INTRODUCTION

What is a Computer?

In early days of mankind human beings lived in a small groups. They had little contact
with other groups. Their requirements were also very few and they had to deal with small amount of
information. As the days passed there was more and more contact with the outside of the world. The
need of mankind also goes in increasing. As a result man had to keep track of information and he
wants to store data. But storing and retrieval becomes difficult by manual work. After years of
research man was able to construct computer which helps in collecting storing and retrieval of data. At
early stages of computers they were used only for simple mathematical calculations. As the
development goes on, the computers now used for complex operations. By using computers we can
handle real world problems easily.

The applications of computer not only bound to one department, it is used in a number
of departments including Banking, Defense, Schools, Colleges, Hospitals and Railways etc.

Definition of Computers:
➢ The word computer has been derived from the word “Compute” which means to calculate.
➢ It is an electronic device which inputs the data, stores the data, processes the data and gives the
result accurately at a very high speed according to the instructions provided.
Characteristics of computers:
The following are the some of the characteristics of a typical computer.
Speed:
➢ Computer operates at very high speed.
➢ Even the speed of slowest personal computer is very high as compared to that of a human being.
➢ The speed of the computer is specified in “Million Instructions Per Second” {MIPS}

Accuracy:

➢ It performs with a degree of high consistent accuracy.

➢ The degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design.
➢ Each and every calculation is performed with same accuracy.
➢ Errors may occur in computer due to either undetected error in the design (or) it they aren’t
programmed properly.

Diligence:

➢ Unlike human beings a computer is free from tiredness (or) lack of concentration when made to
work continuously.
➢ It doesn’t show laziness when made to do the same task repeatedly.

Versatility:

➢ Computers are very versatile.

➢ The same computers can be used for various applications for instance, we can use a personal
computer to prepare a letter, prepare the balance sheet for a company, and store data about
employees send or receive fax messages and so on.
➢ In other words a computer is a capable of performing almost any task provided the task should be
performed.

Storage and Retrieval of data:

➢ A computer can store huge amount of data in its memory.

➢ We can store any type of data such as letters, pictures, sounds etc in a computer.
➢ We can also retrieve the stored data from the computer as per the user requirement.
➢ The information can be stored in computers memory for several years.

It is Dumb:

➢ A computer is dumb. It has no intelligence of its own. It can’t think or make decisions on its own.
➢ It gets its power from the program that it runs.
➢ The program that the computer runs determine what task it will perform.

No Emotions:

➢ Computers are not like living beings. Hence they don’t have any emotions.
➢ They don’t have any heart (or) soul so that they can’t take decisions based on emotions, feelings
etc.

Evolution of computers:-

The development of computer started over the ages and it to thousands of years to
mature, let us consider the development of a computer through various stages.

1. Abacus:-
• Around 30 years before the birth of Christ, they developed an earliest form of counting
machine know as abacus.
• An abacus consists of beads divided into two parts which are movable on the rods of the
two parts.
2. Napier’s Logs and Bone’s :-
• John Napier developed the idea logarithm.
• He used logs to transform multiplication problem to addition problem.
• He also derive a set of numbering rods know as Napier’s bone’s, which are used to perform
multiplication and divisions.
3. Pascal’s Adding machine :-
• Blaise Pascal invites a machine called adding machine. It was capable to perform addition
& subtraction.
4. Leibnitz calculator :-
• Gottfried Leibnitz improved by adding machine & constricts a new machine in1671 that
was able to perform multiplication & division as well.
5. Babbage’s Difference Engine :-
• Charles Babbage developed a machine called difference engine. These machines calculate
logarithmic tables to a high degree of precision.
6. Babbage’s Analytical Engine :-
 • Charles Babbage designs an analytical engine which begins a real model of modern day
computer.
• He included the concept of central process storage area, memory and input/output.
• Because of inventions of difference engine and analytical engine, Charles Babbage has
been considering as “Father of modern Computers”.
7. Hollerith’s Machine :-
• Herman Hollerith developed electro mechanical punched card that is used for input, output
and storing of instructions.
8. Mark-1 :-
• Howard Aiken contracted an electro mechanical computer named mark-1 which could
multiply two 10 digit number in 5-seconds.
9. ENIAC :-
• Electronic Numerical Integrator And Calculator were built by Prof.Eckerit and Mauchly.
• It used about 19000 vacuum tubes and can perform about 300 multiplications per second.
10. EDSAC :-
• Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Computer was developed by Maurice willies.
• It has ability to input, output, storing the data.
• It also able to perform and control arithmetic calculations.
11. EDVAC :-
• Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was developed by Prof.Eckerit and
Mauchley.
• In this both the data and instruction can be stored in binary form instead of decimal number
system.
12. UNIVAC:-
• Universal Automatic Computer developed by Remington.
• It was cable of performing to access both numeric and alphabetic information.
13. UNIVAC-1:-
• It is the first computer which is used for commercial purpose in 1954.

