Rehdat Enterprise 6.

0 onward you cannot login with root user by default only login with limited user. But if you still want
to login with root user then you have to modify some changes in atc pam file.

 How to open Terminal or Console : Click on Application-> System Tools-> Konsole /Terminal
 Terminal is Genome feature where as Konsole is KDE feature.

Redhat Linux by default follow Genome so that is way we will use Terminal

[User1@server1 ~]$ < this is called Command Shell and also known as bash <Bourne-again SHell> Stephen
Bourne, author of the Bourne shell. You can add more tab, open another terminal, change color, font, size,
background color, etc. of the Shell

[User1@server1 ~]$ here is shows user1 is username and server1 is server name and $ sign shows limited user

Steps to perform after login in terminal

1. /etc/profile : when user open login Shell first /etc/profile is launched and can be opened in vi or vim editor, and it
set all environment variable, paths, history size of Linux.
2. After running /etc/profile it run rest of the script in /etc/profile.d
3. Then it run .bash_profile in User Home Directory, can be opened like vi .bash_profile , it run in Current login
user home directory and can modify some environment variable those was set in /etc/profile, you can set Custom
Variable here also. User specify environment and startup programs.
4. Then run .bashrc is also in user Home Dir, Set local variable and command, Modify Command Prompt look and
feel.
5. Then run /etc/bashrc when bashrc will run user specific script will run from profile.d whereas /etc/profile run
system specific script.

[User1@server1 ~]$ vi or vim or nano /etc/profile

Clear < it clear screen like cls in windows >

Login as root < su - : it will ask you root password to login >

Adding new user

Useradd sam < will create user but inactive because password is not set >

Delete user

Userdel < user name > will delete only user but user profile will not delete

Userdel -r < user name > this will delete user as well as all user profile, home dir, email box etc.

Useradd -C “Syed Asghar” Asgar < will will user Asger and full name also >

Useradd -s /bin/tcsh shama < by default when user login it login in bash shell if you want to change login shell you can ,
like I did when shame login it open in cshell >

Useradd -C “Syed Mohammed” -d /home/alluser/mohd mohd < mkdir /home/alluser , now -d is for home directory>

Default location for Home Directory is /home

Usermod -C “Sam zaidi” sam < modify the Caption of user sam >

If you want to change password of other user login as root using su – or sudo -i
passwd sam <will ask to change the password >

sudo passwd sam < another way to change the password >

cat file1 file2 > file3

clear or ctrl + L < clear screen >

systemctl start/stop/restart/status networkd-dispatcher.service

GUI User Creation

System-config-users < this command will open GUI for user creation >

How to Install Linux Cli to GUI

First either connect to yum Server or create local Yum Server Repository it required Linux ios image

Why we need Yum Repository Server: Whatever we are installing package in Redhat we called RPM ( Redhat Package
Manager) to install rpm package we use rpm command, when you install rpm package using rpm command and that
package has no dependency then it will install without any problem, but if that package has dependency or sub
dependency then you need to install all the dependency before installing rpm package. to overcome this problem, we are
creating YUM Server either Local or On Some Other Linux Server it Required IOS image of Redhat Linux.

1. Local YUM Repository will work for local Linux Server only
2. But Yum Repository Server can be used for all Linux server in your company that want to connect your yum
server and install package using either Web Server or Ftp Server.

How to Create Local Yum Repository

Attach USB with Linux Redhat iso Image. Use below command to check

lsblk < check all connected Disk Space, USB, DVD, IOS Map etc >

cat /etc/redhat-release < this will tell you the Release of Redhat and version of Redhat >

init 6 < reboot linux>

blkid < will tell you the GUID , Label etc. og your usb, dvd etc. >

mount /dev/sr0 /mnt/ < mounting /dev/sr0 to /mnt directory >

cd /mnt/

ls -l

df -h < tell you where you have a free space >

mkdir /cdiso

cp /mnt/*.* /cdiso/ or cp -vrf /mnt/ /cdiso/ < copying data >

cd /etc/yum.repos.d/ < go to /etc/yum.repos.d directory >

now either move redhat.repo, rhelrepo.repo file somewhere else or delete these files

rm -rf redhat.repo rhelrepo.repo < delete both file move redhat.repo, rhelrepo.repo >

vim rhelrepo.repo < open the editor and write this >
[BaseOS]
Name= BaseOS
baseurl=file:///cdiso/BaseOS < if files are local on this linux use file if on other Server use protocol like ftp or http >
enable=1 < to make Active if apps are old use 0 to make De active >
gpgcheck=0 < do not check >

[AppStream]
Name= AppStream
baseurl=file:///cdiso/AppStream < if files are local on this linux use file if on other Server use protocol like ftp or http >
enable=1
gpgcheck=0 < do not check >

Now save the file rhelrepo.repo

:wq

Yum clean all < to make it clean and ready >

Yum repolist < display the yum repository list >

Yum install httpd < test to install httpd package that your repository are working properly or not >

Yum groupinstall “Server with GUI”

