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UNIT IV
Steels & Cast Iron

1) Draw and explain the Fe-Fe3c equilibrium diagram invariant reactions.

Ans:

In this diagram weight % C is plotted along the horizontal axis and temperature along the vertical axis.
The diagram shows the phases present at various temperatures for very slowly cooled Fe-C alloys
with carbon content up to 6.67%.

Information was given by the diagram:

1. Solid phases in the phase diagram
2. Invariant reactions in the phase diagram
3. Critical temperatures
4. Eutectoid, hypoeutectoid and hypereutectoid steels
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2) Explain briefly Carbon Steel.

Ans: Carbon steel is a type of steel that contains carbon as the main alloying element. It also contains
small amounts of other elements such as manganese, silicon, and copper. Carbon steel is known for
its strength and durability and is commonly used in construction, automotive, and industrial
applications. The amount of carbon in carbon steel determines its properties, with higher carbon
content resulting in harder and stronger steel, but also making it more brittle. Carbon steel can be
further classified into different grades, such as low, medium, and high carbon steel, based on the
amount of carbon present in the alloy.

3) What is steel? What are the classifications of the steels?

Ans: Steel is an alloy made up primarily of iron, with a small amount of carbon. It is one of the most
common and versatile materials in the world and is used in a wide range of applications due to its
strength, durability, and ability to be easily shaped and formed.
There are several classifications of steels, including:
1. Carbon steels: These steels have a carbon content of up to 2.1% and are the most commonly
used type of steel. They can be further classified as low, medium, and high carbon steel based
on the amount of carbon present in the alloy.
2. Alloy steels: These steels contain one or more alloying elements, such as chromium, nickel,
and molybdenum, in addition to carbon. They are known for their strength, toughness, and
corrosion resistance.
3. Stainless steels: These steels contain a high percentage of chromium, which gives them their
corrosion resistance. They are commonly used in applications where corrosion resistance is
important.
4. Tool steels: These steels are known for their hardness, strength, and ability to retain a sharp
edge. They are commonly used in cutting and shaping tools.
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5. Maraging steels: These are a class of ultra-high-strength steels that are known for their high
strength, toughness, and ductility.
6. Weathering steels: These steels are used in outdoor structures and have a higher resistance to
atmospheric corrosion compared to other steels.
7. Special purpose steels: These steels are used in specific applications, such as ball bearing,
spring, and high-speed steels.

4) What is alloy steel? What is the Effect of alloying elements on steel?

Ans: Alloy steel is a type of steel that contains one or more alloying elements, in addition to carbon.
These alloying elements can include chromium, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, and others. The
addition of these elements can improve the steel's properties such as strength, toughness, and
corrosion resistance.
The effect of alloying elements on steel depends on the specific elements used and the amount
present in the alloy. Here are a few examples:
1. Chromium: When added in small amounts, chromium improves the hardenability and
corrosion resistance of steel.
2. Nickel: Nickel improves the strength, toughness, and ductility of steel, and also increases
resistance to corrosion.
3. Molybdenum: Molybdenum increases the hardenability and strength of steel, and also
improves resistance to wear and tear.
4. Manganese: Manganese improves the hardenability and strength of steel, and also increases
resistance to wear and tear.
5. Tungsten: Tungsten improves the hardenability and strength of steel, and also increases
resistance to wear and tear.
6. Vanadium: Vanadium improves the hardenability, strength and toughness of steel, and also
increases resistance to wear and tear.
7. Silicon: Silicon improves the hardenability and strength of steel, and also increases resistance
to wear and tear.
8. Cobalt: Cobalt improves the hardenability and strength of steel, and also increases resistance
to wear and tear.
It is worth noting that, alloying elements can be used in combination to achieve specific properties.
An example of this is that nickel, chromium, and molybdenum are used together to form stainless
steel.

5) Write a short note on Tool Steel.