Generations of Computers:
Evolution of Modern Computers from the olden days is known as “Generation of
Computers.” Generations of computers are broadly classified based on the following
characteristics:
➢ Increasing in storage capacity.
➢ Increasing in processing speed.
➢ Increasing reliability.
There are totally 5 generations of computers till today.

First Generation Computers: Period: (1945-1955)

Technology: Vacuum tubes

The ENIAC was the first computer developed in this generation. It was capable of
performing 5000 additions (or) 350 multiplications per second. It uses about 18000 vacuum tubes
and it consumes 150 kw/hr.
 Limitations:

The limitations of first generation computers are as follows.

➢ Less operating capacity.

➢ High power consumption.
➢ Very large space requirement.
➢ Produce high temperature.
➢ Very costly.

Second Generation Computers: Period: (1955-1965)

Technology: Transistors

➢ The second generation computers use transistors as the main component in CPU. They are
very small in size when compared to vacuum tubes and produce less heat. They are fast and
reliable.

➢ Due to this invention of Transistors the size, maintenance cost, power consumption has
decreased.

➢ During this period magnetic storage devices have been started there development. Because of
this, speed and storage capacity has been increased. They are capable to perform 20,000 to
50,000 additions per second.

Third Generation Computers: Period: (1965-1975)

Technology: Integrated Circuits {IC}

➢ In this generation the computers used integrated circuits instead of Transistors

➢ Integrated circuit is a miniature form of an electronic circuit made of silicon and enclosed in
a metal package.
➢ These IC’s are caused “chips.” The cost and size of the computers were greatly reduced. The
magnetic disk technology has improved rapidly. It has capable to perform 10 million
additions per second.

Fourth Generation Computers: Period: (1975-1990)

Technology: Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit (VLSI)

➢ IC’s packing nearly 10,000 transistors are grouped in to a single silicon chip known as
“microprocessor”. The computers which use micro processors are called “Micro Computers”.

➢ Intel Corporation invented the micro processor in the year 1980 with this development the cost
of a computer has reduced a lot.
➢ The floppy disk technology was developed during this generation.
Fifth Generation Computers: Period: (1990- till date)

Technology: Artificial Intelligence

➢ Artificial Intelligence is a technique by which we make the computer to think and take
decisions in its own.
➢ These computers are under research.
➢ Artificial Intelligence can be achieved by means of problem solving, Game playing, and Expert
systems.

