UNIT I CELLULAR TECHNOLOGY 9

CO1 Mobile Computing – Mobile Computing Vs wireless Networking- Mobile Computing Applications – Characteristics
of Mobile computing – Structure of Cellular Mobile Communication –GSM – services – Architecture – GPRS –
services – Architecture services – UMTS

Introduction to Mobile Computing

The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and satellite services will
make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless of size, most mobile computers will be
equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed part of the network, and, perhaps, to other mobile computers.
The resulting computing environment, which is often referred to as mobile or nomadic computing, no longer
requires users to maintain a fixed and universally known position in the network and enables almost
unrestricted mobility. Mobility and portability will create an entire new class of applications and, possibly, new
massive markets combining personal computing and consumer electronics.
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that enable people to access network
services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere.
A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:
1. Fi x e d and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an office. Neither weight
nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile usage. The devices use fixed networks for
performance reasons.
2. Mo b i l e and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the laptop from one hotel
to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the telephone network and a modem.
3. Fi x e d and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical buildings to avoid damage
by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast network setup.
4. Mo b i l e and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user, who can roam
between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed in this book deal with this type of device
and the networks supporting them. Today’s most successful example for this category is GSM with more
than 800 million users.

APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING

In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the move is vital in order to utilise time efficiently. The
importance of Mobile Computers has been highlighted in many fields of which a few are described below:
1. Vehicles: Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information are received
via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. For personal communication, a universal mobile
telecommunications system (UMTS) phone might be available offering voice and data connectivity with
384 kbit/s. The current position of the car is determined via the global positioning system (GPS). Cars
driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of information in emergency

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 situations or to help each other keep a safe distance. In case of an accident, not only will the airbag be
triggered, but the police and ambulance service will be informed via an emergency call to a service
provider. Buses, trucks, and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic information to their
home base, which helps to improve organization (fleet management), and saves time and money.
2. Emergencies: An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can carry vital
information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the accident. All the necessary steps
for this particular type of accident can be prepared and specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis.
Wireless networks are the only means of communication in the case of natural disasters such as
hurricanes or earthquakes. In the worst cases, only decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networks survive.
3. Business: Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major customers. They can
access the latest market share information. At a small recess, they can revise the presentation to take
advantage of this information. They can communicate with the office about possible new offers and call
meetings for discussing responds to the new proposals. Therefore, mobile computers can leverage
competitive advantages. A travelling salesman today needs instant access to the company’s database: to
ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the company to keep track of
all activities of their travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. With wireless access, the
laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms are
needed to ensure data consistency.
4. Credit Card Verification: At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and
Supermarkets, when customers use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication required
between the bank central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the card
usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels using a mobile computer unit. This can
speed up the transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS terminals.
5. Replacement of Wired Networks: wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks, e.g.,
remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due to economic reasons, it is often impossible to
wire remote sensors for weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental
information. Wireless connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation. Other examples for
wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays in historical buildings, where excess
cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
6. Infotainment: wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any appropriate location. The
travel guide might tell you something about the history of a building (knowing via GPS, contact to a local
base station, or triangulation where you are) downloading information about a concert in the building at
the same evening via a local wireless network. Another growing field of wireless network applications lies
in entertainment and games to enable, e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play
together.

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Limitations of Mobile Computing
Resource constraints: Battery
Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using shielding and result in higher loss
rates for transmitted data or higher bit error rates respectively
Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are still very low for wireless devices
compared to desktop systems. Researchers look for more efficient communication protocols with low overhead.
Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power within a region, thus link delays and
connection losses
Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination and connection stability Interoperability
issues: the varying protocol standards
Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the radio interface is also prone to
the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must always include encryption, authentication, and other security
mechanisms that must be efficient and simple to use.
0G Wireless technology
0G refers to pre-cell phone mobile telephony technology, such as radio telephones that some had in cars before the
advent of cell phones. Mobile radio telephone systems preceded modern cellular mobile telephony technology. Since
they were the predecessors of the first generation of cellular telephones, these systems are called 0G (zero generation)
systems.

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1G: Analog Cellular Networks
The main technological development that distinguished the First Generation mobile phones from the previous
generation was the use of multiple cell sites, and the ability to transfer calls from one site to the next as the user
travelled between cells during a conversation. The first commercially automated cellular network (the 1G generations)
was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979.

