Effects of alloying element

Carbon (C)
 Effect: Carbon is the most critical element that defines the hardness,
strength, and ductility of steel. In mild steel (low-carbon steel), carbon is
typically present in small amounts (usually around 0.05% to 0.25%).
 Impact:
o Increased Carbon: Leads to higher tensile strength and hardness
but reduces ductility, meaning the steel becomes more brittle.
o Low Carbon (as in mild steel): Keeps the steel more ductile and
malleable, making it easier to weld and form, but reduces hardness
and tensile strength.
2. Manganese (Mn)
 Effect: Manganese is added to steel in amounts of about 0.30% to 0.90%.
It serves multiple functions.
 Impact:
o Deoxidizer: It removes oxygen from molten steel, reducing the
formation of gas bubbles and making the steel more uniform.
o Increased Strength and Hardness: Manganese improves the
strength and hardness of steel by forming manganese carbides,
which strengthens the material without reducing its ductility too
much.
o Prevention of Cracking: Manganese also reduces the risk of
cracking and brittleness, particularly during welding.
3. Silicon (Si)
  Effect: Silicon is added to steel in amounts of about 0.05% to 0.30%. It
serves primarily as a deoxidizer but has other effects too.
 Impact:
o Deoxidizing Agent: Silicon removes dissolved oxygen from steel
during the production process, improving steel’s overall quality.
o Increased Strength: Silicon slightly increases the strength and
elasticity of the steel without reducing its ductility too much.
o Too Much Silicon: If present in excessive quantities (above
0.40%), it can make steel more brittle, reducing its machinability
and impact resistance.
4. Sulphur (S)
 Effect: Sulphur is usually considered an impurity in steel. It can be present
in small amounts (below 0.05%).
 Impact:
o Improves Machinability: In controlled amounts, sulphur can
enhance the machinability of steel, making it easier to cut and
shape.
o Negative Effects: Sulphur tends to make steel brittle and
decreases its ductility. It also reduces the steel's impact strength,
especially at lower temperatures. In welding, sulfur can lead to hot
cracking (cracking during cooling).
5. Phosphorus (P)
 Effect: Like sulphur, phosphorus is usually considered an impurity in steel,
and it is kept below 0.05% in most grades.
 Impact:
o Increases Strength: Phosphorus improves the strength and
hardness of steel.
o Reduces Ductility: Excess phosphorus can cause embrittlement,
which makes the steel prone to cracking under stress, particularly at
low temperatures. This makes it less suitable for dynamic
applications or load-bearing structures.
6. Nickel (Ni)
 Effect: Nickel is usually added to steel in small amounts, typically 0.50%
to 3.50%. It is more common in higher alloy steels like stainless steel but
can be present in low amounts in mild steel.
 Impact:
o Toughness: Nickel enhances the toughness of steel, especially at
low temperatures, which is why it is used in steels meant for cold
environments.
 o Corrosion Resistance: Nickel increases the resistance to corrosion
and oxidation, making it useful in steels exposed to harsh
environments.
7. Chromium (Cr)
 Effect: Chromium is another common alloying element, used in amounts
ranging from 0.50% to 2.00%. It's more commonly associated with
stainless steel but can be present in small amounts in mild steel.
 Impact:
o Corrosion Resistance: Chromium helps improve resistance to rust
and oxidation.
o Increased Strength: It increases hardness and tensile strength by
forming chromium carbides, which improve wear resistance.
o Hardenability: Chromium enhances the ability of steel to be heat-
treated, improving its ability to harden and retain its hardness.
8. Molybdenum (Mo)
 Effect: Molybdenum is added in amounts typically below 1%. It is more
common in alloy steels, but can also be found in trace amounts in some
grades of mild steel.
 Impact:
o Improved Toughness: Molybdenum increases strength,
toughness, and hardness, especially at high temperatures.
o Hardenability: It improves the ability of the steel to harden
through heat treatment. Molybdenum allows for more uniform
hardening, reducing the risk of cracking.
o Creep Resistance: Molybdenum provides better resistance to
deformation under stress and high temperatures, making the steel
more heat-resistant.
9. Copper (Cu)
 Effect: Copper is sometimes added to mild steel in small amounts (around
0.20% to 0.40%).
 Impact:
o Corrosion Resistance: Copper increases corrosion resistance,
particularly in weathering steels. It forms a protective oxide layer on
the surface, which reduces the rate of rusting.
10. Vanadium (V)
 Effect: Vanadium is rarely added to mild steel, but in alloy steels, it is
used in very small amounts (below 0.10%).
 Impact:
 o Grain Refinement: Vanadium refines the grain structure of steel,
making it stronger and tougher without increasing its brittleness.
o Improved Hardness: It also increases hardness and resistance to
wear, making steel more durable in high-wear applications.
Summary of Alloying Element Effects in Mild Steel:
 Carbon: Increases strength and hardness but reduces ductility.
 Manganese: Improves strength and wear resistance, reduces cracking.
 Silicon: Enhances strength and elasticity, but too much can make steel
brittle.
 Sulphur: Improves machinability but reduces toughness.
 Phosphorus: Increases strength but reduces ductility.
 Nickel: Enhances toughness and corrosion resistance.
 Chromium: Improves hardness, strength, and corrosion resistance.
 Molybdenum: Enhances toughness and heat resistance.
 Copper: Provides improved corrosion resistance.
 Vanadium: Improves strength and toughness through grain refinement.

Electrode composition (INDARC-613)

The INDARC 613 (E6013) electrode is commonly used for mild steel welding and
is known for its versatility in different positions (flat, horizontal, vertical, and
overhead). Its composition typically includes:
 Carbon (C): 0.20% max
 Manganese (Mn): 1.20% max
 Silicon (Si): 1.00% max
 Sulphur (S): 0.040% max
 Phosphorus (P): 0.040% max.