Specific
Generation Technology Operating Year of computers

number system introduction

1 Vacuum Tube None 1945 Mark 1

IBM 1401, ICL 1901, B5000,

2 Transistor None 1956 MINSK-2

IBM S/360/370, UNIVAC

3 SSI and MSI Yes 1964 1100,

HP 2100A, HP 9810

ICL 2900, HP 9845A, VAX 11/780,

4 LSI and VLSI Yes 1971 ALTAIR 8800, IBM PC

5 Yes Present and beyond

Artificial
 Intelligence, —

Expert Systems
and

Natural
Language

Classification of Computers based on the sizes:

Depending upon the size and capability of the computers, they also classified in to four types
namely.
(i) Super Computers ii) Main Frame Computers
(iii) Mini Computers iv) Micro Computers

Super Computers:

➢ Complex scientific applications like weather forecasting require a large amount of data to be
processed. To solve this we use super computers.
➢ They are most powerful computers. Even though they are costly, they have high storage
capacity and very fast.
➢ It has capable to perform 100 million instructions per second.
➢ These computers have multiple processor and capable of performing multiple tasks at a time.
➢ The word-length of super computers is of 64 bits.

Note: The capacity of processing number of bits at a time is called word-length.

Main Frame Computers:

➢ Main Frame Computers are also referred to as large scale general purpose computers.
➢ They have more memory capacity and have very high processing speed.
➢ It has capable to perform 10-30 MIPS.
➢ The word-length of the main frame computers is 32-64 bits.
➢ They are used in large business Enterprises, Government Agencies, Universities, etc where
huge volume of data is required.

Mini Computers:

➢ The Mini Computers are third generation computers.

➢ They are used in applications that do not required very high speed (or) large memory capacity
for storage.
➢ Its operating speed is low when compared with main frame computers.
➢ The word-length is of 12-32 bits, they are also called “Mid-Range Computers”.

Micro Computers:

➢ A Micro Computer is a small and low cost computer that is built around micro processors for
storing and processing.
 ➢ They are also called personal computers.
➢ The word-length of these computers is 4-16 bits.
➢ They are generally used for office applications.
➢ There are different models of these computers. Some of them are desktop, laptop, palmtop.

Classification of Computers based on Functionality:

The computers depending on the kind of functionality, they are classified in to three types
namely.
(i) Analog Computers
(ii) Digital Computers
(iii) Hybrid Computers

Analog Computers:

➢ In Analog computers continuous quantities are used.

➢ Computations are carried out physical quantities such as voltage, temperature.
➢ The devices that measure such quantities are analog devices.
➢ Analog computers are mostly used in Engineering and Scientific Applications.
➢ These Accuracy is poor as compared to digital computers

Digital Computers:

➢ The digital computers work upon discontinuous data.

➢ They convert the data in two digits [0, 1] and all operations carried out on these digits at
extremely fast rates.
➢ Digital computers are much faster and more accurate than Analog computers.
➢ These computers are used in business and scientific applications.

Hybrid Computers:

➢ These computers utilize the best quantities of both the digital and Analog computers.
➢ These computers are best used in hospital where analog part is responsible for measuring
patient heart beat and then the operation is carried out in digital fashion to monitor patient
status.
➢ Thus in these computers some calculations takes place in analog manner and rest of them takes
place in digital manner.
Anatomy of Computers:

CPU

ALU

Input MU Output

CU

Input Unit:

Computers need to receive data and instructions in order to solve any problem.

➢ The input unit consists of one or more input devices like keyboard, mouse, joystick etc.
➢ Regardless of the type of the input device used in a computer system, all input devices perform
the following functions.
o Accept the data
o Convert data to computer understandable form.
o Supply converted data for further processing.

CPU:

➢ CPU stands for “Central Processing Unit.”

➢ CPU is like a computer Brain. It performs the following operations.
o It performs all calculations.
o It takes all decisions.
o It controls all units of computer.
➢ Control unit, Memory unit and Arithmetic logic unit of the computers are together known as
central processing unit.

Memory Unit:
➢ Memory Unit of the computer holds data and instructions that we enter through the input unit.
➢ It is also used to preserve intermediate and final results before they are sent to the output unit.
➢ It is used to preserve the data for later usage.
➢ The various storage devices used for storage can be classified in to a categories namely
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory
➢ Primary memory stores and provides information very fast but it loses the contents when we
switch off the computer.
 ➢ Secondary memory stores the data permanently. The program that we want to run on the
computer is first transferred to the primary memory from secondary.