In 1984, Bell Labs developed modern commercial cellular technology, which employed multiple, centrally controlled
base stations (cell sites), each providing service to a small area (a cell). The cell sites would be set up such that cells
partially overlapped. In a cellular system, a signal between a base station (cell site) and a terminal (phone) only need
be strong enough to reach between the two, so the same channel can be used simultaneously for separate
conversations in different cells.

As the system expanded and neared capacity, the ability to reduce transmission power allowed new cells to be added,
resulting in more, smaller cells and thus more capacity.

2G: Digital Networks

In the 1990s, the 'second generation' (2G) mobile phone systems emerged, primarily using the GSM standard. These

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2G phone systems differed from the previous generation in their use of digital transmission instead of analog
transmission, and also by the introduction of advanced and fast phone-to-network signaling. The rise in mobile phone
usage as a result of 2G was explosive and this era also saw the advent of prepaid mobile phones.

The second generation introduced a new variant to communication, as SMS text messaging became possible, initially
on GSM networks and eventually on all digital networks. Soon SMS became the communication method of preference
for the youth. Today in many advanced markets the general public prefers sending text messages to placing voice calls.

Some benefits of 2G were Digital signals require consume less battery power, so it helps mobile batteries to last long.
Digital coding improves the voice clarity and reduces noise in the line. Digital signals are considered environment
friendly. Digital encryption has provided secrecy and safety to the data and voice calls. The use of 2G technology
requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work properly.

“2.5G” using GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) technology is a cellular wireless technology developed in between
its predecessor, 2G, and its successor, 3G. GPRS could provide data rates from 56 kbit/s up to 115 kbit/s. It can be used
for services such as Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), and for
Internet communication services such as email and World Wide Web access.

2.75 – EDGE is an abbreviation for Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution. EDGE technology is an extended version of
GSM. It allows the clear and fast transmission of data and information up to 384kbit/s speed.

3G : High speed IP data networks

As the use of 2G phones became more widespread and people began to use mobile phones in their daily lives, it
became clear that demand for data services (such as access to the internet) was growing. Furthermore, if the
experience from fixed broadband services was anything to go by, there would also be a demand for ever greater data
speeds. The 2G technology was nowhere near up to the job, so the industry began to work on the next generation of
technology known as 3G. The main technological difference that distinguishes 3G technology from 2G technology is
the use of packet switching rather than circuit switching for data transmission.

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The high connection speeds of 3G technology enabled a transformation in the industry: for the first time, media
streaming of radio and even televisioncontent to 3G handsets became possible.

In the mid 2000s an evolution of 3G technology begun to be implemented, namely High-Speed Downlink Packet Access
(HSDPA). It is an enhanced 3Gmobile telephony communications protocol in the High-Speed Packet Access (HSPA)
family, also coined 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G, which allows networks based on Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System (UMTS) to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity. Current HSDPA deployments support down-link
speeds of 1.8, 3.6, 7.2 and 14.0 Mbit/s. Further speed increases are available with HSPA+, which provides speeds of up
to 42 Mbit/s downlink and 84 Mbit/s with Release 9 of the 3GPP standards.

4G: Growth of mobile broadband

Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized 4th-generation technologies, with the promise of speed
improvements up to 10-fold over existing 3G technologies. It is basically the extension in the 3G technology with more
bandwidth and services offers in the 3G. The expectation for the 4G technology is basically the high quality audio/video
streaming over end to end Internet Protocol.The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the
WiMAX standard and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.
One of the main ways in which 4G differed technologically from 3G was in its elimination of circuit switching, instead
employing an all-IP network. Thus, 4G ushered in a treatment of voice calls just like any other type of streaming audio
media, utilizing packet switching overinternet, LAN or WAN networks via VoIP.

4G LTE data transfer speed can reach peak download 100 Mbit/s, peak upload 50 Mbit/s, WiMAX offers peak data
rates of 128 Mbit/s downlink and 56 Mbit/s uplink.

