of the product of the input functions integration of the product of the input
with one function shifted. functions.
4. Range of output In the case of convolution, the range The range of value of output of
of value of output depends on the correlation is between -1 and 1. If the
input signals or functions. output of correlation is -1, it indicates
a perfect negative correlation, if it 1,
the correlation is perfect positive
correlation, and if it is 0, there is no
correlation between functions.
5. Applications Convolution is widely used in the field Correlation is mainly used for similarity
of digital image processing, computer measurement between two signals,
vision, data science, signal signal comparison, template matching,
transformation, and more. pattern and relationship recognition,
data analysis, etc.

MULTIPLEXING

CSVTU Apr-May 2024//Apr-May 2022 : What is Multiplexing ? Explain frequency division

multiplexing with suitable diagram. (8 marks)

• In telecommunications, the Multiplexing is used to combine and send multiple data streams over a
single medium. So multiplexing may be defined as a technique which allows many users to share a
common communication channel simultaneously. The hardware which is used for multiplexing is
known as a multiplexer or MUX that merges n input lines to produce a single output line.
• The multiplexing method is widely used in telecommunications where numerous telephone calls are
carried throughout a single wire.
• Multiplexing is classified into three types such as; frequency division (FDM), wavelength division
(WDM), and time division (TDM). At present, these three multiplexing techniques have become a very
significant asset in telecommunication processes & they have very much improved the way that we
send & receive independent signals over telephone lines, AM & FM radio, and also optical fibers.
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

• This technique permits a fixed frequency band to every user in the complete channel bandwidth. Such
frequency slot is allotted continuously to that user.
• As an example, consider that the channel bandwidth is 1 MHz. Let there be 10 users, each requiring
upto 100 KHz bandwidth. Then complete channel bandwidth of 1 MHz can be divided into 10 frequency
bands I.e. each of 100 KHz and every user can be allotted one independent frequency band. This
technique is FDM.

Block Diagram of FDM

• The frequency division block diagram is shown below which includes a transmitter and a receiver

• In the FDM system, the transmitter end has several transmitters & the receiver end has several
receivers. In between the transmitter & receiver, the communication channel is there.
• The different message signals like m1(t), m2(t) & m3(t) are modulated at the different carrier
frequencies like fc1, fc2 & fc3. In this manner, the different modulated signals are separated from each
other within the frequency domain.
• These modulated signals are merged together to shape the composite signal which is transmitted over
the channel/transmission medium.

• To avoid interference between the two message signals, a guard band is also kept in between these
two signals. A guard band is used to separate two wide ranges of frequencies. This ensures that
communication channels that are used simultaneously do not experience interference which would
affect in reduced quality of transmissions.

• At the receiver end, bandpass filters are used to separate each modulated signal from the composite
signal & demultiplexed. By transmitting the demultiplexed signal through the LPF, it is achievable to
recover every message signal. This is how a typical FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) method is.
Advantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing

1. The transmitter & receiver of FDM do not need any synchronization.

2. It is simpler & its demodulation is easy.
3. FDM is applicable for analog signals.
4. A large number of channels can be simultaneously transmitted.
5. It is not expensive.
6. This multiplexing has high reliability.
7. Using this multiplexing, it is possible to transmit multimedia data with low noise & distortion and also
with high efficiency.

Disadvantages of Frequency Division Multiplexing

1. FDM has a cross-talk problem.

2. FDM is applicable only when a few less-speed channels are preferred
3. Intermediation distortion occurs.
4. FDM circuitry is complex.
5. It gives fewer throughputs.
6. As compared to TDM, the latency provided by FDM is more.
7. FDM needs a large number of filters & modulators.
8. The channel of this multiplexing can get affected by wideband fading
9. The system of FDM requires a carrier signal.

Applicationss of Frequency Division Multiplexing

1. Earlier, FDM is used in the cellular telephone system and harmonic telegraphy communication system.
2. Frequency division multiplexing is mainly used in radio broadcasting.
3. FDM is also used in TV broadcasting.
4. This type of multiplexing is applicable in the telephone system to help in transmitting several phone
calls over a single link or single transmission line.
5. FDM is used in a satellite communication system for transmitting various data channels.
6. It is used in FM transmission systems or stereo frequency modulation.
7. It is used in AM radio transmission systems/Amplitude Modulation.
8. It is used for public telephones and cable TV systems.
9. It is used in broadcasting.
10. It is used in AM and FM broadcasting.
11. It is used in wireless networks, cellular networks, etc.
12. FDM is used in broadband connection systems and also in DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) modems.
13. FDM system is mainly used for multimedia data like audio, video & image transmission.
CONCEPT OF DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION THROUGH A SYSTEM
 ADDITIONAL NOTES on AUTO & CROSS CORRELATION

CROSS CORRELATION OF ENERGY & POWER SIGNALS

1. CROSS CORRELATION OF ENERGY SIGNAL

Properties of Cross Correlation function for Energy Signals

2. CROSS CORRELATION OF POWER SIGNAL or PERIODIC SIGNAL

Properties of Cross Correlation function for Power Signals

 AUTO CORRELATION OF ENERGY & POWER SIGNALS

1. AUTO CORRELATION OF ENERGY SIGNAL

Properties of Auto Correlation function for Energy Signals

2. AUTO CORRELATION OF POWER SIGNAL

Properties of Auto Correlation function for Power Signals