Computer Fundamentals

What is a Computer?

A computer is an electronic device that processes data and performs tasks based on instructions.

Consists of :
Hardware Types
 Hardware (Physical Component)
 Software (Set of Programs) 1. Input & Output Devices: Keyboard, mouse, touchscreen,
scanner, monitor, speakers, printer.
 Data
 User
2. Processing Devices: CPU (Central Processing Unit) – the brain of
Parts of Computer System the computer.

Hardware 3. Memory Devices : RAM (temporary), ROM (permanent)

 Mechanical devices in the computer 4. Storage Devices: Magnetic storage, CD-DVD, HDD, SSD
 Anything that can be touched
Processing devices
Software

 Tell the computer what to do  Brains of the computer

 Also called a program  Carries out instructions from the program
 Manipulate the data
Data  Most computers have several processors
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 Pieces of information  Processors made of silicon and copper
 Computer organize and present data
Memory devices
Users

 People operating the computer Stores data or programs

 Most important part
Random Access Memory (RAM)
 Tell the computer what to do
 Volatile
Read Only Memory (ROM)  Stores current data and programs
Optical
 storage
More RAM results in a faster system
 Permanent storage of programs
 Holds the computer boot directions  CD and DVD drives
 Uses a laser to access data
Input and output devices

 Allows the user to interact Software Types

 Input devices accept data
Keyboard, mouse  System Software

Windows, Linux
 Output devices deliver data
Monitor, printer, speaker
 Application Software
 Some devices are input and output
Touch screens Chrome, MS Word

Storage devices  Programming Software

Hold data and programs permanently CodeBlocks, Intellij, GCC

Different from RAM/ROM Magnetic storage

 Floppy and hard drive

 Uses a magnet to access data

System Software
  Intermediary between computer hardware and application software

 Manages computer resources

 Provides a user interface

 Facilitates communication between hardware and software

 Ensures the proper functioning of the computer system

Application Software

 Perform specific tasks for end-users.

 Word processing, web browsing, games.

 User-focused and tailored to meet diverse needs.

Programming Software

 Used by developers to create, write, test, and maintain other software applications.

 Integrated Development Environments (IDEs)

 Compilers and Interpreters

Peripherals

 A peripheral is a device that is connected to a host computer, but not part of it.

 It expands the host's capabilities but does not form part of the core computer architecture.

 It is often, but not always, partially or completely dependent on the host

Peripheral Types

 Input: used to interact with, or send data to the computer

Mouse, Keyboard, Microphone

 Output: which provides output to the user from the computer

Display, Speaker

 Storage: which stores data processed by the computer

SSD, External Memory,

Memory Bus

A bus is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers.

Types :

1. Internal bus

 Connects all the internal components of a computer, such as CPU and memory, to the motherboard.
  Also known as internal data bus, memory bus, system bus or Front-Side-Bus

 Internal data buses are also referred to as a local bus, because they are intended to connect to local devices

2. External bus

The external bus is made up of the electronic pathways that connect the different external devices (peripherals) , such as printer
etc., to the computer. Also known as expansion bus

The Computer Defined

 Electronic device
 Converts data into information
 Modern computers are digital
Two digits combine to make data
 Older computers were analog
A range of values made data

The Keyboard

What is a Keyboard?
 Input device in PC system.
 Contains keys for alphabets, numeric digits, special characters and controls.
 Transfer user commands and data to the system.

Keyboard Organization

 Consist of a number of switches organized in a matrix form and an electronic circuit called keyboard encoder.

Encoder monitors:
 Status of all switches,
 Detect pressing and releasing of keys, and
 Encodes and transfers the information to the system.

A microcontroller on the system motherboard called keyboard controller receives all information from the keyboard, decodes and
passes on to the system for further action.