Control Unit:

➢ The control unit controls all other units in the computer.

➢ The control unit instructs the input unit where to store data after receiving it from the user.
➢ It also controls the flow of data and instructions from the memory unit to “ALU”.
➢ It controls the flow of results from ALU to output unit.

Arithmetic Logic Unit:

➢ All calculations are performed in ALU.

➢ It does comparisons and takes decisions.
➢ It can perform Basic Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction as well as logical
operations like less than greater than.
➢ After performing calculations the result is stored in memory unit.

Output Unit:

➢ The output unit of a computer provides information and results of an operation to the outside
world.
➢ The output unit also converts Binary data to a form that uses can understand.
➢ The commonly used to output devices are Monitors, Printers, and Plotters.

Input Devices:
➢ An input device is any hardware component used to enter data, programs, commands and user
responses in to a computer.
➢ There are varieties of input units which are used by computers. Some of them are listed below.
Keyboard, Mouse, Punched Cards, Light Pen, Joy Stick, Touch Screen, Microphone, MICR,
Scanner, OCR, OMR, Smart Card Reader, Bar Code Reader, Biometric Sensors, Digital Camera, Web
Camera.

Key Board:

➢ An important data entry device is the keyboard, which is a type writer like device.
➢ Internally a keyboard contains a matrix of switches, [one switch per key] and a key board
controller.
➢ Through pressing and Releasing of Switches, key board controller generates a scan code. This
scan code is sent to personal Computer [pc].
➢ The PC has another controller which converts the received scan code into a specific character.
➢ It includes functional keys, special keys[page up, page down, Home, Delete, Insert, End, Arrow
keys] and Toggle keys [ctrl, shift, caps].

Mouse:

➢ The Mouse is a pointing device that fits under palm of a hand.

➢ It controls movement of pointer called “mouse pointer” on the screen.
➢ When a mouse moves on a flat surface, the cursor on the screen also moves in the direction of
mouse’s movement.
➢ A mouse generally has two or three buttons and it may or may not have a wheel [scroller].

Punched Cards:

➢ These were oldest input devices.

➢ It consists of a card divided in to 12 rows and 80 columns.
➢ The data was stored by making holes on the cards.

Light Pen:

➢ A light pen is also a pointing device.

➢ It consists of a photo cell mounted in a pen shaped tube.
➢ When the pen is brought in-front of a picture element on the screen, it senses light. The light
coming from the screen causes the photo cell to respond by generating pulse.
➢ It is also used to draw images on the screen with the movement of the light pen the lines are
drawn on the screen.

Touch Screen:

➢ A type of display screen that has a touch sensitive transparent panel covering the screen known as
“Touch Screen.”
➢ Instead of using pointing devices such as mouse or light pen, we can use the finger to point
directly to the object on the screen.
➢ They are used to choose options which are displayed on the screen.

Graphic Tablet:

➢ A graphic tablet or digitizing tablet is an input device that enables us to enter drawings, and
sketches in to a computer.
➢ It consists of an electronic surface and a cursor or pen.
➢ When we draw on the electronic surface by using pen, the corresponding image is created on the
screen.
➢ The drawings created in this manner are very accurate.

Joy Stick:

➢ It is a device that lets the user to move an object on the screen.

➢ Children can play with computers in a simplest way by using joystick. While playing certain
games, the user needs to move certain objects quickly on the screen.
➢ It is generally used to control the velocity of screen cursor movement.

Micro Phone [MIC]:

➢ We can send sound input to computer through a special input device called Micro processor or
MIC in short
➢ When we input the sound through MIC, the sound card translates the electric signals from micro
phone in to digitized form that the computer can store and process.
➢ These are best used in multimedia presentation.