GSM
GSM is the most successful digital mobile telecommunication system in the world today.
It is used by over 800 million people in more than 190 countries. GSM permits the integration of different voice
and data services and the interworking with existing networks. Services make a network interesting for customers.
GSM has defined three different categories of services: Bearer Services, Tele and Supplementary Services.
Bearer services:

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 SM specifies different mechanisms for data transmission, the original GSM allowing for data rates of up to
9600 bit/s for non-voice services. Bearer services permit transparent and non-transparent, synchronous or
asynchronous data transmission.
Transparent bearer services only use the functions of the physical layer (layer 1) to transmit data. Data
transmission has a constant delay and throughput if no transmission errors occur. Transmission quality can be
improved with the use of forward error correction (FEC), which codes redundancy into the data stream and helps
to reconstruct the original data in case of transmission errors. Transparent bearer services do not try to recover
lost data in case of, for example, shadowing or interruptions due to handover.
Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of layers two and three to implement error correction and
flow control. These services use the transparent bearer services, adding a radio link protocol (RLP). This protocol
comprises mechanisms of high-level data link control (HDLC), and special selective-reject mechanisms to trigger
retransmission of erroneous data. Using transparent and non-transparent services, GSM specifies several bearer
services for interworking with PSTN, ISDN, and packet switched public data networks (PSPDN) like X.25, which is
available worldwide. Data transmission can be full- duplex, synchronous with data rates of 1.2, 2.4, 4.8, and 9.6
kbit/s or full-duplex, asynchronous from 300 to 9,600 bit/s.

Tele services: GSM mainly focuses on voice-oriented tele services. These comprise encrypted voice transmission,
message services, and basic data communication with terminals as known from the PSTN or ISDN (e.g., fax). The
primary goal of GSM was the provision of high-quality digital voice transmission. Special codecs (coder/decoder)
are used for voice transmission, while other codecs are used for the transmission of analog data for
communication with traditional computer modems used in, e.g., fax machines. Another service offered by GSM is
the emergency number (eg 911, 999). This service is mandatory for all providers and free of charge. This
connection also has the highest priority, possibly pre-empting other connections, and will automatically be set up
with the closest emergency center. A useful service for very simple message transfer is the short message service
(SMS), which offers transmission of messages of up to 160 characters. Sending and receiving of SMS is possible
during data or voice transmission. It can be used for “serious” applications such as displaying road conditions, e-
mail headers or stock quotes, but it can also transfer logos, ring tones, horoscopes and love letters.

The successor of SMS, the enhanced message service (EMS), offers a larger message size, formatted text,
and the transmission of animated pictures, small images and ring tones in a standardized way. But with MMS, EMS
was hardly used. MMS offers the transmission of larger pictures (GIF, JPG, WBMP), short video clips etc. and comes
with mobile phones that integrate small cameras. Another non-voice tele service is group 3 fax, which is available
worldwide. In this service, fax data is transmitted as digital data over the analog telephone network according to
the ITU-T standards T.4 and T.30 using modems.
Supplementary services:
In addition to tele and bearer services, GSM providers can offer supplementary services. these services
offer various enhancements for the standard telephony service, and may vary from provider to provider. Typical
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services are user identification, call redirection, or forwarding of ongoing calls, barring of incoming/outgoing calls,
Advice of Charge (AoC) etc. Standard ISDN features such as closed user groups and multiparty communication may
be available.
GSM Architecture
A GSM system consists of three subsystems, the radio sub system (RSS), the network and switching
subsystem (NSS), and the operation subsystem (OSS).

Functional Architecture of a GSM System

Network Switching Subsystem: The NSS is responsible for performing call processing and subscriber related
functions. The switching system includes the following functional units:
Home location register (HLR): It is a database used for storage and management of subscriptions. HLR
stores permanent data about subscribers, including a subscribers service profile, location information and activity
status. When an individual buys a subscription from the PCS provider, he or she is registered in the HLR of that
operator.
Visitor location register (VLR): It is a database that contains temporary information about subscribers that
is needed by the MSC in order to service visiting subscribers. VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a MS
roams into a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC will request data about the mobile station from the
HLR. Later if the mobile station needs to make a call, VLR will be having all the information needed for call setup.
Authentication center (AUC): A unit called the AUC provides authentication and encryption parameters
that verify the users identity and ensure the confidentiality of each call.

Equipment identity register (EIR): It is a database that contains information about the identity of mobile
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equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile stations.
Mobile switching center (MSC): The MSC performs the telephony switching functions of the system. It
controls calls to and from other telephone and data systems.

