DATA COMMUNICATIONS

AND COMPUTER NETWORK

COMMUNICATIONS

• Data communication—examines how data, in the form of

energy, travel across some medium from a source to a
destination.
• It refers to the sending , receiving and processing of
information by electronic means.
• Communication requires three elements : transmitter,
channel and receiver.
A Simplified Communications Model
 COMPUTER NETWORK

• A computer network is a set of devices connected through

links. A node can be computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending or receiving the data. The links
connecting the nodes are known as communication
channels.
• Computer Network uses distributed processing in which
task is divided among several computers. Instead, a single
computer handles an entire task, each separate computer
handles a subset.
A Simplified Network Model
 APPLICATION OF COMMUNICATION
AND COMPUTER NETWORK
• Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network .
They provide numerous advantages:
 Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
 Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
 Information sharing by using Web or Internet
 Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
 IP phones
 Video conferences
 Parallel computing
 Instant messaging
 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER
NETWORK
• Data and software of computer can be shared with other
computer on the network.
• Only the authorized user of a network can use the facilities
of the network.
• Computers on the network can communicate with each
other.
 DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER
NETWORK
• Data and information may be stolen by computer hackers if
the security of network is not reliable.
• If any computer in a network gets affected by computer virus,
there is high chance of spreading computer viruses on the
other computer.
• Computers on the network have to depend on the server
computer for resources.
• This sharing of information may leak the privacy of other
clients.
 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information from the
sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic signals.
• The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in the
form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
• It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
• In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
• In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
• In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the Layer
1.Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
• The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics, atmosphere,
water, and vacuum.
 DATA TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission media:

• Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth of a medium, the
higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
• Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the transmitted one
due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals will get destroyed due to
transmission impairment.
• Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal when it travels over
a communication medium on the addition of some unwanted signal.
 CAUSES OF TRANSMISSION
IMPAIRMENT

• Attenuation: Attenuation means the loss of energy, i.e., the strength of the signal decreases
with increasing the distance which causes the loss of energy.
• Distortion: Distortion occurs when there is a change in the shape of the signal. This type of
distortion is examined from different signals having different frequencies. Each frequency
component has its own propagation speed, so they reach at a different time which leads to
the delay distortion.
• Noise: When data is travelled over a transmission medium, some unwanted signal is added
to it which creates the noise.
 CLASSIFICATION OF
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Guided Media
• It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also known as
Bounded media.
Types Of Guided media:
• Twisted pair:
 Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A twisted pair
cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy,
and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
 The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per foot.
Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Types of twisted pair cable.

• Unshielded Twisted Pair:

• UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of cable has the
ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for
telephonic applications. Following are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
• Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
• Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
• Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
• Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps.Therefore, it can be used for long-distance communication.
• Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Types of twisted pair cable.

• Shielded Twisted Pair:

• This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil
shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and in
voice and data channels of telephone lines
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is usually a
coaxial cable.
• The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel to each other.
• It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
• The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer conductor is
made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-conductive cover that separates
the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
• The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh prevents
from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Coaxial Cable
• Coaxial cable is of two types:
1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high
speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
• Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
• The data can be transmitted at high speed.
• It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
• It provides higher bandwidth.
• Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
• It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.
• If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire network.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Coaxial Cable
Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Fiber Optic
• Fiber optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for communication.
• Fiber optic is a cable that holds the optical fibers coated in plastic that are used to
send the data by pulses of light.
• The plastic coating protects the optical fibers from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
• Fiber optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Fiber Optic
Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Unguided Transmission
• An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium.Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
• In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can
flow easily.
• Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:
 Radio wave
 Microwave
 Infrared
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Unguided Transmission
 Radio wave

• Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the directions of free space.

• Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all the directions.

• The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.

• In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the
sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.