Magnetic Ink Character Reader [MICR]:

➢ MICR reads characters which are printed using a special Ink called “Magnetic Ink” that contains
“Iron Oxide”.
➢ MICR’s are mainly used in Banks. In a cheque the branch code, cheque numbers are printed in
bottom using Magnetic Ink.
➢ The cheque can be read by using MICR. This method saves time and also ensures accuracy of
data.

Scanner:

➢ A scanner is a device similar to a photo copies {Xerox} that prints the given image in a paper.
Whereas scanner creates an electronic form of a printed image.
➢ It digitizes the image i.e., it stores the image in terms of numbers. Image is scanned as a group of
dots called “pixels”. Each pixel is then stored as a number.
➢ The resolution of a scanner is a measure of number of pixels.

Optical Character Reader {OCR}:

➢ An OCR is used to Read Character of special type of font printed on paper. They can also identify
hand written text also.
➢ OCR converts the image of text in to actual text which is editable in word processors.

Optical Mark Reader {OMR}:

➢ In this method special pre-printed forms are designed with boxes which can be marked with a
dark pencil (or) ink.
➢ Such document form is read by a document reader called “Optical Mark Reader” which translates
the darkened marks in to electric pulses which are transmitted to the computer.

Smart Card Reader {SMR}:

➢ The enhanced version of cards with magnetic strips is called the “Smart Card”.
➢ The special reader machines that can read information on smart cards are called “Smart Card
Readers.”
➢ They have variety of applications including banking, security, medical records.

Bar Code Reader {BCR}:

➢ A Bar code is a pattern of printed bars on various types of products.

➢ A Bar code reader emits a beam of light, generally a laser beam, which reflects off the bar code
image.
➢ Once the bar code is identified the bar pattern is converted in to numeric code that can be
processed in any manner.

Bio-Metric Sensors:

➢ Bio-Metric sensors are input devices used for identifying a person’s identity.
➢ Bio-Metrics is a technology that verifies a person’s identity by measuring a unique character
belongs to the individual.
➢ Bio-Metric sensors are used in finger print capturing, voice Recognition, dynamic signature
verification etc.

Digital Camera: {DigiCam}

➢ A camera that stores images digitally rather than recording them on film is called digital camera.
➢ Once a picture has been taken, it can be downloaded in to a computer system.
➢ The main advantage is that making photos is both is expensive and fast because there is no film
processing.

Web Camera: {webcam}

➢ A Web cam is essentially a camera that is connected to a computer either directly (or) wirelessly.
➢ A Web camera gathers a series of digital images that can be displayed on web browser.
Output Devices:
➢ The data should be retrieved to view it by user.
➢ To view data, the computer must be connected to an output device.
➢ The output device produces output in human readable form.
➢ The most output common devices are monitors, printers, plotters, speakers and projectors.

Monitors:

➢ Monitors (or) screen are the most common output form of a computer. It is also called VDU
{Visual Display Unit}.
➢ It displays information in a similar way to that shown on television screen.
➢ The picture on, monitor is made of 1000 of tiny colored data’s called “pixels”.
➢ The 2 most common types of monitors are
o Cathode Ray Tube Monitors [CRT]
o Liquid Crystal Display Monitors [LCD]

CRT Monitors:

➢ The CRT works in the same way as television. It contains an electron gun at the back of glass
tube.
➢ This fires electrons on phosphorous coat screen, when electron strikes the phosphorous screen. It
glows to give the color.

LCD Monitors:

➢ This is smaller and lighter than the CRT which makes them for use with portable laptops and
palmtops.
➢ It is also called TFT display [Thin Film Transistors].
➢ CRT monitors are big and require lot of power where as LCD’s use less power and occupies less
space.

Printers:
➢ It is a hard copy output device. They can produce text and images on paper. They can produce
both color and black & white prints.
➢ It can be divided in to two categories.