Radio Subsystem (RSS):

The radio subsystem (RSS) comprises all radio specific entities, i.e., the mobile stations (MS) and the base
station subsystem (BSS). The figure shows the connection between the RSS and the NSS via the A interface (solid
lines) and the connection to the OSS via the O interface (dashed lines).
Base station subsystem (BSS): A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by a base station
controller (BSC). The BSS performs all functions necessary to maintain radio connections to an MS,
coding/decoding of voice, and rate adaptation to/from the wireless network part. Besides a BSC, the BSS contains
several BTSs.
Base station controllers (BSC): The BSC provides all the control functions and physical links between the
MSC and BTS. It is a high capacity switch that provides functions such as handover, cell configuration data, and
control of radio frequency (RF) power levels in BTS. A number of BSC’s are served by and MSC.
Base transceiver station (BTS): The BTS handles the radio interface to the mobile station. A BTS can form
a radio cell or, using sectorized antennas, several and is connected to MS via the Um interface, and to the BSC via
the Abis interface. The Um interface contains all the mechanisms necessary for wireless transmission (TDMA,
FDMA etc.)The BTS is the radio equipment (transceivers and antennas) needed to service each cell in the network.
A group of BTS’s are controlled by an BSC.

Operation and Support system:

The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching system and
to the BSC. Implementation of OMC is called operation and support system (OSS). The OSS is the functional entity
from which the network operator monitors and controls the system. The purpose of OSS is to offer the customer
cost-effective support for centralized, regional and local operational and maintenance activities that are required
for a GSM network. OSS provides a network overview and allows engineers to monitor, diagnose and troubleshoot
every aspect of the GSM network.
The mobile station (MS) consists of the mobile equipment (the terminal) and a smart card called the
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). The SIM provides personal mobility, so that the user can have access to
subscribed services irrespective of a specific terminal. By inserting the SIM card into another GSM terminal, the
user is able to receive calls at that terminal, make calls from that terminal, and receive other subscribed services.
The mobile equipment is uniquely

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identified by the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). The SIM card contains the International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI) used to identify the subscriber to the system, a secret key for authentication, and other
information. The IMEI and the IMSI are independent, thereby allowing personal mobility. The SIM card may be
protected against unauthorized use by a password or personal identity number.

Handover
Cellular systems require handover procedures, as single cells do not cover the whole service area.
However, a handover should not cause a cut-off, also called call drop. GSM aims at maximum handover duration
of 60 ms. There are two basic reasons for a handover:
1. The mobile station moves out of the range of a BTS, decreasing the received signal level
increasing the error rate thereby diminishing the quality of the radio link.
2. Handover may be due to load balancing, when an MSC/BSC decides the traffic is too high in one cell and shifts
some MS to other cells with a lower load.
The four possible handover scenarios of GSM are shown below:
Intra-cell handover: Within a cell, narrow-band interference could make transmission at a certain
frequency impossible. The BSC could then decide to change the carrier frequency (scenario 1).
Inter-cell, intra-BSC handover: This is a typical handover scenario. The mobile station moves from one
cell to another, but stays within the control of the same BSC. The BSC then performs a handover, assigns a new
radio channel in the new cell and releases the old one (scenario 2).
Inter-BSC, intra-MSC handover: As a BSC only controls a limited number of cells; GSM also has to
perform handovers between cells controlled by different BSCs. This handover then has to be controlled by the
MSC (scenario 3).
Inter MSC handover: A handover could be required between two cells belonging to different MSCs. Now
both MSCs perform the handover together (scenario 4).
To provide all the necessary information for a handover due to a weak link, MS and BTS both perform
periodic measurements of the downlink and uplink quality respectively. Measurement reports are sent by the MS
about every half-second and contain the quality of the current link used for transmission as well as the quality of
certain channels in neighboring cells (the BCCHs)..