• An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Applications Of Radio waves:

• A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
• An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages Of Radio transmission:
• Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
• Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
• Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Microwave
• It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need
to be properly aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is
directly proportional to the height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz –
300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.
• Microwaves are of two types:
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Microwave
• Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
• Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio
signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
• Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to 1000
GHz.
• Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the waves
sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focused.
• In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is km
away.
• It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the direct
sight of each other.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Microwave
• Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:
• Advantages Of Microwave:
• Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure
• Microwave transmission is cheaper than
communication. Any malicious user can catch the
using cables.
signal in the air by using its own antenna.
• It is free from land acquisition as it does
• Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of
not require any land for the installation of
phase by using microwave transmission.
cables.
• Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave
• Microwave transmission provides an easy
transmission is susceptible to weather condition. This
communication in terrains as the
means that any environmental change such as rain,
installation of cable in terrain is quite a
wind can distort the signal.
difficult task.
• Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited
• Communication over oceans can be
in the case of microwave transmission
achieved by using microwave transmission.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

• Microwave
• Satellite Microwave Communication
• A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the
earth at a known height.
• Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it
offers more flexibility than cable and fibre optic
systems.
• We can communicate with any point on the globe by
using satellite communication.
• How Does Satellite work?
• The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from
the earth station, and it amplifies the signal.The
amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth
station.
 TRANSMISSION MODE

• Data Transmission mode defines the direction of the flow of information

between two communication devices. It is also called Data Communication or
Directional Mode. It specifies the direction of the flow of information from one
place to another in a computer network.
• The data transmission modes can be characterized in the following three types
based on the direction of exchange of information:
1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full Duplex
 DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

1. Simplex
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the other can only receive. The simplex
mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example:
 Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only introduce input, the
monitor can only give the output.
 Radio broadcasts
 Internet streaming
 DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

Advantages of using a Simplex transmission mode:

1. It utilizes the full capacity of the communication channel during data
transmission.
2. It has the least or no data traffic issues as data flows only in one direction.
Disadvantages of using a Simplex transmission mode:
1. It is unidirectional in nature having no inter-communication between devices.
2. There is no mechanism for information to be transmitted back to the sender(No
mechanism for acknowledgement).
 DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

2. Half Duplex
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When
one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in
cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the same time. The entire
capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and messages are sent in both
directions.
Other examples : Fax machines, credit card verification and automatic teller
 DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

Advantages of using a half-duplex transmission mode:

1. It facilitates the optimum use of the communication channel.
2. It provides two-way communication.
Disadvantages of using a half-duplex transmission mode:
1. The two-way communication can not be established simultaneously at the
same time.
2. Delay in transmission may occur as only one way communication can be
possible at a time.
 DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

3. Full Duplex.
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. In
full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link
with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two ways:
• Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for
sending and the other for receiving.
• Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.
• Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the same
time.
 DATA TRANSMISSION MODES

Advantages of using a full-duplex transmission mode:

1. The two-way communication can be carried out
simultaneously in both directions.
2. It is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
Disadvantages of using a half-duplex transmission mode:
1. The capacity of the communication channel is divided into two
parts.Also, no dedicated path exists for data transfer.
2. It has improper channel bandwidth utilization as there exist
two separate paths for two communicating devices.
COMPARISON – HALF DUPLEX, SINGLE DUPLEX AND FULL DUPLEX
 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSMISSION

• Analog Signal
• Analogue signal transmission which is used in a communication that involves the
transmission of analogue signals from the transmitter to the receiver.
• Analogue signals continuously vary with time. They are sinusoidal in nature and usually
have harmonics. They represent the variations of physical quantities such as sound,
pressure, temperature, etc. and are represented by voltage waveforms that have
different amplitudes at different instants of time.
• Examples of analogue signal transmissions are voice transmission through a telephone
line, Radio and TV broadcast to the general public. Sometimes analogue signals are first
converted into digital signals before being transmitted.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRANSMISSION