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Ans: Tool steel is a type of steel that is specifically designed and manufactured for use in tools and
dies. It is known for its hardness, strength, and ability to retain a sharp edge. It is also typically more
wear-resistant and able to withstand higher temperatures than other types of steel.
There are several types of tool steels, each with its own unique properties and applications. Some
examples include:
1. High-speed steel (HSS): This type of tool steel is known for its ability to maintain a sharp edge
at high temperatures and is commonly used in cutting tools such as drills and lathe tools.
2. Cold-work tool steel: This type of tool steel is known for its ability to maintain a sharp edge at
low temperatures and is commonly used in cutting and shaping tools.
3. Hot-work tool steel: This type of tool steel is known for its ability to withstand high
temperatures and is commonly used in tools that are exposed to high temperatures such as
moulds for casting metals.
4. Shock-resistance tool steel: This type of tool steel is known for its ability to withstand high
impact and is commonly used in tools that are exposed to high impacts such as hammers and
chisels.
5. Plastic mould steel: This type of tool steel is known for its ability to withstand high pressure
and is commonly used in moulds for plastic materials.
6. Water-hardening steel: This type of tool steel is known for its ability to harden quickly when
quenched in water and is commonly used in cutting and shaping tools.
In general, the selection of the right tool steel depends on the specific application and the required
properties such as hardness, wear resistance and toughness.

6) Write a short note on Stainless Steel.

Ans: Stainless steel is a type of steel that contains a high percentage of chromium (typically at least
10.5%), which gives it its characteristic corrosion resistance. Stainless steel is resistant to corrosion,
staining, and rust, making it an ideal material for a wide range of applications where corrosion
resistance is important.
There are several types of stainless steel, each with its own unique properties and applications. Some
examples include:
1. Austenitic stainless steels: These steels have a high percentage of nickel and chromium and
are known for their excellent corrosion resistance and ductility. They are commonly used in
applications such as sinks, kitchen utensils, and food processing equipment.
2. Ferritic stainless steels: These steels have a high percentage of chromium and low percentages
of nickel. They are known for their good corrosion resistance and are commonly used in
automotive and other transport applications.
3. Martensitic stainless steels: These steels have a high percentage of carbon and are known for
their good strength and hardness. They are commonly used in applications such as knives,
surgical instruments, and valves.
4. Duplex stainless steels: These steels have a two-phase microstructure that combines the
properties of both ferritic and austenitic stainless steels. They are known for their excellent
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corrosion resistance and strength and are commonly used in applications such as pipelines
and pressure vessels.
5. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels: These steels have a high percentage of nickel and are
known for their excellent corrosion resistance and strength. They are commonly used in
applications such as valve parts and shafts.
Stainless steel offers many advantages such as corrosion resistance, aesthetic appeal, durability, and
ease of maintenance. It is used in a wide range of applications such as construction, transportation,
food processing, medicine, and many other industries.

7) Explain the sensitization of stainless steel.

Ans: Sensitization is a phenomenon that occurs in certain types of stainless steel, particularly in
those that contain high percentages of chromium and low percentages of nickel (such as 304 stainless
steel). Sensitization refers to the formation of a thin layer of chromium carbides at the grain
boundaries of the steel. This thin layer, also known as the "chromium-depleted zone," has a lower
percentage of chromium than the surrounding steel, making it more susceptible to corrosion.
Sensitization occurs when the steel is heated to high temperatures (typically above 700°C or 1300°F)
for a prolonged period of time. This causes the chromium to diffuse to the grain boundaries, where it
forms chromium carbides. As a result, the steel in the vicinity of the grain boundaries becomes
depleted in chromium and more susceptible to corrosion.
Sensitization can lead to several negative effects on the steel, such as:
● Reduced corrosion resistance
● Reduced ductility
● Reduced toughness
● Reduced strength
Sensitization can be prevented by controlling the heating process, for example by using a proper
solution annealing temperature, or by using stainless steel that has a higher nickel content which is
less prone to sensitizations (such as 316 stainless steel).
It's worth noting that, sensitization can also occur in the welding process, where the heat-affected
zone (HAZ) becomes sensitized. To prevent this, post-weld heat treatment (PWHT) can be applied, or
proper welding procedures can be followed such as selecting the right filler metal and controlling the
welding speed and heat input.
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8) Explain the Weld Decay of stainless steel.
Ans:

9) Write the classification of Alloying Elements.