Impact printers:

➢ In these printers, there is a mechanical contact between the print head and paper.
➢ They are having low operating speed and can print on continuous stationary.
➢ They are having low resolution i.e., print quality is poor. They are very slow and very noisy.
➢ The impact printers come in lot of varieties, important two types of printers are
o Dot-Matrix printer
o Drum printer

Dot-Matrix Printers:

➢ It is the most popular serial printer i.e., prints one character at a time.
➢ The head moves across the paper against an inked ribbon to form a pattern of dots on the
paper.
➢ They are robust and can be used in harsh conditions such as in factories.

Drum Printers:

➢ It is another important impact printer that is generally used in various office applications.
➢ It has a roller drum on which alphabets are placed in a particular order.
➢ They are very slow and noisy and can’t produce color prints.

Non-Impact Printers:

➢ In these printers there is no mechanical contact between the print head and paper.
➢ They are having high resolution and are having high operating speed than that of impact printers.
➢ The two types of Non-impact printers are
o Inkjet Printers
o Laser Printers

Inkjet Printers:

➢ It is a printer that fires extremely small droplets of ink on to paper to create impression of text (or)
image.
➢ It directs a high velocity stream of ink towards the paper.
➢ They have good resolution {nearly 300 to 600 data per inch}
➢ They are cheaper, light weight and very quiet.
➢ They can print Black & White as well as color on the same page.

Laser Printers:

➢ The desired output image is written on a copier drum with the help of a light beam controlled by a
computer.
➢ With these certain parts get electrically charged then this drum is exposed to laser beam.
➢ These laser exposed areas attract toner that form the image.
➢ The laser printers are quiet and are capable of produce a high quality prints.
➢ The speed of laser printers can be up to 10-20 pages per minute {PPM}.
➢ Depending upon the printing capacity the printers are further classified in to 3 types.

Character Printer:

These printers print one character at a time and these are the slowest printers.

Line Printers:

These printers are capable of printing one line at a time.

Page Printers:

These printers are capable of printing one page at a time.

Plotters:

➢ Many applications require a graphical output apart from printed output. For example, pie-charts,
bar-charts and graphs that is useful for representation of data.
➢ Plotters are output devices that produce good quality of drawings and graphs.
➢ They are expensive and slower than printers since they draw each line separately.
➢ There are two types of plotters namely drum plotters and flat-bed plotters.

Speakers:

➢ A speaker has become key sound output systems.

➢ A computer system must require a sound card.
➢ Speaker receive constantly change in electric current from sound cards.
➢ This current transferred to a magnet and there it converts to sound format.
➢ The speakers that are attached to a computer are similar to the one that are attached to the stereo.
Memory Revisited:
➢ The memory unit is an essential component in any digital computer.
➢ The programs, data and information are stored in memory unit.
➢ The memory is broadly classified into two types, namely primary memory and secondary
memory.

Primary (or) Main Memory:

➢ The memory that is must for running a computer system is primary memory.
➢ The cpu has direct communication with primary memory.
➢ The primary memory is classified in to two types.
RAM:
➢ It stands for “Random Access Memory.”
➢ All the programs that are running in the computer are accessed from the RAM only.
➢ The information stored in RAM is accessed in “Random Fashion.” The access time is same for
each and every memory location.
➢ RAM is volatile in nature because the contents of it will be lost when ever power supply is
interrupted.
 ➢ There are 3 types of RAM memories. They are
SRAM:
➢ Stands for “static RAM.”
➢ It will store information as long as the power supply is on.
➢ It consumes more power and is used in minimum memory requirement computers.
DRAM:
➢ Stands for “Dynamic RAM.”
➢ It will lose information even power supply is on.
➢ It must have refreshment circuit to refresh the loosed information.
➢ It is very cheaper and it consumes less power.
VRAM:
➢ Stands for “Video RAM”.
➢ It is mostly used for video displaying cards.
➢ It is twice faster than the SRAM & DRAM.
ROM:
➢ Stands for “Read Only Memory.”
➢ It is a non-volatile memory. I.e., the data stored on ROM is not erased when the power is
switched off.
➢ This is held on chip inside the processor and is used to hold the data that can’t be changed by
the user.
➢ Programs related to the operating system are stored in ROM chips when the computer is
manufactured.
➢ There are three types of ROM – PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.
PROM:
➢ Stands for “Programmable ROM”.
➢ These are oldest ROMS. These are in general use stored BIOS setting of the computer.
➢ We can write permanent programs in to PROM.
EPROM:
➢ Stands for “Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory.”
➢ The contents of it can be erased by exposing EPROM to high intensity Ultra Violet light.
➢ These are cheaper, reliable & widely available.
EEPROM:
➢ Stands for “Electrically Erasable PROM.”
➢ In case of EPROM, entire data can be erased but not single memory location, where as in
EEPROM we can able to erase entire data (or) single memory location.
➢ By using electric Signals, data is erased. These are more advanced ROMs.