Runlevel <it value should be 5 for GUI>

systemctl set-default graphical.target

lsblk < check all connected Disk Space, USB, DVD, IOS Map etc>

Some Important command of Linux

lspci -v < display all pci, usb devices information >

ethtool <ethernet name >

ethtool eth4

ifconfig -a < display nic information >

dmesg | grep netxen

cat /etc/network/interfaces

auto lo
iface lo inet loopback

auto bond0
iface bond0 inet static
address 10.1.1.18
netmask 255.255.255.0
slaves eth0 eth1 eth3 eth4
bond_mode 0
bond_miimon 100

service network-manager restart < restart the network service >

/etc/network/if-up.d

du -sh /backup/migration/Backup/Level1 < tell you the Size of the Folder Level1 >

du -sh * < show all the folders size >

2.3 G /backup/migration/Backup/Level1

scp -rp level 1.1.1.4:/backup/migtration

chmod 0744 /etc/NetworkManager/dispatcher.d/50-ethtool-autoneg-off < giving permission >

df -h

rm -rf file1 file2 file 3

ls -lrt /data

route -n or netstat -r -n < show you the routing table >

ip route | grep default

ip d

grip -i bond ifcfg

find—This command is a part of findutils and allows for custom search commands. For example, if you
wanted to find directories that matched a specific name, you could use something like this:

find path/ -type d -iname '*dir_name*'

xargs allows you to run additional commands against the output of a given command. A super basic example
of this can be seen when pairing with the ls command. For instance, if you wanted to cat all of the files listed
by ls, you could use something like this:

$ ls 1.file 2.file 3.file

$ ls | xargs cat

you are reading file 1

you are reading file 2

you are reading file 3

$ cat file.txt

This line contains an error.

This line contains a case sensitive ERROR And this one is just an Error.
Then we have a warning. and a WARNING and then of course Warning.
$ grep error file.txt
 This line contains an error

cat /etc/resolv.conf

less /etc/resolv.conf
grep "nameserver" /etc/resolv.conf
$ resolvectl status
$ ifconfig
$ resolvectl status eth0
$ resolvectl status eth0

$ nslookup -type=any google.com

Server: 192.168.7.1
Address: 192.168.7.1:53
Non-authoritative answer:
Name: google.com
Address: 142.250.191.206
google.com nameserver = ns1.google.com
google.com nameserver = ns4.google.com
google.com nameserver = ns2.google.com
google.com nameserver = ns3.google.com

Server: 192.168.7.1

Here’s a quick overview:

Command Function

ls Lists a directory’s content

pwd Shows the current working directory’s path

cd Changes the working directory

mkdir Creates a new directory

rm Deletes a file

cp Copies files and directories, including their content

mv Moves or renames files and directories

touch Creates a new empty file

file Checks a file’s type

zip and unzip Creates and extracts a ZIP archive

tar Archives files without compression in a TAR format

nano, vi, and jed Edits a file with a text editor

cat Lists, combines, and writes a file’s content as a standard output

grep Searches a string within a file

sed Finds, replaces, or deletes patterns in a file

head Displays a file’s first ten lines

tail Prints a file’s last ten lines

awk Finds and manipulates patterns in a file

sort Reorders a file’s content

cut Sections and prints lines from a file

diff Compares two files’ content and their differences

tee Prints command outputs in Terminal and a file

locate Finds files in a system’s database

find Outputs a file or folder’s location

sudo Runs a command as a superuser

su Runs programs in the current shell as another user

chmod Modifies a file’s read, write, and execute permissions

chown Changes a file, directory, or symbolic link’s ownership

useradd and userdel Creates and removes a user account

df Displays the system’s overall disk space usage

du Checks a file or directory’s storage consumption

top Displays running processes and the system’s resource usage

htop Works like top but with an interactive user interface

ps Creates a snapshot of all running processes

uname Prints information about your machine’s kernel, name, and hardware

hostname Shows your system’s hostname

time Calculates commands’ execution time

systemctl Manages system services

watch Runs another command continuously

jobs Displays a shell’s running processes with their statuses

kill Terminates a running process

shutdown Turns off or restarts the system

ping Checks the system’s network connectivity

wget Downloads files from a URL

curl Transmits data between servers using URLs

scp Securely copies files or directories to another system

rsync Synchronizes content between directories or machines

lfconfig Displays the system’s network interfaces and their configurations

netstat Shows the system’s network information, like routing and sockets

traceroute Tracks a packet’s hops to its destination

nslookup Queries a domain’s IP address and vice versa

dig Displays DNS information, including record types

history Lists previously run commands

man Shows a command’s manual

echo Prints a message as a standard output

ln Links files or directories

alias and unalias Sets and removes an alias for a file or command

cal Displays a calendar in Terminal

apt-get Manages Debian-based distros package libraries

Linux Commands for File and Directory Management

This section will explore basic Linux commands for file and directory
management.

1. ls command
The ls command lists files and directories in your system. Here’s the syntax:
ls [/directory/folder/path]

If you remove the path, the ls command will show the current working
directory’s content. You can modify the command using these options:

 -R – lists all the files in the subdirectories.

 -a – shows all files, including hidden ones.

 -lh – converts sizes to readable formats, such as MB, GB, and TB.

2. pwd command
The pwd command prints your current working directory’s path,
like /home/directory/path. Here’s the command syntax:
pwd [option]

It supports two options. The -L or –-logical option prints environment variable

content, including symbolic links . Meanwhile, -P or –physical outputs the
current directory’s actual path.
3. cd command
Use the cd command to navigate the Linux files and directories. To use it, run
this syntax with sudo privileges:
cd /directory/folder/path

Depending on your current location, it requires either the full path or the
directory name. For example,
omit /username from /username/directory/folder if you are already within it.
Omitting the arguments will take you to the home folder. Here are some
navigation shortcuts:

 cd ~[username] – goes to another user’s home directory.

 cd .. – moves one directory up.

 cd- – switches to the previous directory.