Ans: Alloying elements can be classified into several categories, including:
● Major alloying elements: These are elements that make up a significant portion of the alloy (typically
more than 5%). Examples include nickel, chromium, and titanium.
● Minor alloying elements: These are elements that make up a smaller portion of the alloy (typically less
than 5%). Examples include molybdenum, manganese, and silicon.
● Trace alloying elements: These are elements that make up an even smaller portion of the alloy
(typically less than 0.1%). Examples include boron, carbon, and lead.
● Microalloying elements: These are elements that are added in extremely small amounts (typically less
than 0.01%) to improve specific properties of the alloy. Examples include vanadium, niobium, and
boron.
● Special purpose alloying elements: These are elements that are added to the alloy for a specific
purpose, such as improving corrosion resistance or increasing strength. Examples include titanium,
nickel, and cobalt.

10) What are the advantages of alloy steels over plain carbon steels?
Ans: Alloy steels have several advantages over plain carbon steels, including:
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1. Increased strength: Alloying elements can improve the strength of the steel, making it more
resistant to deformation and stress.
2. Improved toughness: Alloying elements can also improve the toughness of the steel, making it
less brittle and more resistant to impact and shock.
3. Increased wear resistance: Certain alloying elements, such as chromium and molybdenum,
can improve the wear resistance of the steel, making it more suitable for applications where
the steel will be subject to abrasion or erosion.
4. Improved corrosion resistance: Some alloying elements, such as nickel and chromium, can
improve the corrosion resistance of the steel, making it more suitable for applications where
the steel will be exposed to harsh environments.
5. Improved hardenability: Certain alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, and
nickel, can improve the hardenability of the steel, making it easier to achieve a desired
hardness through heat treatment.
6. Improved heat resistance: Some alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, and
tungsten, can improve the heat resistance of the steel, making it more suitable for
high-temperature applications.

11) What is stainless steel? Give typical composition and two uses of various types of
stainless steel. Why these steels are stainless?
Ans: Stainless steel is a type of alloy steel that contains at least 10.5% chromium. The chromium in
the steel forms a thin, invisible layer of chromium oxide on the surface of the steel, which acts as a
barrier to prevent oxygen and other materials from corroding the steel. This is why stainless steel is
"stainless."
There are many different types of stainless steel, each with its own composition and properties.

12) Define the following structural components.

a) α-Ferrite b) δ Ferrite c) Austenite d) Cementite e) Pearlite
Ans:
a) Alpha ferrite (α-ferrite) is a crystalline structure that forms in ferrous alloys (alloys containing iron)
at low temperatures. It is the body-centred cubic (BCC) form of iron. It is relatively soft and ductile,
with low carbon content and high corrosion resistance.
b) Delta ferrite (δ-ferrite) is a crystalline structure that forms in ferrous alloys at high temperatures. It
is the face-centred cubic (FCC) form of iron. It has a higher carbon content than alpha ferrite and is
harder and stronger, but less corrosion-resistant.
c) Austenite is a crystalline structure that forms in ferrous alloys at high temperatures. It is the
gamma (γ) form of iron and is typically in the form of a face-centred cubic (FCC) lattice. It has a high
carbon content and is hard and strong, but also brittle. It is also known as gamma iron or gamma
phase.
d) Cementite is a chemical compound composed of iron and carbon in the form of Fe3C. It is a hard,
brittle and strong material that forms in ferrous alloys as a result of the cooling process. It is also
known as iron carbide.
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e) Pearlite is a microconstituent in steel and cast iron, consisting of alternating layers of ferrite and
cementite. It forms as the iron-carbon alloy cools from the austenite phase to the ferrite phase. It is
named after its pearl-like appearance under a microscope. It is a combination of ferrite and
cementite in a lamellar structure and has both the ductility of ferrite and the hardness of cementite.

13) Define the following structural components.