 Coating Type: E6013 electrodes have a rutile-based

coating, which helps provide a smooth arc, easy slag
removal, and low spatter. This makes them highly user-
friendly and suitable for general-purpose welding.
 Current and Power Source: E6013 electrodes can operate
with both AC and DC (positive or negative polarity), giving
them flexibility in various welding conditions.
  Arc Stability: The soft arc characteristic makes it well-suited
for thinner materials and allows for all-position welding,
making it versatile across different welding tasks.
 Applications: Commonly used in applications such as:

 Structural Welding: Buildings, bridges, and steel frameworks.

 Automotive and Railways: Body panels, railway wagons, and
trailers.
 General Fabrication: Tanks, vessels, and piping.
 Maintenance and Repair Work: Given its ease of use and good
penetration

Other Types of electrodes

1. Chromium-Based Electrodes:

Chromium is a key alloying element used in electrodes to provide

corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and oxidation resistance.
These electrodes are commonly used in stainless steel welding and
hard-facing applications.

a. Stainless Steel Electrodes (E309, E316, E308):

 Description: These electrodes contain a high percentage of

chromium, usually 12-25%, which helps provide superior corrosion
resistance. Chromium helps form a passive layer on the steel,
preventing further oxidation.
 Applications: These are used in applications requiring corrosion
resistance, such as:
o Food processing equipment
o Chemical plants
o Marine environments
o High-temperature equipment like boilers and heat
exchangers.
 Types:
o E309: Contains around 23% chromium and is often used for
joining dissimilar metals.
o E316: Contains molybdenum in addition to chromium for
added corrosion resistance, especially in chloride
environments (seawater).
o E308: Commonly used for austenitic stainless steel like
304 and 304L grades.

b. Hard-facing Electrodes (High Chromium Carbide):

 Description: These electrodes have high chromium carbide

content, which provides excellent abrasion resistance and wear
 resistance. Chromium carbides are very hard and resist cutting or
grinding forces.
 Applications:
o Hard-facing parts subjected to extreme wear, such as:
 Mining equipment
 Excavator buckets
 Agricultural machinery
 Crusher jaws and other heavy-duty parts.

Chromium’s Role:

 Forms hard carbides (CrC) which resist wear.

 Provides oxidation resistance at high temperatures.
 Forms a passive oxide layer that prevents rust and corrosion.

2. Nickel-Based Electrodes:

Nickel-based electrodes are known for their high corrosion resistance

and heat resistance. They are commonly used in high-performance
alloys and for welding dissimilar metals.

a. Inconel Electrodes (ENiCrFe, ENiCrMo):

 Description: Inconel is a nickel-chromium alloy that is highly

resistant to oxidation and corrosion at high temperatures.
 Composition: Typical Inconel electrodes contain:
o Nickel: 60-70%
o Chromium: 14-23%
o Iron: As an alloying element in specific grades.
 Applications:
o Aerospace industry: Gas turbines, jet engines.
o Power plants: Heat exchangers, steam generators.
o Chemical and petrochemical industries: Reactor vessels,
pipelines.
 Types:
o ENiCrFe-3: Suitable for welding Inconel alloys, stainless steel,
and carbon steel.
o ENiCrMo-4: Contains molybdenum for additional corrosion
resistance in acidic environments (e.g., sulfuric acid).

b. Nickel-Iron Electrodes (ENiFe):

 Description: These electrodes are designed for repairing cast

iron and joining dissimilar metals (such as joining cast iron to
steel).
 Applications:
o Cast iron welding.
o Dissimilar metal welding.
o Corrosion-resistant coatings.
Nickel’s Role:

 Provides corrosion resistance in both acidic and alkaline

environments.
 Offers high-temperature strength and oxidation resistance.
 Prevents thermal expansion issues when welding dissimilar
metals.

3. Cobalt-Based Electrodes:

Cobalt is often used in high-performance alloys where wear

resistance, thermal stability, and corrosion resistance are critical.
Cobalt-based electrodes are typically used for hard-facing and high-
temperature applications.

a. Stellite Electrodes (Co-Cr Alloys):

 Description: Stellite is a cobalt-chromium alloy known for its

hardness and wear resistance. Cobalt-based alloys can maintain
their properties at elevated temperatures and resist corrosion and
oxidation.
 Composition: Stellite electrodes often contain:
o Cobalt: 40-60%
o Chromium: 25-30%
o Tungsten or Molybdenum: For added hardness.
 Applications:
o Valves and seats in internal combustion engines.
o Gas turbine blades.
o Cutting tools and dies.
o Nuclear reactors.
 Types:
o Stellite 6: General-purpose alloy for hard-facing.
o Stellite 12: Provides higher hardness and wear resistance.

b. Cobalt-Based Hard-facing Electrodes:

 Description: These electrodes provide a wear-resistant surface that

can withstand extreme heat and abrasion.
 Applications:
o Thermal power plants: Turbine blades, fuel rods.
o Aerospace industry: Components subjected to high
temperatures and wear.
o Mining and earthmoving equipment.

Cobalt’s Role:

 Retains hardness at elevated temperatures, making it ideal for

high-heat applications.
  Resistant to corrosion and oxidation even in harsh
environments.
 Excellent wear resistance due to its ability to form durable
carbides.

Summary of Benefits:

 Chromium: Corrosion and oxidation resistance; wear resistance in

hardfacing.
 Nickel: High-temperature strength, corrosion resistance, and
compatibility with dissimilar metals.
 Cobalt: Retains hardness at high temperatures, wear resistance,
and oxidation resistance, especially in high-stress applications like
turbines and reactors.