• Digital Signal
• Digital signal transmission which is used in a communication that involves the transmission of
digital signals from the transmitter to the receiver.
• Digital signals are not continuous. They are made up of pulses which occur at discrete intervals
of time.The pulses may occur singly at a definite period of time or as a coded group.
• Examples of digital signals are
i. Telegraph signal which is generated by a telegraph and teleprinter which are the most
common instruments being used to transmit written text in the form of coded signals.
ii. Radar signal which is generated by a radar (a device being used to find out the location of
distant objects in terms of location and bearing by transmitting a short period signal and
beaming it to the location of the target.The reflected signal is picked up by the radar.
iii. Data signals which are generated by several devices and are required to transmit data from
one place to another. The data to be transmitted are converted into electrical pulses before
transmission is done.
ANALOG VS DIGITAL SIGNAL
 MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

• Modulation is the process of converting data into electrical signals or optical carrier signals which
optimize for transmission.Thus, slightly similar to a sine wave, a carrier wave composes of constant
frequency.
Types of modulation
• There are many three types of modulation:
• Frequency Modulation – When the frequency of a carrier wave changes or varies due to the change
of the frequency of the signal modulation while the amplitude and frequency are at a constant state, we
term it as Frequency modulation.
• Phase Modulation – When the phase of a high-frequency carrier wave changes or varies due to the
change of the phase of the signal modulation while the amplitude and frequency are at a constant state,
we term it as Phase modulation.
• Amplitude Modulation – When the amplitude of a high-frequency carrier wave changes or varies
due to the change of the amplitude of the signal modulation while the phase and frequency are at a
constant state, we term it as Amplitude modulation.
 MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

• Demodulation is getting the original form of data modulated carrier wave. To

recover the data from a modulator carrier wave – a demodulator signal circuit
comes in use. There are different types of demodulators too. The demodulator
output signal may describe as a sound, binary data, or pictures.
 SYNCHRONOUS AND
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
• Synchronous Transmission
• Synchronous transmission is, therefore, defined as the process by which
data or a signal is transferred from one application system or device to
another at constant periods or intervals, usually monitored by a clock. This
means that the transmitting and receiving systems send and receive data at the
same rate or speed. They are in sync. An example of this is copying data from
one file location to another:

In this diagram, data is being transmitted from A to B, A being the sender and B being the receiver. A couple
of sync data packets initialize the transmission process. The sync packets, once received by the receiver, are
decoded and serve to synchronize the receiving clock with the sending clock. Once synchronization is
achieved, sending and receiving commences.
 SYNCHRONOUS AND
ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION
• In the case of asynchronous transmission, the data or signals being
transmitted and received are not done in synchronization. The time interval
between the sending and receiving devices enable transmission and reception
at their own pace. This means the data sending transmitter may not be at the
same rate as the data receptor. This mode of transmission is not monitored by
the same rate and the transmission is said to be asynchronous. For example,
observe the data transfer:
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other.There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.
• Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
• Bus topology
• Star topology
• Ring topology
• Fully connected topology
• Combined topology
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Bus Topology
• The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through
a single cable known as a backbone cable.
• Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
• When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
• The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
• The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
• The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Advantages of Bus topology: Disadvantages of Bus topology:

• Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are •Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler,
directly connected to the cable without but still it requires a lot of cabling.
passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial
•Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized
cost of installation is low. test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any
• Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted fault occurs in the cable, then it would disrupt the
pair cables are mainly used in bus-based communication for all the nodes.
networks that support upto 10 Mbps. •Signal interference: If two nodes send the
• Familiar technology: Bus topology is a messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the
familiar technology as the installation and nodes collide with each other.
troubleshooting techniques are well known, •Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to
and hardware components are easily available. the network would slow down the network.
• Limited failure: A failure in one node will •Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads
not have any effect on other nodes. to communication issues. Repeaters are used to
regenerate the signal.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Ring topology
• Ring Topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
• The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the next node.
• The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
• The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
• It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no termination point.
• The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
• The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Working of Token passing