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 Types of Hand over

Intra-MSC handover
More sophisticated handover mechanisms are needed for seamless handovers between different systems.
Security
GSM offers several security services using confidential information stored in the AuC and in the
individual SIM. The SIM stores personal, secret data and is protected with a PIN against unauthorized use. Three
algorithms have been specified to provide security services in GSM. Algorithm A3 is used for authentication, A5
for encryption, and A8 for the generation of a cipher key. The various security services offered by GSM are:

Access control and authentication: The first step includes the authentication of a valid user for the SIM. The user
needs a secret PIN to access the SIM. The next step is the subscriber authentication. This step is based on a
challenge-response scheme as shown below:
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 Subscriber Authentication
Authentication is based on the SIM, which stores the individual authentication key Ki, the user
identification IMSI, and the algorithm used for authentication A3. The AuC performs the basic generation of
random values RAND, signed responses SRES, and cipher keys Kc for each IMSI, and then forwards this
information to the HLR. The current VLR requests the appropriate values for RAND, SRES, and Kc from the HLR.
For authentication, the VLR sends the random value RAND to the SIM. Both sides, network and subscriber
module, perform the same operation with RAND and the key Ki, called A3. The MS sends back the SRES generated
by the SIM; the VLR can now compare both values. If they are the same, the VLR accepts the subscriber,
otherwise the subscriber is rejected.
Confidentiality:
All user-related data is encrypted. After authentication, BTS and MS apply encryption to voice, data, and
signalling as shown below.

To ensure privacy, all messages containing user-related information are encrypted in GSM over the air
interface. After authentication, MS and BSS can start using encryption by applying the cipher key Kc, which is
generated using the individual key Ki and a random value by applying the algorithm A8. Note that the SIM in the

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MS and the network both calculate the same Kc based on the random value RAND. The key Kc itself is not
transmitted over the air interface. MS and BTS can now encrypt and decrypt data using the algorithm A5 and the
cipher key Kc.

Anonymity:
To provide user anonymity, all data is encrypted before transmission, and user identifiers are not used
over the air. Instead, GSM transmits a temporary identifier (TMSI), which is newly assigned by the VLR after each
location update. Additionally, the VLR can change the TMSI at any time.
New Data Services
To enhance the data transmission capabilities of GSM, two basic approaches are possible. As the basic
GSM is based on connection-oriented traffic channels, e.g., with 9.6 kbit/s each, several channels could be
combined to increase bandwidth. This system is called HSCSD {high speed circuit switched data}. A more
progressive step is the introduction of packet oriented traffic in GSM, i.e., shifting the paradigm from
connections/telephone thinking to packets/internet thinking. The system is called GPRS {general packet radio
service}.

HSCD:
A straightforward improvement of GSM’s data transmission capabilities is high speed circuit switched
data (HSCSD) in which higher data rates are achieved by bundling several TCHs. An MS requests one or more TCHs
from the GSM network, i.e., it allocates several TDMA slots within a TDMA frame. This allocation can be
asymmetrical, i.e. more slots can be allocated on the downlink than on the uplink, which fits the typical user
behaviour of downloading more data compared to uploading. A major disadvantage of HSCD is that it still uses
the connection-oriented mechanisms of GSM, which is not efficient for computer data traffic.

GPRS:
The next step toward more flexible and powerful data transmission avoids the problems
of HSCSD by being fully packet-oriented. The general packet radio service (GPRS) provides packet mode transfer
for applications that exhibit traffic patterns such as frequent transmission of small volumes (e.g., typical web
requests) or infrequent transmissions of small or medium volumes (e.g., typical web responses) according to the
requirement specification. For the new GPRS radio channels, the GSM system can allocate between one and eight
time slots within a TDMA frame. Time slots are not allocated in a fixed, pre-determined manner but on demand.
All time slots can be shared by the active users; up- and downlink are allocated separately. Allocation of the slots
is based on current load and operator preferences. The GPRS concept is independent of channel characteristics
and of the type of channel (traditional GSM traffic or control channel), and does not limit the maximum data rate
(only the GSM transport system limits the rate). All GPRS services can be used in parallel to conventional services.
GPRS includes several security services such as authentication, access control, user identity confidentiality, and
user information confidentiality.
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 The GPRS architecture introduces two new network elements, which are called GPRS support nodes
(GSN) and are in fact routers. All GSNs are integrated into the standard GSM architecture, and many new
interfaces have been defined. The gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) is the interworking unit between the GPRS
network and external packet data networks (PDN). This node contains routing information for GPRS users,
performs address conversion, and tunnels data to a user via encapsulation. The GGSN is connected to external
networks (e.g., IP or X.25) via the Gi interface and transfers packets to the SGSN via an IPbased GPRS backbone
network (Gn interface). The other new element is the serving GPRS support node (SGSN) which supports the MS
via the Gb interface. The SGSN, for example, requests user addresses from the GPRS register (GR), keeps track of
the individual MSs’ location, is responsible for collecting billing information (e.g., counting bytes), and performs
several security functions such as access control. The SGSN is connected to a BSC via frame relay and
is basically on the same hierarchy level as an MSC. The GR, which is typically a part of the HLR, stores all GPRS-
relevant data.