4. mkdir command
Use the mkdir command to create one or multiple directories and set their
permissions. Ensure you are authorized to make a new folder in the parent
directory. Here’s the basic syntax:
mkdir [option] [directory_name]

To create a folder within a directory, use the path as the command parameter.
For example, mkdir music/songs will create a songs folder inside music.
Here are several common mkdir command options:

 -p – creates a directory between two existing folders. For example, mkdir

-p Music/2024/Songs creates a new 2024 directory.

 -m – sets the folder permissions. For instance, enter mkdir -m777

directory to create a directory with read, write, and execute permissions
for all users.
  -v – prints a message for each created directory.

5. rmdir command
Use the rmdir command to delete an empty directory in Linux . The user
must have sudo privileges in the parent directory. Here’s the syntax:
rmdir [option] directory_name

If the folder contains a subdirectory, the command will return an error. To force
delete a non-empty directory, use the -p option.

6. rm command
Use the rm command to permanently delete files within a directory. Here’s the
general syntax:
rm [filename1] [filename2] [filename3]
Adjust the number of files in the command according to your needs. If you
encounter an error, ensure you have the write permission in the directory.
To modify the command, add the following options:

 -i – prompts a confirmation before deletion.

 -f – allows file removal without a confirmation.

 -r – deletes files and directories recursively.

Warning! Use the rm command with caution since deletion is irreversible.

Avoid using the -r and -f options since they may wipe all your files. Always add
the -i option to avoid accidental deletion.

7. cp command
Use the cp command to copy files or directories, including their content, from
your current location to another. It has various use cases, such as:

 Copying one file from the current directory to another folder. Specify the
file name and target path:
cp filename.txt /home/username/Documents

 Duplicating multiple files to a directory. Enter the file names and the
destination path:
cp filename1.txt filename2.txt filename3.txt /home/username/Documents

 Copying a file’s content to another within the same directory. Enter the
source and the destination file:
cp filename1.txt filename2.txt

 Duplicating an entire directory. Pass the -R flag followed by the source

and destination directory:
cp -R /home/username/Documents /home/username/Documents_backup

8. mv command
Use the mv command to move or rename files and directories. To move items,
enter the file name followed by the destination directory:
mv filename.txt /home/username/Documents

Meanwhile, use the following syntax to rename a file in Linux with

the mv command:
mv old_filename.txt new_filename.txt

9. touch command
The touch command lets you create an empty file in a specific directory path.
Here’s the syntax:
touch [option] /home/directory/path/file.txt
If you omit the path, the command will create the item in the current folder. You
can also use touch to generate and modify a timestamp in the Linux command
line.

10. file command

The file command lets you check a file type – whether it is a text, image, or
binary. Here’s the syntax:
file filename.txt

To bulk-check multiple files, list them individually or use their path if they are in
the same directory. Add the -k option to display more detailed information
and -i to show the file’s MIME type.

11. zip, unzip commands

The zip command lets you compress items into a ZIP file with the optimal
compression ratio. Here’s the syntax:
zip [options] zipfile file1 file2….

For example, this command compresses note.txt into archive.zip in the

current working directory:
zip archive.zip note.txt

Use the unzip command to extract the compressed file . Here’s the syntax:
unzip [option] file_name.zip

12. tar command

The tar command archives multiple items into a TAR file – a format similar
to ZIP with optional compression. Here’s the syntax:
tar [options] [archive_file] [target file or directory]

For instance, enter the following to create a new newarchive.tar archive in

the /home/user/Documents directory:
tar -cvzf newarchive.tar /home/user/Documents

Linux Commands for Text Processing and Searching

The following section explores several Linux commands for processing and
searching text.

13. nano, vi, jed commands

Linux lets users edit files using a text editor like nano , vi, or jed. While most
distributions include nano and vi, users must install jed manually. All these
tools have the same command syntax:
nano filename
vi filename
jed filename

If the target file doesn’t exist, these editors will create one. We
recommend nano if you want to quickly edit text files. Meanwhile,
use vi or jed for scripting and programming.

14. cat command

Concatenate or cat is one of the most used Linux commands. It lists,
combines, and writes file content to the standard output. Here’s the syntax:
cat filename.txt

There are various ways to use the cat command:

 cat > filen.txt – creates a new file.

 cat file1.txt file2.txt > file3.txt – merges file1.txt with file2.txt and
stores the output in filename3.txt.

 tac file.txt – displays content in reverse order.

15. grep command

The global regular expression or grep command lets you find a word by
searching the content of a file. This Linux command prints all lines containing
the matching strings, which is useful for filtering large log files.
For example, to display lines containing blue in the notepad.txt file, enter:
grep blue notepad.txt
16. sed command
The sed command lets you find, replace, and delete patterns in a file without
using a text editor. Here’s the general syntax:
sed [option] 'script' input_file

The script contains the searched regular expression pattern, the replacement
string, and subcommands. Use the s subcommand to replace matching
patterns or d to delete them.
At the end, specify the file containing the pattern to modify. Here’s an example
of a command that replaces red in colors.txt and hue.txt with blue:
sed 's/red/blue' colors.txt hue.txt

17. head command

The head command prints the first ten lines of a text file or piped data in your
command-line interface. Here’s the general syntax:
head [option] [file]

For instance, to view the first ten lines of note.txt in the current directory,
enter:
head note.txt

The head command accepts several options, such as:

 -n – changes the number of lines printed. For example, head -n

5 shows the first five lines.

 -c – prints the file’s first customized number of bytes.

 -q – disables headers specifying the file name.

