System Programming and Compiler

Construction
CSC 602

Subject Incharge
Varsha Shrivastava
Assistant Professor
email: varshashrivastava@sfit.ac.in
Room No: 407

1
 CSC 602 System Programming and
Compiler Construction
Module 2
Assembler

St. Francis Institute of Technology 08 Feb 2021 CSC 602:System Programming & Compiler Construction
Department of Computer Engineering Ms. Varsha Shrivastava 2
 Content as per syllabus

 Introduction
 Elements of Assembly Language programming,
Assembly scheme
 Pass structure of assembler
 Assembler Design:
 Two pass assembler Design and
 Single pass Assembler Design for Hypothetical / X86
family processor
 Data structures used

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 Introduction
• Assembler is system software which converts an assembly
language
• The input to the assembler is a source code written in assembly
language (using mnemonics) and the output is an object code.

• Basic Assembler functions:

• Translating mnemonic language to its equivalent object code.

• Assigning machine addresses to symbolic labels.

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Elements of Assembly Language programming

Assembler languages-structure
<Label> <Mnemomic> <Operands> Comments
• Label
• symbolic labeling of an assembler address (command
address at Machine level)
• Mnemomic
• Symbolic description of an operation
• Operands
• Contains of variables or address if necessary
• Comments
• ignored by assembler
• used by humans to document/understand programs

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Elements of Assembly Language programming

Types of Assembly Language Statements

ASSEMBLY
LANGUAGE
STATEMENTS

ASSEMBLER
IMPERATIVE DECLARATIVE
DIRECTIVE
STATEMENTS STATEMENT
STATEMENTS

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Elements of Assembly Language programming

Types of Assembly Language Statements

Imperative statements
An imperative statement in assembly
language indicates the action to be
performed during execution of
assembly statement
Ex:- A 1,FOUR

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Elements of Assembly Language programming

Types of Assembly Language Statements

Assembler Directives
• These statements instructs the
assembler to perform certain action
during the assembly of a program.
• Ex START 100
USING *, 15
USING indicates to the assembler which general
register to use as a base and what its content will be.
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Elements of Assembly Language programming

Types of Assembly Language Statements

Declarative Statement
• These statements declares the storage area or
declares the constant in program.
• EX: A DS 1
ONE DC “1”
[Label] DS <constant>
The DS statement reserves areas of memory and
associates names with them.
[Label] DC ‘<value>’
The DC statement constructs memory words
containing constants.
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Terms to remember

• A pseudo-op is an assembly language

instruction that specifies an operation of the
assembler i.e
about the base register & its contents e.g.
USING, DC, DS instruction.
• On the other hand, a machine-op
instruction. That represents a machine
instruction to the assembler e.g. BR
instruction is a machine-op instruction

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General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture

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General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture

Instruction
interpreter

Instruction Interpreter H/W is a group of circuits

that perform the operation specified by the
instruction fetched from the memory
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General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture

Location Counter

Location Counter is also called as Program/ Instruction

Counter, it points to the current instruction being executed.
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 General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture

Working
Registers

The working registers are often called as the "scratch pads"

because they are used to store temporary values while
calculation is in progress.
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General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture

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General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture

MAR and
MBR

This CPU interfaces with Memory through

MAR & MBR
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General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture

MAR and
MBR

MAR (Memory Address Register) - contains address of memory location (to

be read from or stored into)
MBR (Memory Buffer Register) - contains copy of address specified by MAR
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General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture
Memory
Controller

Memory controller is used to transfer data between

MBR & the memory location specified by MAR
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 General Machine Architecture
IBM 360 Architecture
I/O
Channel

The role of I/O Channels is to input or output

information from memory.
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IBM 360/370 Structure
• Memory
• 224 bytes (16 million bytes)
• 3 components
• Offset
• Base Register
• Index Register
• Example: add instruction
A 1, 901(2,15)
instructio Base
n register
Register to which Index
number has to be added Offset register

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IBM 360/370 Structure
• Registers
• 16 general purpose registers of 32 bits each
• Can be used for various arithmetic and logical
operations as base registers
• Can be used as temporary storage for
operations
• In base register form, they aid in formation of
address
• 4 floating point registers of 64 bits each
• 64 bit Program Status Word (Flags)