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 GPRS Architecture Reference Model

As shown above, packet data is transmitted from a PDN, via the GGSN and SGSN directly to the BSS and
finally to the MS. The MSC, which is responsible for data transport in the traditional circuit-switched GSM, is only
used for signaling in the GPRS scenario. Before sending any data over the GPRS network, an MS must attach to it,
following the procedures of the mobility management. The attachment procedure includes assigning a temporal
identifier, called a temporary logical link identity (TLLI), and a ciphering key sequence number (CKSN) for data
encryption. For each MS, a GPRS context is set up and stored in the MS and in the corresponding SGSN. Besides
attaching and detaching, mobility management also comprises functions for authentication, location
management, and ciphering.

The following figure shows the protocol architecture of the transmission plane for GPRS. All data within
the GPRS backbone, i.e., between the GSNs, is transferred using the GPRS tunnelling protocol (GTP). GTP can use
two different transport protocols, either the reliable TCP (needed for reliable transfer of X.25 packets) or the non-
reliable UDP (used for IP packets). The network protocol for the GPRS backbone is IP (using any lower layers). To
adapt to the different characteristics of the underlying networks, the subnetwork dependent convergence
protocol (SNDCP) is used between an SGSN and the MS. On top of SNDCP and GTP, user packet data is tunneled
from the MS to the GGSN and vice versa. To achieve a high reliability of packet transfer between SGSN and MS, a
special LLC is used, which comprises ARQ and FEC mechanisms for PTP (and later PTM) services.

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 GPRS Transmission Plane Protocol Reference Model
A base station subsystem GPRS protocol (BSSGP) is used to convey routing and QoS- related information
between the BSS and SGSN. BSSGP does not perform error correction and works on top of a frame relay (FR)
network. Finally, radio link dependent protocols are needed to transfer data over the Um interface. The radio link
protocol (RLC) provides a reliable link, while the MAC controls access with signalling procedures for the radio
channel and the mapping of LLC frames onto the GSM physical channels. The radio interface at Um needed for
GPRS does not require fundamental changes compared to standard GSM.
LOCATION MANAGEMENT IN GPRS

Mobile station can be in 1 of the 3 states depending on traffic amount

 Idle : In the idle state, the MS does not have a logical GPRS context activated or any packet-
switched public data network (PSPDN) addresses allocated. MS is not using GPRS service.
 Ready (Active state) :Data is transmitted between an MS and the GPRS network only when the
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 MS is in the active state. In the active state, the SGSN knows the cell location of the MS.
 Standby :In the standby state, only the routing area of the MS is known. When MS does not
send any packets for longer period of time, Ready timer Expires
Routing Area Update:
 GSM Location Area(LA) is divided into several Routing Areas(RA)
 RA consists of several cells
 SGSN is informed when MS moves to a new RA
 MS sends a “Routing Area Update Request” to its assigned SGSN
When an MS that is in an active or a standby state moves from one routing area to another within the
service area of one SGSN, it must perform a routing update. The routing area information in the SGSN is
updated, and the success of the procedure is indicated in the response message.
Consists of two levels:
 Micro mobility management :
- Tracks the current RA or cell of MS
- It is performed by SGSN
 Macro mobility management :
- Keep tracks of MS’s current SGSN
- Stores it in HLR, VLR, and GGSN

UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEM(UMTS)

Introduction
• UMTS is developed by 3GPP (3 Generation Partnership Project) a joint venture of several organization.

• 3G UMTS is a third-generation (3G): broadband, packet-based transmission of text, digitized voice, video,
multimedia at data rates up to 2 Mbps

• Also referred to as wideband code division multiple access(WCDMA)

• Allows many more applications to be introduce to a worldwide

• Also provide new services like alternative billing methods or calling plans.

• The higher bandwidth also enables video conferencing or IPTV.