Secondary Memory:

➢ They are also called “Auxiliary (or) External” memories.

➢ They are used to store data permanently.
➢ These are having high storage capacity and high processing speed. Then that of primary
memory. They are use expensive.
➢ The following are commonly used storage devices.

Magnetic Tapes:
 ➢ They look like a video cassette.
➢ It consists of a tape and in which the data is stored with the help of read and write head.
➢ They are cheaper, and have capacity to store large data.
➢ The data is accessed in a sequential order i.e., in order to access a particular location all its
previous locations should be accessed.

Magnetic Disks:

➢ They are very similar to “Gram phone record” Disk. They are permanent storage media.
➢ The devices are made of magnetic material and it provides direct access to the data.
➢ There are two types of Magnetic Disks.
Hard Disk:
➢ The Hard Disk memories store information in one (or) more circular plotters (or) disks which
are continuously spinning.
➢ Information is recorded on the surface of rotating disks by magnetic heads as tiny magnetic
spots.
➢ These are having high storage capacity and accessing of information is fast when compared
with flexible disks.

Flexible Disks:

➢ The portable magnetic storage disks are called flexible disks.

➢ These can be used to carry the data from one system to another.
➢ The different flexible disks are
o Floppy Disk
o Zip Disk

Floppy Disk:

➢ These are also called “Diskettes”.

➢ They are one of the oldest types of portable storage devices.
➢ They have a magnetic surface which allows the recording of data.
➢ A standard floppy disk can store up to 1.44 MB of data.

Zip Disk:

➢ The zip disks are very similar to floppy disks.

➢ They are small in size and having more storage capacity than that of floppy disk.
➢ The capacity is about 100 MB.

Optical Disks:

➢ These are made up of glass and plastic fiber.

➢ The data is stored on these disks by high intensity laser beams by using laser guns.
➢ These are also portable storage devices and also very cheap.
➢ Some of the optical disks are
o Compact Disk - CD
o Digital Video Disk - DVD
CD:

The Compact Disks are optical media. These are relatively cheap and have storage capacity up to
700 MB. There are 3 main types of CD’s.

CD ROM:
Manufacturers use CD ROMS to record information. The user can’t use these for storing data.
Even user can’t modify, delete, and re-write the information on these disks.
CD – R:
Data can be recorded on these disks only once
CD-RW:
CD Re-writable is an erasable disk and we can write on it multiple times.

DVD:

That looks like CD, but has able to hold about 15 times much information than a CD. DVD also
comes in 3 varieties. They are

(i) DVD - ROM

(ii) DVD - R
(iii) DVD - RW

Cache Memory:

➢ The word “Cache” is pronounced as “Cash”.

➢ The Cache memory is the intermediate memory between the cpu and main memory.
➢ This is the fastest memory which stores the frequent instructions needed by the system and
executes the instructions directly without communicating with the main memory.
➢ Its access time is 15-20 Nano Seconds, While that of main memory is 80 Nano Seconds. It is very
expensive.