18. tail command

The tail command displays the last ten lines of a file, which is useful for
checking new data and errors. Here’s the syntax:
tail [option] [file]

For example, enter the following to show the last ten lines of the colors.txt file:
tail -n colors.txt

19. awk command

The awk command scans regular expression patterns in a file to retrieve or
manipulate matching data. Here’s the basic syntax:
awk '/regex pattern/{action}' input_file.txt

The action can be mathematical operations, conditional statements like if,

output expressions such as print, and a delete command. It also contains
the $n notation, which refers to a field in the current line.
To add multiple actions, list them based on the execution order, separated
using semicolons. For example, this command contains mathematical,
conditional, and output statements:
awk -F':' '{ total += $2; students[$1] = $2 } END { average = total /
length(students); print "Average:", average; print "Above average:"; for (student in
students) if (students[student] > average) print student }' score.txt

20. sort command

The sort command rearranges lines in a file in a specific order. It doesn’t
modify the actual file and only prints the result as Terminal outputs. Here’s the
syntax:
sort [option] [file]

By default, this command will sort the lines in alphabetical order, from A to Z.
To modify the sorting, use these options:
  -o – redirects the command outputs to another file.

 -r – reverses the sorting order to descending.

 -n – sorts the file numerically.

 -k – reorders data in a specific field.

21. cut command

The cut command retrieves sections from a file and prints the result as
Terminal outputs. Here’s the syntax:
cut [option] [file]

Instead of a file, you can use data from standard input . To determine how the
command sections the line, use the following options:

 -f – selects a specific field.

 -b – cuts the line by a specified byte size.

 -c – sections the line using a specified character.

 -d – separates lines based on delimiters.

You can combine these options, use a range, and specify multiple values. For
example, this command extracts the third to fifth field from a comma-separated
list:
cut -d',' -f3-5 list.txt

22. diff command

The diff command compares two files’ content and outputs the differences. It
is used to alter a program without modifying the code. Here’s the general
format:
diff [option] file1 file2

Below are some acceptable options:

 -c – displays the difference between two files in a context form.

 -u – shows the output without redundant information.

 -i – makes the diff command case insensitive.

23. tee command

The tee command writes the user’s input to Terminal’s output and files. Here’s
the basic syntax:
command | tee [option] file1

For example, the following pings Google and prints the output in
Terminal, ping_result.txt, and the 19092024.txt file:
ping google.com | tee ping_result.txt 19092024.txt

24. locate command

The locate command lets you find a file in the database system. Add the -
i option to turn off case sensitivity and an asterisk (*) to find content with
multiple keywords. For example:
locate -i school*note
The command searches for files containing school and note, regardless of
their letter case.

25. find command

Use the find command to search for files within a specific directory. Here’s the
syntax:
find [option] [path] [expression]

For example, to find a file called file1.txt within the directory folder and its
subdirectories, use this command:
find /home -name file1.txt

If you omit the path, the command will search the current working directory.
You can also find directories using the following:
find ./ -type d -name directoryname

Linux Commands for User and Permission Management

Below are several Linux commands for managing the system’s users and
permissions.

26. sudo command

Superuser do or sudo is one of the most basic commands in Linux. It runs
your command with administrative or root permissions. Here’s the general
syntax:
sudo (command)

When you run a sudo command, Terminal will request the root password. For
example, this snippet runs useradd with the superuser privilege:
sudo useradd username

You can also add an option, such as:

 -k – invalidates the timestamp file.

 -g – executes commands as a specified group name or ID.

 -h – runs commands on the host.

Warning! Running a command with sudo privileges can modify all aspects of
your system. Since misusing it may break your system, run the command with
caution and only if you understand its possible repercussions.

27. su command
The su command lets you run a program in the Linux shell as a different user.
It is useful to connect via SSH while the root user is disabled. Here’s the
syntax:
su [options] [username [argument]]

Without any option or argument, this command runs through root and prompts
you to use the sudo privileges temporarily. Some options are:

 -p – keeps the same shell environment, consisting

of HOME, SHELL, USER, and LOGNAME.

 -s – lets you specify another shell environment to run.

 -l – runs a login script to switch users. It requires you to enter the user’s
password.

To check the current shell’s user account, run the whoami command:

28. chmod command

The chmod command modifies directory or file permissions in Linux .
Here’s the basic syntax:
chmod [option] [permission] [file_name]

In Linux, each file is associated with three user classes – owner, group
member, and others. It also has three permissions – read, write,
and execute. If an owner wants to grant all permissions to every user, the
command looks like this:
chmod -rwxrwxrwx note.txt

29. chown command

The chown command lets you change a file, directory, or symbolic link’s
ownership to the specified username. Here’s the syntax:
chown [option] owner[:group] file(s)

For example, to make linuxuser2 the owner of filename.txt, use:

chown linuxuser2 filename.txt

30. useradd, userdel commands

Use useradd to create a new Linux user account and change its password
with the passwd command. Here are the syntaxes:
useradd [option] username
passwd username

Both the useradd and passwd commands require sudo privileges. To delete a
user, use the userdel command:
userdel username

Linux Commands for System Information and Management

This section will list common Linux commands for querying system information
and management.

31. df command
Use the df command to check a Linux system’s disk space usage in
percentage and kilobyte (KB). Here’s the syntax:
df [options] [file]

If you don’t specify the item, this command will display information about every
mounted file system. These are some acceptable options:

 -m – displays information on the file system usage in MBs.

 -k – prints file system usage in KBs.

  -T – shows the file system type in a new column.

32. du command
Use du to check a file or directory’s storage consumption. Remember to
specify the directory path when using this command, for example:
du /home/user/Documents

The du command has several options, such as:

 -s – shows the specified folder’s total size.