• Once UMTS is fully available, computer and phone users can be constantly attached to the Internet
wherever they travel and, as they roam, will have the same set of capabilities.

3G
• Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) is the generally accepted protocol for 3G networks

• Defined by the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)

• First commercial 3G network: Japan, 2001(CDMA2000)

• First commercial UMTS network: Norway, 2001

• Currently around 130M 3G users worldwide

•
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 GSM-GPRS-UMTS Evolution

UMTS Services
• Teleservices
– Speech
– SMS

• Bearer services
Data transfer between points of access Bearer services can be altered at session or
connection establishment and during ongoing session or connection

• Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint data rate targets are:

 144 kbits/s satellite and rural outdoor
 384 kbits/s urban outdoor
 2048 kbits/s indoor and low range outdoor
• Bearer services have different QoS parameters for maximum transfer delay, delay variation and bit error
rate. Four types:
 Conversational class (voice, video telephony, video gaming)
 Streaming class (multimedia, video on demand, webcast)
 Interactive class (web browsing, network gaming, database access)
 Background class (email, SMS, downloading)
 Virtual Home Environment (VHE)
 Users are consistently presented with the same personalized features
 User Interface customization and services in whatever network or terminal, wherever the user is
• Improved network security
• Location-based services
UMTS Architecture
UMTS is a complete system architecture . UMTS supports a variety of user data rates and both packet and circuit
switched services. System composed of three main subsystems
• Three domains:
o Core Network (CN)
o UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN)
o User Equipment (UE)
• The core network provides switching, routing and transit for traffic
• Core network also contains the databases and network management functions
• Compare to GSM:

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– Network Subsystem
– Base Station Subsystem
– Mobile Station

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•

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 UE (User Equipment) that interfaces with the user

• UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network) handles all radio related functionality

– WCDMA is radio interface standard here.

• CN (Core Network) is responsible for transport functions such as switching and routing calls and data, tracking users
User Equipment
– ME (Mobile Equipment)
is the single or multimode terminal used for radio communication
– USIM (UMTS Subscriber Identity Module)
is a smart card that holds the subscriber identity, subscribed services, authentication and encryption
keys
UTRAN
– Node B (equivalent to BTS in GSM/GPRS)
• performs the air interface processing (channel coding, rate adaptation, spreading, synchronization, power control).
• Can operate a group of antennas/radios
– RNC (Radio Network Controller) (equivalent to GSM BSC)
• Responsible for radio resource management and control of the Node Bs.
• Handoff decisions, congestion control, power control, encryption, admission control, protocol conversion, etc.
Node-B and RNC
Node-B (as per BTS):
– Air interface Transmission / Reception
– Modulation / Demodulation
– Error Handing – Power Control
• RNC (as per BSC):
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– Radio Resource Control
– Admission Control
– Channel Allocation – Power Control Settings
– Handover Control
– Ciphering
– Segmentation / Reassembly
– Broadcast Signalling
– Open Loop Power Control

UTRAN architecture

Core Network
The Core Network (CN) and the Interface Iu are separated into two logical domains:
• Circuit Switched Domain (CSD)
– Circuit switched service including signaling
– Resource reservation at connection setup
– 3G versions of GSM components (MSC, GMSC, VLR, HLR)
• Packet Switched Domain (PSD)
– Handles all packet data services
– 3G versions of GPRS components (SGSN, GGSN)
– IuPS
• General approach of building on GSM/GPRS infrastructure , helps to saves $ and faster deployment
Core Network Architecture

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 •
• HLR (Home Location Register)
database located in the user’s home system that stores the master copy of the user’s service profile. The HLR
also stores the UE location on the level of MSC and SGSN,
• 3G MSC / VLR
Switch and database that serves the UE in its current location for Circuit Switched (CS) services. The MSC
function is used to switch the CS transactions, and VLR function holds a copy of the visiting user’s service profile, as
well as more precise information on the UE’s location within the serving system.
• 3G GMSC (Gateway MSC)
Switch at the point where UMTS is connected to external CS networks. All incoming and outgoing CS
connections go through GMSC.
• 3G SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node)
Similar to that of MSC / VLR but is used for Packet Switched (PS) services. The part of the network that is
accessed via the SGSN is often referred to as the PS domain. Upgrade version of serving GPRS support node.
• 3G GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node)
Functionality is close to that of GMSC but is in the relation to PS services. Upgraded version of gateway GPRS
support Node
WCDMA
Code-Division MultipleAccess (CDMA) :
– every communicator will be allocated the entire spectrum all of the time
• Opposed to (some) GSM systems which use TDMA (time), FDMA (frequency) or both
Wideband Code-Division MultipleAccess (WCDMA) is Direct Sequence CDMA system
– user data is multiplied with quasirandom bits derived from WCDMA spreading codes
• WCDMA has two basic modes of operation
– Frequency Division Duplex (FDD)
– Time Division Duplex (TDD)
• Different users can simultaneously transmit at different data rates and data rates can even vary in time
• This is where the speed comes in .