a) α-Ferrite b) δ Ferrite c) Austenite d) Cementite e) Pearlite

a) α-Ferrite is a crystalline structure of iron that forms at low temperatures and is the most
stable form of iron at room temperature. It is a body-centered cubic structure and has a
relatively low carbon solubility.
b) δ Ferrite is a crystalline structure of iron that forms at high temperatures and has a
face-centered cubic structure. It has a higher carbon solubility than α-ferrite.
c) Austenite is a solid solution of iron and carbon that forms at high temperatures and has a
face-centered cubic structure. It is also known as gamma iron and has a high carbon
solubility.
d) Cementite is a hard and brittle intermetallic compound composed of iron and carbon with
the chemical formula Fe3C. It is typically found in steels and cast irons.
e) Pearlite is a two-phased microstructure that forms in steels and cast irons, consisting of
alternating layers of ferrite and cementite. It is formed by slow cooling of the alloy, and the
proportion of ferrite to cementite can vary depending on the composition and cooling rate of
the alloy.
14. Explain the following with neat diagram
a. Peritectic Transformation
b. Eutectic Transformation.
c. Eutectoid Transformation.
Transformations
 Peritectic reaction
Liquid+Solid1↔Solid2
L(0.53wt%C) + δ(0.09wt%C) ↔ γ(0.17wt%C) at 1495°C
Liquid-18.18wt% +δ-ferrite 81.82 wt%→100wt% γ
 Eutectic reaction
Liquid↔Solid1+Solid2
Liquid (4.3wt%C) ↔ γ(2.11wt%C) + Fe3C (6.67wt%C) at 1147˚C
Liquid-100 wt% →51.97wt% γ +Fe3C (48.11wt%)
The phase mixture of austenite and cementite formed at eutectic temperature is called
ledeburite.
 Eutectoid reaction
Solid1↔Solid2+Solid3
γ(0.77wt%C) ↔ α(0.0218wt%C) + Fe3C(6.67wt%C) at 727°C
γ (100 wt%) →α(89 wt% ) +Fe3C(11wt%)
Typical density α ferrite=7.87 gcm-3
Fe3C=7.7 gcm-3
Volume ratio of α- ferrite: Fe3C=7.9:1

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15. What is steel? What do you understand by eutectoid, hypoeutectoid, hypereutectoid
steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, typically with small amounts of other elements such as
manganese, chromium, and nickel. It is a strong and durable material that is widely used in
construction, transportation, and other industrial applications.

Eutectoid steel is a type of steel that contains the eutectoid composition of carbon (0.8%
carbon), which forms a mixture of ferrite and cementite.

Hypoeutectoid steel is a type of steel that contains less than 0.8% carbon, which forms a
mixture of ferrite and pearlite.

Hypereutectoid steel is a type of steel that contains more than 0.8% carbon, which forms a
mixture of pearlite and cementite.

16. Explain Critical Temperatures.

The critical temperature is the temperature above which a substance cannot be liquefied by
pressure alone. Above the critical temperature, a substance exists as a gas, regardless of the
pressure applied to it. The critical temperature is unique to each substance and is dependent on
the strength of the forces between its atoms or molecules. It is related to the boiling point, but
it is not the same thing. The boiling point is the temperature at which a substance changes from
a liquid to a gas at a specific pressure, while the critical temperature is the temperature above
which a substance cannot be liquefied at any pressure.

17. Write short note on Specification of Steels.

Steels are alloys of iron and carbon, with small amounts of other elements such as manganese,
silicon, and sulfur. The specification of steels involves the determination of the chemical
composition and mechanical properties of the material. The most commonly used standard for
specifying steel is ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) A36, which specifies
the chemical and mechanical properties for carbon structural steel. Other commonly used
standards include ASTM A572 for high-strength low-alloy structural steel, ASTM A588 for
weathering steel, and ASTM A514 for high-yield-strength quenched and tempered alloy steel.
The specification of steel can also include additional requirements such as surface finish, heat
treatment, and testing.

18. Write the composition of following materials:

a. T35Cr5Mo1V30
b. 20 Ni55Cr50Mo20
c. 15Ni13 Cr1Mo12
d. Fe410K
e. 20MnCr1
19. State the various factors affecting the properties of Cast Iron. Explain their influence
in brief.
There are several factors that can affect the properties of cast iron:

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 1. Carbon content: Cast iron typically contains between 2-4% carbon by weight. The
higher the carbon content, the harder and stronger the cast iron will be, but it will also
be more brittle.
2. Silicon content: Silicon is added to cast iron to improve its fluidity and make it easier
to cast. High levels of silicon can also improve the corrosion resistance of cast iron.
3. Trace elements: Trace elements such as sulfur and phosphorus can also affect the
properties of cast iron. Sulfur can make the cast iron more brittle, while phosphorus can
improve its machinability.
4. Cooling rate: The rate at which the cast iron cools can also affect its properties. Rapid
cooling will produce a harder, more brittle cast iron, while slow cooling will produce a
softer, more ductile cast iron.
5. Heat treatment: Heat treating cast iron can also affect its properties. For example,
annealing can make the cast iron more ductile, while quenching can make it harder and
stronger.
6. Microstructure: The microstructure of cast iron can also affect its properties. The
presence of graphite flakes can make the cast iron more brittle, while the presence of
pearlite can make it more ductile.
7. Porosity: The porosity of cast iron can also affect its properties. Higher porosity can
lead to reduced strength and increased susceptibility to corrosion.