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 IBM 360/370 Structure

• Data
• B’ 0000 0001 0010 1100

• X’ 0 1 2 C

• Prefix
• X – Hexadecimal
• B – Binary

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IBM 360/370 Structure
Instructions
Register Operands
• RR format 1 2

OPCODE R1 R2
0 7 8 11 12 15

• RX format
Register Storage
Operand 1 Operand 2

OPCODE R1 X2 B2 D2
0 7 8 11 12 15 16 19 20 31

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IBM 360/370 Structure

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IBM 360/370 Structure

• Special Features
• Has hardware protection in blocks of 2048 bytes
• Has elaborate interrupt structure

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Pseudo Operation Code (Pseudo-op)
“Pseudo Op can also be termed as Assembler
Directives”
START : START is a pseudo-op that tell the
assembler where the beginning of the program is
and allows the user to give a name to the
program.
Eg: TEST START
END : END is a pseudo-op tell the assembler that
the end of the program has been reached
Eg: END
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Pseudo Operation Code (Pseudo-op)
USING : USING is a pseudo-op that indicates to
the assembler which general purpose register to
use as a base register and what its content will be.
Eg: USING *,15
USING BEGIN+2,15
DROP : DROP is a pseudo-op tell which indicates
unavailable base register.
Eg: DROP 15

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Pseudo Operation Code (Pseudo-op)
DS : DS is a pseudo-op which make the assembler
reserve a space in memory. DS is only for define
storage.
Eg: BLOCK DS 5F

DC : DC is used to define storage and store a

constant.
Eg: FOUR DC 1F ‘4’

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Pseudo Operation Code (Pseudo-op)
LTORG : LTORG is a pseudo-op which tells the
assembler to place the encountered literals at an
earlier locations.
Eg: BLOCK DS 5F

EQU : EQU is pseudo-op allow the programmer to

define variables.
Eg: BASE EQU 15

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Machine Operation Code (Machine-op)
BALR : Branch and link- load the register with next
address and branch to the address in the second
field. (RR format instruction)
Eg: BALR 15,0

BR : Unconditionally Branch to the location whose

address in register.
Eg: BR 14

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Machine Operation Code (Machine-op)
BCT : Branch on Count- RX Instruction
This command decrements the given register by
one and if the result is positive, branches to the
address in the second field
Eg: BCT 3, LOOP

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Assembly language program

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Types of Assembler

• Single pass Assembler

• Multi pass Assembler

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Assembler Process

ASSEMBLY
LANGUAGE PASS1 PASS2 EXECUTABLE
PROGRAM IMAGE

SYMBOL
TABLE

First Pass:
scan program file
find all labels and calculate the corresponding addresses;
this is called the symbol table
Second Pass:
convert instructions to machine language,
using information from symbol table
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Problem of Forward Reference

• Variables whose declaration is later in the

code is encountered, the forward reference
problem occurs.

• To avoid the forward reference problem:

i) Declare the symbols before using it
ii) Use multi pass assemblers

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Example : Assembly Program

JOHN START 0
USING *, 15
L 1, FIVE
A 1,FOUR
ST 1, TEMP
FOUR DC F’4’
FIVE DC F’5’
TEMP DS 1F
END

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Problem of Forward Reference

JOHN START 0
USING *, 15
L 1, FIVE
A 1,FOUR
ST 1, TEMP
FOUR DC F’4’
FIVE DC F’5’
TEMP DS 1F
END

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Assembler
SOURCE PROGRAM FIRST PASS SECOND PASS
JOHN START 0
USING *, 15
L 1, FIVE
A 1,FOUR
ST 1, TEMP
FOUR DC F’4’
FIVE DC F’5’
TEMP DS 1F
END

Register 15,base register and at execution time will contain

the address of the first instruction of the program
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Assembler
SOURCE PROGRAM FIRST PASS SECOND PASS
JOHN START 0
USING *, 15
L 1, FIVE 0 L 1,_(0,15)
A 1,FOUR 4 A 1,_(0,15)
ST 1, TEMP 8 ST 1,_(0,15)
FOUR DC F’4’ 12 4
FIVE DC F’5’ 16 5
TEMP DS 1F 20 --
END