 -m – provides folder and file information in MB.

 -k – displays information in KB.

 -h – informs the displayed folders and files’ last modification date.

33. top command

The top command displays running processes and the system’s real-time
condition, including resource utilization. It helps identify resource-intensive
processes, enabling you to disable them easily.
To run the command, enter top into your command-line interface .

34. htop command

The htop command is an interactive program for monitoring system resources
and server processes. Unlike top, it offers additional features like mouse
operation and visual indicators. Here’s the command syntax:
htop [options]

It supports options such as:

 -d – shows the delay between updates in tenths of seconds.

 -C – enables monochrome mode.

 -h – displays the help message and exits.

35. ps command
The ps command creates a snapshot of all running processes in your system.
Executing it without an option or argument will list the running processes in the
shell with the following information:

 Unique process ID (PID).

 Type of the terminal (TTY).

 Running time (TIME).

 Command that launches the process (CMD).

The ps command accepts several options, including:

 -T – displays all processes associated with the current shell session.

 -u username – lists processes associated with a specific user.

 -A – shows all the running processes.

Suggested Reading
Learn more about using top, htop, and ps commands to check running
processes in a Linux system .

36. uname command

The uname or unix name command prints information about your machine,
including its hardware, system name, and Linux kernel. Here’s the basic
syntax:
uname [option]

While you can use it without an option, add the following to modify the
command:

 -a – prints all the system information.

 -s – outputs the kernel name.

  -n – shows the system’s node hostname.

37. hostname command

Run the hostname command to display the system’s hostname. Here’s the
syntax:
hostname [option]

You can run it without an option or use the following:

 -a – displays the hostname’s alias.

 -A – shows the machine’s Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN).

 -i – outputs the machine’s IP address.

38. time command

Use time to measure commands’ execution time. Here’s the syntax:
time [commandname]

To measure a series of commands, separate them using semicolons or double

ampersands (&&). For example, we will measure cd, touch,
and chmod commands’ overall execution time:
time cd /home/directory/path; touch bashscript.sh; chmod +x bashscript.sh

39. systemctl command

The systemctl command lets you manage installed services in your Linux
system. Here’s the basic syntax:
systemctl [commandname] [service_name]

To use the command, the user must have root privilege. It has several use
cases, including starting, restarting, and terminating a service. You can also
check a service’s status and dependencies.
The systemctl command is only available in Linux distributions with
the Systemd init system. Check our article on listing and managing Linux
services to learn more about other systems’ commands.

40. watch command

The watch command lets the user continuously run another utility at a specific
interval and print the results as a standard output. Here’s the syntax:
watch [option] command

It is useful for monitoring command output changes. To modify its behavior,

use the following options:

 -d – displays the differences between command executions.

 -n – changes the default two-second interval.

 -t – disables the header containing the time interval, command,

timestamp, and hostname.

41. jobs command

The jobs command displays a shell’s running processes with their statuses. It
is only available in csh, bash, tcsh, and ksh shells. Here’s the basic syntax:
jobs [options] jobID

To check the status of jobs in the current shell, enter jobs without any
arguments in Terminal. The command will return an empty output if your
system doesn’t have running jobs. You can also add the following options:

 -l – lists process IDs and their information.

 -n – shows jobs whose statuses have changed since the last notification.

 -p – displays process IDs only.

42. kill command

Use the kill command to terminate an unresponsive program using its
identification number (PID). To check the PID, run the following command:
ps ux

To stop the program, enter the syntax below:

kill [signal_option] pid

There are 64 signals for terminating a program,

but SIGTERM and SIGKILL are the most common. SIGTERM is the default
signal that lets the program save its progress before stopping.
Meanwhile, SIGKILL forces programs to stop and discard unsaved progress.

43. shutdown command

The Linux shutdown command lets you turn off or restart your system at a
specific time. Here’s the syntax:
shutdown [option] [time] "message"

You can use an absolute time in a 24-hour format or a relative one like +5 to
schedule it in five minutes. The message is a notification sent to logged-in
users about the system shutdown.
Instead of shutting down, restart the system using the -r option. To cancel a
scheduled reboot, run the command with the -c option.
Linux Commands for Network Management and Troubleshooting
Here are commonly used Linux commands for managing and troubleshooting
network connections.

44. ping command

The ping command is one of the most used commands in Linux. It lets you
check whether a network or server is reachable, which is useful for
troubleshooting connectivity issues. Here’s the syntax:
ping [option] [hostname_or_IP_address]

For example, run the following to check the connection and response time
to Google:
ping google.com
45. wget command
Use the wget command to download files from the internet
using HTTP, HTTPS, or FTP protocols. Here’s the syntax:
wget [option] [url]

For example, enter the following to download the latest version of

WordPress:
wget https://wordpress.org/latest.zip

46. curl command

The curl command transfers data between servers. Its common usage is for
retrieving a web page’s content to your system using its URL. Here’s the
syntax:
curl [option] URL

However, you can add various options to modify the curl command behavior
for other tasks. Some of the most popular ones include:

 -o or -O – downloads files from a URL.

 -X – changes the default HTTP GET method.

 -H – sends a custom header to the URL.

 -F – uploads a file to the specified destination.

47. scp command

The scp command securely copies files or directories between systems over a
network. Here’s the syntax:
scp [option] [source username@IP]:/[directory and file name] [destination
username@IP]:/[destination directory]

For a local machine, omit the hostname and IP address. Use the following
options to modify the copying behavior:

 -P – changes the port for copying. The default is 22.

