Microprocessor | Intel x86 evolution
and main features
Last Updated : 06 May, 2023
Intel x86 architecture has evolved over the years. From a 29, 000
transistors microprocessor 8086 that was the first introduced to a
quad-core Intel core 2 which contains 820 million transistors, the
organization and technology have changed dramatically. Some of
the highlights of the evolution of x86 architecture are:
1. 8080 – It was the world’s first general-purpose
microprocessor. It was an 8-bit machine, with an 8-bit data
path to memory. It was used in the first personal computer.
2. 8086 – It was a 16-bit machine and was far more powerful
than the previous one. It had a wider data path of 16-bits
and larger registers along with an instruction cache or
queue that prefetches a few instructions before they are
executed. It is the first appearance of 8086 architecture. It
has a real mode and an addressable memory of 1 MB.
3. 80286 – It has an addressable memory of 16 MB instead of
just 1 MB and contains two modes-real mode and first-
generation 16-bit protected mode. It has a data transfer
width of 16-bits and a programming model of 16-bits (16-
bits general purpose registers and 16-bit addressing).
4. 80386 – It was Intel’s first 32-bit machine. Due to its 32-bit
architecture, it was able to compete against the complexity
and power of microcomputers and mainframes introduced
just a few years earlier. It was the first processor to support
multitasking and contained the 32-bit protected mode. It
also implemented the concept of paging (permitted 32-bit
virtual memory address to be translated into 32-bit physical
memory address). It has an addressable physical memory
of 4 GB and a data transfer width of 32 bits.
5. 80486 – It introduced the concept of cache technology and
instruction pipelining. It contained a write protect feature
and offered a built-in math co-processor that offloaded
complex math operations from the main CPU.
6. Pentium – The use of superscalar techniques was
introduced as multiple instructions started executing in
parallel. The page size extension (PSE) feature was added
as a minor enhancement in paging.
7. Pentium Pro – It used register renaming, branch
prediction, data flow analysis, speculative execution, and
more pipeline stages. Advanced optimization techniques in
microcode were also added along with level 2 cache. It
implemented the second-generation address translation in
which a 32-bit virtual address is translated into a 36-bit
physical memory address.
8. Pentium II – It was able to process video, audio, and
graphics data efficiently by incorporating Intel MMX
technology (multimedia data set).
9. Pentium III – It contains SMD (streaming extensions)
instructions (SSE) and supports 3D graphics software. It has
a maximum CPU clock rate of 1.4 GHz and contained 70
new instructions.
10. Pentium 4 – It implements third-generation address
translation that translates a 48-bit virtual memory address
to a 48-bit physical memory address. It contains other
floating point enhancements for multimedia.
11. Core – It is the first Intel microprocessor with dual-core
which is the implementation of 2 processors on a single
chip. There is an addition of Visualizing Technology.
12. Core 2 – It extends the architecture to 64 bits and core 2
Quad provides four processors on a single chip. The register
set, as well as addressing modes, are 64 bits.
Comparison of major features of X-86 Family:
Microprocessor 8086 80286 80386 80486 Pentium
The data bus (bits) 16 16 32 32 64
Address bus (bits) 20 24 32 32 32
Operating Speed 5 – 10 6 – 20 16 – 33 25- 50 50 – 100
MHz
Memory Capacity 1 MB 16 MB 4 GB 4 GB 4 GB
Memory Management External External External Internal Internal
PC Type (IBM) PC – XT PC – AT PC – AT PC – AT PC – AT
Main Co-Processor External External External Internal Internal
Introduction 1978 1982 1985 1989 1993
Advantages:
Compatibility: One of the key advantages of the x86 architecture
is its compatibility with older processors. This allows software
developed for older processors to run on newer x86 processors
without modification, which makes it easy to upgrade systems.
Performance: The evolution of x86 microprocessors has resulted
in significant improvements in performance. Each new generation
of processors has been faster and more efficient than the previous
one, which has enabled the development of more advanced
applications and technologies.
Versatility: The x86 architecture is used in a wide range of
applications, from personal computers to servers, embedded
systems, and mobile devices. This versatility has made it one of the
most widely used processor architectures in the world.
Broad Industry Support: The x86 architecture is supported by a
large ecosystem of hardware and software vendors. This broad
industry support has helped to drive innovation and development,
resulting in a range of products that are designed to work with x86
processors.
Disadvantages:
Complex Instruction Set: The x86 architecture has a complex
instruction set, which makes it difficult to optimize code for
performance. This complexity can also make it harder to debug
software and hardware issues.
Power Consumption: The evolution of x86 microprocessors has
led to a significant increase in power consumption. This has
become a major issue in mobile devices, where battery life is
critical.
Heat Dissipation: As x86 processors have become more powerful,
they have also become hotter. This has led to the development of
more sophisticated cooling systems, which can add to the cost and
complexity of systems.
Cost: The x86 architecture is licensed by Intel, which can make it
more expensive than other processor architectures that are
available. This can be a significant barrier to entry for smaller
hardware and software vendors.