Register 15,base register and at execution time will contain

the address of the first instruction of the program
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Assembler
SOURCE PROGRAM FIRST PASS SECOND PASS
JOHN START 0
USING *, 15
L 1, FIVE 0 L 1,_(0,15) 0 L 1, 16(0,15)
A 1,FOUR 4 A 1,_(0,15) 4 A 1, 12(0,15)
ST 1, TEMP 8 ST 1,_(0,15) 8 ST 1, 20(0,15)
FOUR DC F’4’ 12 4 12 4
FIVE DC F’5’ 16 5 16 5
TEMP DS 1F 20 -- 20 --
END

Register 15,base register and at execution time will contain

the address of the first instruction of the program
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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Department of Computer Engineering Ms. Varsha Shrivastava 49
Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Example : Assembly Program

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Intermediate Generated Code

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Points to remember :-

• For all symbols and literals used in RX Format, Base

index addressing is used.
• It is of the form – offset (index, base)
• To calculate offset, value of current base register is
subtracted from symbol/literal value, index register
value is specified in instruction inside brackets (if
not specified then value is 0)
• Base register that is chosen is register with value
closest to symbol/literal value.

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Assembler Example

• Till statement 10, value of base register 15 is 0

• After statement 10, value of base register 15 is 6
• After statement 12, value of base register 13 is 8064

Statement 11 – L DATABASE,=A(DATA1)

Symbol/ Value Base Register Value Offset Final Value

Literal (with index)
A(DATA1) 48 15 6 48 – 6 = 42 42(0,15)

Statement 11 – L 13, 42(0,15)

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Assembler Example

Statement 14 – LOOP L AC,DATA1(INDEX)

Symbol/ Value Base Register Value Offset Final Value

Literal (with index)
A(DATA1) 48 15 6 48 – 6 = 42 42(0,15)
DATA1 8064 13 8064 8064 – 8064 = 0 0(3,13)
Statement 14 – LOOP L 2, 0(3,13)

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Assembler Example

Statement 16 – A AC,=F’5’

Symbol/ Value Base Register Value Offset Final Value

Literal (with index)
A(DATA1) 48 15 6 48 – 6 = 42 42(0,15)
DATA1 8064 13 8064 8064 – 8064 = 0 0(3,13)
F’5 52 15 6 52 – 6 = 46 46(0,15)

Statement 16 – A 2, 46(0,15)

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Assembler Example

Statement 17 – ST AC,SAVE(INDEX)

Symbol/ Value Base Register Value Offset Final Value

Literal (with index)
A(DATA1) 48 15 6 48 – 6 = 42 42(0,15)
DATA1 8064 13 8064 8064 – 8064 = 0 0(3,13)
F’5 52 15 6 52 – 6 = 46 46(0,15)
SAVE 64 15 6 64 – 6 = 58 58(3,15)

Statement 17 – ST 2, 58(3,15)

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Assembler Example

Statement 18 – A INDEX, =F’4’

Symbol/ Value Base Register Value Offset Final Value

Literal (with index)
A(DATA1) 48 15 6 48 – 6 = 42 42(0,15)
DATA1 8064 13 8064 8064 – 8064 = 0 0(3,13)
F’5 52 15 6 52 – 6 = 46 46(0,15)
SAVE 64 15 6 64 – 6 = 58 58(3,15)
F’4 56 15 6 56 – 6 = 50 50(0,15)

Statement 18 – A 3, 50(0,15)

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Assembler Example

Statement 19 – C INDEX, =F’8000’

Symbol/ Value Base Register Value Offset Final Value

Literal (with index)
A(DATA1) 48 15 6 48 – 6 = 42 42(0,15)
DATA1 8064 13 8064 8064 – 8064 = 0 0(3,13)
F’5 52 15 6 52 – 6 = 46 46(0,15)
SAVE 64 15 6 64 – 6 = 58 58(3,15)
F’4 56 15 6 56 – 6 = 50 50(0,15)
F’8000 60 15 6 60 – 6 = 54 54(0,15)

Statement 19 – C 3, 54(0,15)

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Assembler Example

Statement 20 – BNE LOOP

Symbol/ Value Base Register Value Offset Final Value

Literal (with index)
A(DATA1) 48 15 6 48 – 6 = 42 42(0,15)
DATA1 8064 13 8064 8064 – 8064 = 0 0(3,13)
F’5 52 15 6 52 – 6 = 46 46(0,15)
SAVE 64 15 6 64 – 6 = 58 58(3,15)
F’4 56 15 6 56 – 6 = 50 50(0,15)
F’8000 60 15 6 60 – 6 = 54 54(0,15)
LOOP 12 15 6 12 – 6 = 6 6(0,15)