 -l – limits the scp command’s bandwidth.

  -C – compresses transferred data to make it smaller.

48. rsync command

The rsync command lets you sync files or folders between two destinations to
ensure they have the same content. Here’s the syntax:
rsync [options] source destination

If your destination or source is a folder, enter the directory path

like /home/directory/path. To sync a remote server, use its hostname and IP
address, like host@185.185.185.185.
This command has various options:

 -a – enables archive mode to preserve file permissions, dates, and other

attributes.

 -v – shows visual information about the transferred file.

 -z – compresses the transferred file data to reduce their size.

49. ifconfig command

The ifconfig command lets you list and configure your system’s network
interface. In newer Linux distros, it is equivalent to the ip command. Here’s
the basic syntax:
ifconfig [interface] [option]

Running it without arguments displays information about all network interfaces

in your system. To check a specific interface, add its name as an argument
without an option. For a more specific task, use the following options:

 –s – summarizes the network interfaces and their configuration. This

option goes before the interface name.

 up and down – enables and disables a network interface.

 inet and inet6 – assigns an IPv4 and IPv6 address to a network interface.

 netmask – specifies the subnet mask to use with an IPv4 address.

50. netstat command
The netstat command is used to display your system’s network information,
like sockets and routing. Here’s the command syntax:
netstat [option]

Use various options to modify the displayed information. Some common ones
are:

 -a – displays listening and closed sockets.

 -t – shows TCP connections.

 -u – lists UDP connections.

 -r – displays routing tables.

 -i – shows information about network interfaces.

 -p – lists programs’ names and process IDs.

 -c – continuously outputs network information for real-time monitoring.

51. traceroute command

The traceroute command tracks a packet’s path when it moves to another
host over a network. It gives you information about the involved routers and
travel time. Here’s the syntax:
traceroute [option] destination

You can use a domain, hostname, or IP address as the destination. Add the
following options for more detailed packet monitoring:
  -m – sets each packet’s maximum hops.

 -n – prevents the command from resolving IP addresses to hostnames for

quicker tracing.

 -I – changes the default UDP packets to UCMP.

 -w – adds a timeout in seconds.

52. nslookup command

The nslookup command queries a DNS server to find out the domain
associated with an IP address and vice versa. Here’s the syntax:
nslookup [options] domain-or-ip [server]

If you don’t specify the DNS server to use, nslookup will use the default
resolver from your system or internet service provider. This command supports
various options, with some commonly used ones being:

 -type= – queries specific information, like the IP address type or MX

record.

 -port= – sets the DNS server’s port number for the query.

 -retry= – repeats the query a specific number of times upon failure.

 -debug – enables the debug mode to provide more information about the
query.
53. dig command
The dig or domain information groper command gathers DNS data from a
domain. Unlike nslookup, it is more detailed and versatile. Here’s the syntax:
dig [option] target [query_type]

Replace target with a domain name. By default, this command only

shows A record type. Change query_type to check a specific type or
use ANY to query all of them. To run a reverse DNS lookup, add the -x option
and use the IP address as the target.
Miscellaneous Linux Commands
In this section, we will list Linux commands with various functions.

54. history command

Enter history to list previously executed commands. It lets you reuse the
commands without rewriting them. To use it, enter this syntax with sudo
privileges:
history [option]

To rerun a specific utility, enter an exclamation mark (!) followed by the

command’s list number. For example, use the following to rerun
the 255th command:
!255

This command supports many options, such as:

 -c – clears the history list.

 -d offset – deletes the history entry at the OFFSET position.

 -a – appends history lines.

55. man command

The man command provides a user manual of any Linux Terminal utilities,
including their names, descriptions, and options. It consists of nine sections:

 Executable programs or shell commands

 System calls

 Library calls

 Games

 Special files

 File formats and conventions

 System administration commands

 Kernel routines

 Miscellaneous

Here’s the command syntax:

man [option] [section_number] command_name

If you only use the command name as the parameter, Terminal displays the full
user manual. Here’s an example command to query section 1 of
the ls command manual:
man 1 ls

56. echo command

The echo command displays a line of text as a standard output. Here’s the
basic command syntax:
echo [option] [string]

For example, you can display Hostinger Tutorials by entering:

echo "Hostinger Tutorials"

This command supports many options, such as:

 -n – displays the output without the trailing newline.

 -e – enables the interpretation of the following backslash escapes:

 \b – removes spaces in between a text.

 \c – produces no further output.

57. ln command
The ln command lets you create links between files or directories to simplify
system management. Here’s the syntax:
ln [option] [source] [destination]

The command will create the target file or directory and link it to the source. By
default, it creates a hard link, meaning the new item connects to the same data
block as the source.

58. alias, unalias commands

The alias command instructs the shell to replace a string with another,
allowing you to create a shortcut for a program, file name, or text. Here’s the
syntax:
alias name=string

For example, enter the following to make k the alias for the kill command:
alias k='kill'

This command doesn’t give any output. To check the alias associated with a
command, run the following:
alias command_name
To delete an existing alias, use the unalias command with the following
syntax:
unalias [alias_name]

59. cal command

The cal command outputs a calendar in the Linux Terminal. It will show the
current date if you don’t specify the month and year. Here’s the syntax:
cal [option] [month] [year]

The month is in the numerical representation from 1–12. To modify the

command output, add the following options:

 -1 – outputs the calendar in a single line.

 -3 – shows the previous, current, and next month.

 -A and -B – displays the specified number of months after and before the
current one.

 -m – starts the calendar with Monday instead of Sunday.