• A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to computer until it
reaches the destination.
• The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
• The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination address matches.
Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
sender.
• In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Advantages of Ring topology:

• Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network without bringing the network down.
• Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for network operation and monitoring are available.
• Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
• Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single host
computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
• Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the
cable, then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
• Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow down the network.
• Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of nodes. Adding new devices increases the
communication delay.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Star Topology
• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is
connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Advantages of Star Topology

• Network control: Complex network control features can be easily implemented in
the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology are automatically
accommodated.
• Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its own cable,
therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire network.
• Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools are cost-
effective.
• Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added to the
open ports on the hub.
Disadvantages of Star topology
• A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then all the connected
nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
• Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant amount of routing is
required.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Tree Topology
• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star
topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all
other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission.Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Advantages of Tree topology

• Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to provide broadband transmission, i.e.,
signals are sent over long distances without being attenuated.
• Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is
easily expandable.
• Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.
• Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
• Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
• High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
• Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in main bus cable will damage the overall
network.
• Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Mesh Topology

• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are interconnected with each
other through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication failures are a critical
concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
• Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Advantages of Mesh topology:

• Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
• Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the communication between other
devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
• Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices such as a router and more
transmission media than other topologies.
• Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to maintain and manage. If the
network is not monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes undetected.
• Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the network.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

• Hybrid Topology
• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid
topology.
• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed
as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other
will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology
in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI
bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

• Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the functioning of the rest of the network.
• Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the functionality
of the existing network.
• Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the organization.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
• Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is the design of the Hybrid network. It is very
difficult to design the architecture of the Hybrid network.
• Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as these hubs are different from usual
Hubs used in other topologies.
• Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling,
network devices, etc.
 PROTOCOLS

• Definition – all parties involved in a communication must agree in a set of rules

to be used when exchanging messages. Thus, the set of rules which both the
sender and the receiver all comply with is called protocol.
• A protocol specifies the message format, meanings, and the procedures is
known as a communication protocol.
• A communication application doesn’t communicate with the communication
hardware directly.
KEY ELEMENTS OF A PROTOCOL

• Syntax
• Data formats
• Signal levels
• Semantics
• Control information
• Error handling
• Timing
• Speed matching
• Sequencing
 WHY PROTOCOLS?

• Used for communications between entities in a system

• Must speak the same language
• Entities
• User applications
• e-mail facilities
• terminals
• Systems
• Computer
• Terminal
• Remote sensor
OSI MODEL

• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

• Developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO)
• Seven layers
• A theoretical system delivered too late!
• TCP/IP is the de facto standard
OSI LAYERS

• Layer 7. Application Layer

• Layer 6. Presentation Layer
• Layer 5. Session Layer
• Layer 4. Transport Layer
• Layer 3. Network Layer
• Layer 2. Data Link Layer
• Layer 1. Physical Layer
PHYSICAL LAYER

• Corresponds to basic hardware.

• Example: NIC, modem, cable
• Topics include transmission media, data encoding,
modulation/demodulation, multiplexing, switching(layer 1)--
circuit switching.
DATA LINK LAYER

• Specifies how to organize data into frames and how to

transmit frames over a network.
• Detail topics include the format of a data frame, i.e., framing,
error detection/correction, frame level error recovery.
NETWORK LAYER

• Specifies how to assign addresses and how to forward

packets to its destination.
• Detail topics include fragmentation, assembly, routing, flow
control.
TRANSPORT LAYER

• The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data

from the session layer, split it up into smaller units, if
needed, pass them to the network layer, and ensure that the
pieces all arrive correctly at the other end.
• The transport layer also determines the type of services,
connection-oriented or connectionless.
• Congestion control
SESSION LAYER

• Allows users on different machines to establish sessions

between them.
• Major functions include managing dialog.
• Session layer determines whether traffic can only go in one
direction or both directions at the same time.
PRESENTATION LAYER

• Controls the encoding and decoding of data, data

compression.
APPLICATION LAYER

• Controls the interface with users.