Statement 20 – BC 7, 6(0,15)

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Final Generated Code

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Practice :-Compute Pass 1 & Pass 2

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Solution :-

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Practice :-
For the following assembly language program Construct ST, LT, BT
and formulate the corresponding object code using these tables

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
1. Specify the problem
2. Specify data structures
3. Define format of data structures
4. Specify algorithm
5. Look for modularity [capability of one
program to be subdivided into
independent programming units.]
6. Repeat 1 through 5 on modules.
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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
1. Specify the problem :
Pass1: Define symbols & literals.
1) Determine length of m/c instruction [MOTGET1]
2) Keep track of Location Counter [LC]
3) Remember values of symbols until pass2 [STSTO]
4) Process some pseudo ops, eg. EQU, DS etc [POTGET1]
5) Remember Literals [LITSTO]

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
1. Specify the problem :
Pass2: Generate object program
1) Look up value of symbols [STGET]
2) Generate instruction [MOTGET2]
3) Generate data (for DS, DC & literals)
4) Process pseudo ops [POTGET2]

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
2. Specify Data Structure:
Pass1: Databases
• Input source program
• “LC” location counter is used to keep track of each instruction’s
address.
• Machine operation table (MOT) [Symbolic mnemonic & length]
• Pseudo operation table [POT], [pseudo mnemonic & action]
• Symbol Table (ST) stores each table & it’s value.
• Literal Table (LT), to store each literal (variable) & it’s location.
• Copy of input to used later by PASS-2.
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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
2. Specify Data Structure:
Pass2: Databases
• Copy of source program input to Pass1.
• Location Counter (LC)
• MOT [Mnemonic, length, binary m/c op code, etc.]
• POT [Mnemonic & action to be taken in Pass2
• ST [prepared by Pass1, label & value]
• Base Table [or register table] indicates which registers are
currently specified using ‘USING’ pseudo op & what are
contents.
• Literal table prepared by Pass1. [Lit name & value].
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Assembler Design
Use of Databases by Assembler Passes

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
3. Format of Data Structure:
• Machine Operation Table
• The op-code is the key and it’s value is the binary op
code equivalent, which is used for use in generating
machine code.
• The instruction length is stored for updating the location
counter.
• Instruction format is use in forming the m/c language
equivalent

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
3. Format of Data Structure:
• Machine Operation Table (MOT)

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
3. Format of Data Structure:
• Pseudo Operation Table (POT)

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
3. Format of Data Structure:
• Symbol Table (ST) and Literal Table (LT)

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
3. Format of Data Structure:
• Base Table (BT)

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Assembler Design
What goes where?
• ST (Symbol Table) – Labels & their values
• LT (Literal Table) – Data (F’10’, F’49’, F’4’…)
• MOT (Machine Op Table) – Machine opcodes, i.e.,
instructions along with their length (2/4/6 bytes) in
Pass1.
• In Pass2, we store the name, length, binary code and
format (RR, RX, SS…).
• POT (Pseudo Op Table) – Pseudo opcodes or action to be
taken in Pass1 and Pass2
• BT (Base Table) – the registers used for base addresses
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Problems with single pass assembly?

• Forward Reference
• Omits the operand address if the symbol has not yet
been defined
• Enters this undefined symbol into SYMTAB and indicates
that it is undefined
• Adds the address of this operand address to a list of
forward references associated with the SYMTAB entry
• When the definition for the symbol is encountered,
scans the reference list and inserts the address.
• At the end of the program, reports the error if there are
still SYMTAB entries indicated undefined symbols.

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Pass 1-
Assembler
Flow chart

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Pass 2-
Assembler
Flow chart

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Assembler Design
General Design Procedure of Assembler
5. Look for Modularity :-

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Assembler

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Assembler

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 University Questions
 State the reason for the assembler to be a multi pass
program
 What is forward reference problem? How is it handled in
two pass assembler? Explain with the help of flowchart the
working of a two pass assembler.
 Explain the databases used by each pass of the 2-pass
assembler in detail.
 With reference to assembler explain the following tables
with suitable examples:
(a) POT (b) MOT (c) ST (d) LT
 Explain the working of single pass assembler. Show the
structure of the database used
 Practice Assembler programs
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 THE END!

Have a nice day!

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