60. apt-get command

apt-get is a command line tool for handling Advanced Package Tool (APT)
libraries in Debian-based Linux, like Ubuntu. It
requires sudo or root privileges.
This Linux command lets you manage, update, remove, and install software,
including its dependencies. Here’s the main syntax:
apt-get [options] (command)

These are the most common commands to use with apt-get:

 update – synchronizes the package files from their sources.

 upgrade – installs the latest version of all installed packages.

 check – updates the package cache and checks broken dependencies.

Linux Commands Tips and Tricks
Here are some tips for using Linux commands and Terminal to improve your
system management efficiency:

 Add the –help option to list the full usage of a command.

 Use the exit command to close Terminal.

 Enter the clear command to clean the Terminal screen.

 Press the Tab button to autofill after entering a command with an

argument.

 Use Ctrl + C to terminate a running command.

 Press Ctrl + Z to pause a working command.

 Use Ctrl + A to move to the beginning of the line.

 Press Ctrl + E to bring you to the end of the line.

 Separate multiple commands using semicolons (;) or double

ampersands (&&).

How to List All Linux Commands?

Use compgen -c, help, or man -k . to list all available Linux commands in your
system. To check a command usage and its options, use –help. For example,
enter apt –help to check the available options for the apt command.

How Do I Open Terminal in Linux?

In a GUI-based Linux, Terminal is located in the Utility menu or accessible
using the Ctrl + Alt + T shortcut. For Linux servers, Terminal is opened by
default after you log in to the system.
What Does the Syntax Command -option
Argument Mean?
It is the typical order of a command-line utility in Unix-like operating systems
like Linux. Command refers to the program you want to run, and -
option modifies its behavior. Meanwhile, an argument is the input data the
utility is operating on.

What Do […] and Mean in Command Usage?

In Linux command syntax, both […] and enclose placeholders. While […] is
used for an optional parameter, is for required components. For
example, options are enclosed in square brackets, and input files are in
angular ones.

Why Am I Getting a “Permission Denied”

Error?
Permission denied means the command requires root or superuser privilege
to run. To gain the privilege, add sudo at the beginning of each command or
switch to the superuser using sudo su. If the error is related to files or
directories, change their permissions using the chmod command.

What Do I Do if a Command Is “not found”?

If the command you enter is correct, the not found error message means the
utility isn’t installed in your Linux system. To fix it, install the command using
your system’s package manager, like apt for Debian and dnf for RHEL.
Create the Bond Interface
sudo nmcli connection add type bond con-name "Bondconn1" ifname bond0

View the new bond created.

sudo nmcli connection

Example output:
NAME UUID TYPE DEVICE
Bondconn1 6a5605dc-49ad-4f8d-8e10-7c130b95aba7 bond bond0
System ens3 21d47e65-8523-1a06-af22-6f121086f085 ethernet ens3

View the bond configuration file to see detailed information for the new bond
interface.

sudo nmcli connection show "Bondconn1"

example output:

connection.id: Bondconn1
connection.uuid: e8092374-4397-4452-bc55-
2f64c506b518
connection.stable-id: --
connection.type: bond
connection.interface-name: bond0
connection.autoconnect: yes
connection.autoconnect-priority: 0
connection.autoconnect-retries: -1 (default)
connection.multi-connect: 0 (default)
...
...
bond.options: mode=balance-rr
proxy.method: none
proxy.browser-only: no
proxy.pac-url: --
proxy.pac-script: --
GENERAL.NAME: Bondconn1
GENERAL.UUID: 37845378-f29a-4b10-8107-
49b9f5a0f564
GENERAL.DEVICES: bond0
GENERAL.IP-IFACE: --
GENERAL.STATE: activating
...
connection.master: --
connection.slave-type: --
connection.autoconnect-slaves: -1 (default)
connection.secondaries: --
connection.gateway-ping-timeout: 0
connection.metered: unknown
connection.lldp: default
connection.mdns: -1 (default)
connection.llmnr: -1 (default)
connection.wait-device-timeout: -1
ipv4.method: auto
lines 1-25

Change the Bond Mode

sudo nmcli connection modify Bondconn1 bond.options "mode=active-backup"

View the network device interface information on the system

sudo nmcli device

DEVICE TYPE STATE CONNECTION

ens3 ethernet connected System ens3
bond0 bond connecting (getting IP configuration) Bondconn1
ens5 ethernet disconnected --
ens6 ethernet disconnected --
ens7 ethernet disconnected --
lo loopback unmanaged --

Adding and removing network interfaces from a

network bonding
To remove the bond interface we first remove the bond links. Caution: Do not delete a bond
interface with active interface links connected to it.

Use the command sudo nmcli connection delete and add the bond link interface name. Begin
by removing the bond0-if3 connection and then repeat the action for the remaining bond
interfaces.

root@linux:~ # ifenslave -d bond0 eth3

sudo nmcli connection delete bond0-if3

Connection 'bond0-if3' (5751ef04-43f4-46c7-9b29-dc51ef0f7c65) successfully

deleted.