• Application, presentation, session layers are usually
implemented together instead of using laying architecture.
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

• Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for

its packet switched network (ARPANET)
• Used by the global Internet
• No official model but a working one.
• Application layer
• Transport layer: host-to-host (application to application)
• Internet layer: network routing and congestion control
• Network access layer: access transmission medium
• Physical layer
TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
MODEL
THE INTERNET

• Explosive growth –
• starts out as a research project of a few dozen nodes. Now, it
spans 82 countries and has millions of nodes.
• It has been growing exponentially since its inception.
• Used in all Venues-
• Government
• Education
• Private companies
HISTORY OF THE INTERNET

• Late 60s—the U.S. government realizes the importance of

allowing their research and development sites to
electronically “talk” to each other. The government-funded
Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) created
ARPANET in 1969.
• Mid 1970’s – ARPA began to work on connecting
computers in all associated agencies. The early Internet had
emerged.
HISTORY OF THE
INTERNET(CONT’D)
• Mid 1980’ – the Internet split into ARPANET and MILNET.
• 1986 – NSFNET began to work; the National Science
Foundation funded a new wide area network that
connected all of its supercomputing centers.
• 1996 – Telecommunications Reform Act.
WHO RUN THE INTERNET?

• No one person, group or organization owns. The

backbone of it is funded by the National Science
Foundation in the U.S.
• In addition, there is an Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) and Internet Advisory Board (IAB) who help to
set standards (TCP/IP) for those who wish to connect
to, and use, the Internet.
• The IAB makes its standard available via documents
called RFC (Request for Comment).
WHAT IS TCP/IP?

• TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol and

is actually a set of standards that describe how data is to be transferred
between computers.
• TCP/IP is the common tongue that all computers must speak to
communicate via Internet.
• There are implementations for UNIX, Windows, Macintosh, and just
about any computer operating systems you can think of.
• TCP/IP is implemented as part of an Operating System.
OTHER NAMES OF THE INTERNET

• ARPANET : the U.S. Department of Defense Advanced

Research Projects (ARPA)
• The TCP/IP Internet
• The (Global) Internet
PHYSICAL LAYER

• Physical interface between data transmission device (e.g.

computer) and transmission medium or network
• Characteristics of transmission medium
• Signal levels
• Data rates
• etc.
NETWORK ACCESS LAYER

• Exchange of data between end system and network

• Destination address provision
• Invoking services like priority
INTERNET LAYER (IP)

• Systems may be attached to different networks

• Routing functions across multiple networks
• Implemented in end systems and routers
TRANSPORT LAYER (TCP)

• Reliable delivery of data

• Ordering of delivery
APPLICATION LAYER

• Support for user applications

• e.g. http, SMPT
OSI V TCP/IP
PLETHORA OF TERMINOLOGY:WHERE
DO THEY COME FROM?

• Hardware – switches, nodes, boxes, bridges, routers, gateways, etc.

• Software – protocol, seven protocol layers, protocol stack, protocol
suite, etc.
• Market – computer venders “invent” new term to make a mint.
• Politics – “the Information Highway”.
• Computer research community – objected-oriented technology,
CORBA(Common Object Request Broker Architecture), Java,
JavaScript, Dynamic Java, Java 2, etc.
WHAT’S NEXT? – DATA
TRANSMISSION
• Two issues—
• Medium
• Form of energy
• READING ASSIGNMENT:
• Chapter 1 (ignoring some details)
 EXTRA READING MATERIAL

• Stallings, W. Data and Computer Communications (6th edition),

Prentice Hall 1999 chapter 1
• Web site for Stallings book
• www.shore.net/~ws/DCC6e.html
• Web sites for IETF, IEEE, ITU-T, ISO
• Internet Requests for Comment (RFCs)
• Usenet News groups
• comp.dcom.*
• comp.protocols.tcp-ip
THANK YOU