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 SOFTWARE DEFINED RADIO
A software defined radio is one that can be configured to any radio or frequency standard through the use
of software. ... An SDR is a radio communication system where components that have typically been implemented in
hardware such as mixers, filters, amplifiers, modulators, detectors, are instead implemented in software.
Basic SDR concept

 The basic concept of the SDR software radio is that the radio can be totally configured or defined by the
software.
 In an ideal world the incoming signal is immediately converted to a digital format, and the signal is then
processed totally digitally.
 Conversely for transmit, the signal is generated digitally, and converted to the final analogue signal at the
antenna.
 This approach has the advantages that the radio can be totally reconfigured for a new application, simply by
changing the software. Updates can be made to keep up with new modulation formats, new applications,
etc, simply by updating the software.
 It also means that a common hardware platform can be used across a variety of different products and
applications, thereby reducing costs, whilst maintaining or improving the performance.

Software defined radio applications

The SDR software radio concept is applicable to many areas of use:

 Mobile communications: Software defined radios are very useful in areas such as mobile communications. By
upgrading the software it is possible to apply changes to any standards and even add new waveforms purely by
upgrading the software and without the need for changes to the hardware. This can even be done remotely,
thereby providing considerable savings in cost.
 Research & development: The software defined radio, SDR is very useful in many research projects. The radios
can be configured to provide the exact receiver and transmitter requirements for any application without the need
for a total hardware design from scratch.
 Military: The military have made much use of software defined radio technology enabling them to re-use
hardware and update signal waveforms as needed.
 Amateur radio: Radio hams have very successfully employed software defined radio technology, using it to
provide improved performance and flexibility.
 Other: There are very many other applications that can make use of SDR technology, enabling the radio to be
exactly tailored to the requirements using software adjustments.

Software defined radio definition

Many definitions have appeared that might cover a definition for a software defined radio, SDR. The SDR Forum
themselves have defined the two main types of radio containing software in the following fashion:

 Software Controlled Radio: Radio in which some or all of the physical layer functions are Software Controlled. In
other words this type of radio only uses software to provide control of the various functions that are fixed within
the radio.
 Software Defined Radio: Radio in which some or all of the physical layer functions are Software Defined. In other
words, the software is used to determine the specification of the radio and what it does. If the software within the
radio is changed, its performance and function may change.

Advantages and disadvantages of software defined radios

As with any technology there are advantages and disadvantages to the use of software defined radio technology.

Advantages of SDR technology

 It is possible to achieve very high levels of performance.

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 Performance can be changed by updating the software (it will not be possible to update hardware dependent
attributes though).
 It is possible to reconfigure radios by updating software
 The same hardware platform can be used for several different radios.

Disadvantages of SDR technology

 Analogue to digital converters limit top frequencies that can be used by the digital section.
 For very simple radios the basic platform may be too expensive.
 Development of a software defined radio requires both hardware and software skills.

Important SDR capabilities are:

1. The SDR module is capable of reconfiguring RF and can be programmed to tune to a wide spectrum range
and operate on any frequency bands within the range.

2. SDRs can be quickly and easily upgraded with enhanced features.

3. SDRs can talk and listen to multiple channels simultaneously.

4. Diverse needs for different systems can now be satisfied with a single generic hardware, thus achieving great
interoperability among various wireless networks.

5. The potential of SDR is maximized when combined with spectrum sensing and cognitive engine.

6. SDR has a broad spectrum of applications for both military and civilian wireless networks, many of which
may require supporting a wide variety of evolving wireless protocols in real time.

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