View the bond configuration file

root@linux:~ # cat /proc/net/bonding/bond0

Ethernet Channel Bonding Driver: v3.4.0-2 (October 7, 2008)

Bonding Mode: load balancing (round-robin)

MII Status: up
MII Polling Interval (ms): 0
Up Delay (ms): 0
Down Delay (ms): 0

Slave Interface: eth1

MII Status: up
Speed: 2500 Mbps
Duplex: full
Link Failure Count: 0
Permanent HW addr: d8:d3:85:e7:d1:70

Slave Interface: eth2

MII Status: up
Speed: 1000 Mbps
Duplex: full
Link Failure Count: 0
Permanent HW addr: d8:d3:85:e7:51:8

Adding eth3 to bond1

sudo nmcli connection add type ethernet slave-type bond con-name bond0-if1 ifname
ens5 master bond0

Connection 'bond0-if1' (56e98603-099c-46d1-acd5-1268e4ef9005) successfully added.

root@linux:~ # ifenslave bond1 eth3

View the bond configuration information.

root@linux:~ # cat /proc/net/bonding/bond1

Ethernet Channel Bonding Driver: v3.4.0-2 (October 7, 2008)

Bonding Mode: load balancing (round-robin)

MII Status: up
MII Polling Interval (ms): 0
Up Delay (ms): 0
Down Delay (ms): 0

Slave Interface: eth0

MII Status: up
Speed: 2500 Mbps
Duplex: full
Link Failure Count: 0
Permanent HW addr: d8:d3:85:e7:d1:6c

Slave Interface: eth3

MII Status: up
Speed: 1000 Mbps
Duplex: full
Link Failure Count: 0
Permanent HW addr: d8:d3:85:e7:51:8b

verify that bond0 reports its status as UP

ip addr

17: bond0: <BROADCAST,MULTICAST,MASTER,UP,LOWER_UP> mtu 1500 qdisc noqueue

state UP group default qlen 1000
link/ether 02:00:17:09:f8:b0 brd ff:ff:ff:ff:ff:ff
inet6 fe80::cd09:f18d:f202:3ae4/64 scope link noprefixroute
valid_lft forever preferred_lft forever

To change bond state to UP

sudo nmcli connection up "Bondconn1"

Connection successfully activated (master waiting for slaves) (D-Bus active

path: /org/freedesktop/NetworkManager/ActiveConnection/61)

Assign the IP address and subnet mask of '192.168.1.10/24' to

the bond0 interface
sudo nmcli connection modify "Bondconn1" ipv4.addresses '192.168.1.10/24'

Set the IP address method to manual. This configures the IP address and mask for the
bond interface
sudo nmcli connection modify "Bondconn1" ipv4.method manual

Delete the Bond Interface

Before deleting the bond interface, you set the connection to the down state with the sudo nmcli
connection down command.
sudo nmcli connection down "Bondconn1"

Connection 'Bondconn1' successfully deactivated (D-Bus active path:

/org/freedesktop/NetworkManager/ActiveConnection/86)

Use the command sudo nmcli connection delete along with the bond interface name to
delete the bond interface.

sudo nmcli connection delete "Bondconn1"

ACCESS NTFS USB Partition

For Redhat 7
yum install https://dl.fedoraproject.org/pub/epel/epel-release-latest-7.noarch.rpm
for redhat 6
yum -y install https://dl.fedoraproject.org/pub/epel/epel-release-latest-
6.noarch.rpm
yum install epel-release
yum install ntfs-3g

lsblk or fdisk -l
mount -t ntfs-3g /dev/sdb1 /mnt/win
umount /mnt/win
To mount the NTFS partition permanently, add the following line to the /etc/fstab file.
nano /etc/fstab

And add the line:

/dev/sdb1 /mnt/win ntfs-3g defaults 0 0

verify the mounted drives

df -h or mount
history | grep subscription
subscription-manager register
subscription-manager register -release
subscription-manager register –auto
subscription-manager clean
sudo subscription-manager refresh
subscription-manager repos --enable
subscription-manager register attach –auto
yum install *ntfs* --enablerepo epel

Update/Upgrade from Redhat Enterprise Linux 5.3 to Enterprise Linux 5.9

[root@yoursystem] # rpm -qa | grep redhat-relase

Making a local yum repository

[root@yoursystem] # df -PhT /
Filesystem Type Size Used Avail Use%
Mounted ON
/dev/mapper/disk0-slash ext4 120G 1.5G 118.5G 2% /

[root@yoursystem] # mkdir -p /localyum /cdrom/notmounted

[root@yoursystem] # df -kl /localyum
[root@yoursystem] # mount /dev/cdrom /cdrom
[root@yoursystem] # rsync -au --progress /cdrom/ /localyum/
[root@yoursystem] # echo RUN THE RSYNC MORE THAN ONCE
[root@yoursystem] # /bin/chmod -R 750 /localyum
cho "REFERENCE this next command will help you find the file for what is two lines below"
[root@yoursystem] # ls -l /localyum/Server/ | grep ^createrepo
[root@yoursystem] # echo "this installs the createrepo rpm you need to create the local
yum repo"
[root@yoursystem] # rpm -ivh /localyum/Server/createrepo-VERSION.rpm
[root@yoursystem] # echo "this actually performs the creation of the local repository"
[root@yoursystem] # createrepo /localyum
[root@yoursystem] # echo "this is often overkill, but I find it helps to import gpg keys
after making a yum repo"
[root@yoursystem] # rpm --import /etc/pki/rpm-gpg/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-*

[root@yoursystem] # vi /etc/yum.repos.d/local.repo

[localyum]
name=localyum
baseurl=file:///localyum/
enabled=1
gpgcheck=1
gpgkey=file:///etc/pki/rpm-gpg/RPM-GPG-KEY-redhat-release

Run this to reset your yum database

[root@yoursystem] # yum clean all
[root@yoursystem] # yum repolist
repo id repo name status
localyum localyum x,xxx (some number of files,
probably over 3000)
[root@yoursystem] # yum check-update