20. Describe the following:

White Cast Iron, Malleable Cast Iron , Gray Cast Iron , Nodular Cast Iron.
White cast iron
When the white cast iron is fractured, white coloured cracks are seen throughout because of
the presence of carbide impurities. White cast iron is hard but brittle. It has lower silicon content
and low melting point. The carbon present in the white cast iron precipitates and forms large
particles that increase the hardness of the cast iron. It is abrasive resistant as well as cost-
effective making them useful in various applications like lifter bars and shell liners in grinding
mills, wear surfaces of pumps, balls and rings of coal pulverisers, etc.
Grey cast iron
Grey is the most versatile and widely used cast iron. The presence of carbon leads to formation
of graphite flakes that does not allow cracks to pass through, when the material breaks. Instead,
as the material breaks the graphite initiates numerous new cracks. The fractured cast iron is
greyish in colour, which also gives it the name. The graphite flakes make the grey cast iron
exhibit low shock resistance. They also lack elasticity and have low tensile strength.
However, the graphite fakes gives the cast iron excellent machinability, damping features as
well as good lubricating properties making them useful in many industrial applications. The
graphite microstructure of the cast iron has a matrix that consists of ferrite, pearlite or a
combination of two. The molten grey iron has greater fluidity and they expand well during the
solidification or freezing of cast iron. This has made them useful in industries like agriculture,
automobile, textile mills, etc.
Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron is basically white iron that undergoes heat treatment to convert the carbide
into graphite. The resultant cast iron has properties that vary from both grey and white cast

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iron. In case of malleable cast iron, the graphite structure is formed into irregularly shaped
spheroidal particles rather than flakes that are usually present in gray cast iron. This make the
malleable cast iron behave like low-carbon steel. There is considerable shrinkage that results
in reduced production of cast iron as well increased costs. Malleable cast iron can be identified
easily by the blunt boundaries.
Ductile cast iron
Ductile cast iron is yet another type of ferrous alloy that is used as an engineering material in
many applications. To produce ductile iron, small amount of magnesium is added to the molten
iron, which alters the graphite structure that is formed. The magnesium reacts with oxygen and
sulphur in the molten iron leading to nodule shaped graphite that has earned them the name-
nodular cast iron. Like malleable iron, ductile iron is flexible and exhibits a linear stress strain
relation. It can be casted in varied sizes and into varying thickness.

21. Why are cast irons preferred to steels for certain application? Explain with specific
example.

Cast iron is preferred over steel for certain applications because it is more brittle and easier to
cast into complex shapes. Cast iron also has a higher compressive strength and a lower cost
than steel. One specific example where cast iron is preferred is in the construction of water
pipes. Cast iron pipes have a long history of use in the water industry and are valued for their
durability, corrosion resistance and ability to withstand high pressures. They are often used in
the distribution of water in municipalities, as well as in industrial settings.
Eg nhi hai

22. Distinguish between black heart malleable Cast Iron and white heart malleable Cast
Iron.

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23. Why it is easier to control the properties of cast irons over steels?

Cast iron is easier to control the properties of than steel because it has a higher carbon content
and is more brittle, which allows for more precise control over the properties during the casting
process. Additionally, cast iron can be cast into complex shapes and sizes, while steel is
typically shaped through rolling or forging processes, which can be more difficult to control.
Cast iron is a type of iron that is poured into a mold while in a liquid state. Because of this, it
is easier to control the properties of cast iron by controlling the composition of the liquid iron
before it solidifies. In contrast, steel is typically produced by heating and shaping solid iron.
This process is more complex and requires more precise control of temperatures and cooling
rates to achieve desired properties. Additionally, the composition of cast iron can be adjusted
by adding various alloying elements to the liquid iron, which is not as easily done with solid
steel.

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