How keyboard works

 Keyboard controller detects a key press

 Controller sends a code to the CPU
 Code represents the key pressed
 Controller notifies the operating system
 Operating system responds
 Controller repeats the letter if held

Keyboard Switches

When a key is pressed, a switch is activated to generate signals for

communication.
Several switches are used:
 Capacitive switch
 Mechanical switch
 Membrane switch
 Hall effect switch

The Mouse

 All modern computers have a variant

 Allows users to select objects
 Pointer moved by the mouse
Variants of the Mouse
Mechanical mouse
Touch screens
1. Rubber ball determines direction and speed
2. The ball often requires cleaning  Sensors determine where finger points
 Sensors create an X,Y coordinate
Optical mouse  Usually presents a menu to users
1. Light shown onto mouse pad  Found in cramped or dirty environments
2. Reflection determines speed and direction
3. Requires little maintenance Game controllers

Trackballs  Enhances gaming experience

1. Upside down mouse  Provide custom input to the game
2. Hand rests on the ball
 Modern controllers offer feedback
3. User moves the ball
 Joystick
4. Uses little desk space
 Game pad
Track pads
Optical Input Devices
1. Stationary pointing device
2. Small plastic rectangle
 Allows the computer to see input
3. Finger moves across the pad
4. Pointer moves with the pointer
Bar code readers
5. Popular on laptops
 Converts bar codes to numbers
Track point
1. Little joystick on the keyboard  UPC code
2. Move pointer by moving the joystick  Computer find number in a database
 Works by reflecting light
Benefits  Amount of reflected light indicates number

 Pointer positioning is fast Barcode Scanner

 Menu interaction is easy
 Users can draw electronically  Step 1: Barcode is Scanned
Scanner emits laser/LED light onto the barcode
Interacting with a mouse
 Step 2: Light Reflection is Captured
 Actions involve pointing to an object
White spaces reflect more light, black bars absorb light
 Clicking selects the object
 Clicking and holding drags the object
 Step 3: Photodiode Converts Light to Analog
 Releasing an object is a drop
Signal
 Right clicking activates the shortcut menu Reflected light is converted into an analog electrical
 Modern mice include a scroll wheel signal

Mouse button configuration

 More reflection → Higher voltage
 Less reflection → Lower voltage
 Configured for a right-handed user
 Between 1 and 6 buttons  Step 4: Analog Signal → Digital Data (Binary 0s
 Extra buttons are configurable & 1s)
Color depth (grayscale values) is analyzed
Devices for the Hand
 Step 5: Binary Code Converted to Numbers
Pen based input Digital processor decodes the UPC/EAN barcode number

 Tablet PCs, PDA  Step 6: Data Sent to Computer/POS System

 Pen used to write data System retrieves product name, price, and inventory info
 Pen used as a pointer
 Handwriting recognition
 On screen keyboard  Best match is entered into document
 Rarely 100% accurate

Optical input devices

Digital cameras
 Optical character recognition (OCR)

 Converts scanned text into editable text

 Each letter is scanned
 Letters are compared to known letters

Image scanners

 Converts printed media into electronic

 Reflects light off of the image
 Sensors read the intensity
 Filters determine color depths

Audiovisual Input Devices

Microphones

 Used to record speech

 Speech recognition
 “Understands” human speech
 Allows dictation or control of computer
 Matches spoken sound to known phonemes
 Enters best match into document

Musical Instrument Digital Interface

 MIDI
 Connects musical instruments to computer
 Digital recording or playback of music
 Musicians can produce professional results

How CRT works

 It converts electrical signals (voltage, current) to visual signal.

 The electron gun contains a filament that, when heated, emits a stream of electrons.
 Electrons are focused with an electromagnet into a sharp beam and directed to a specific point of the face of the picture tube
 The front surface of the picture tube is coated with small phosphor dots
 When the beam hits a phosphor dot it glows with a brightness proportional to the strength of the beam and how long it is hit
 In a CRT the focusing system acts like a light lens with a focal length such that the center of focus is the screen.
 The horizontal and vertical deflectors allow the electron beam to be focused on any spot on the screen.
 The screen is coated with a special organic compound called a phosphor.
 For color systems there are groups of three different phosphors, one to produce red shades, one for green shades, and one for blue
shades.
 Electrons hit the screen phosphor molecules and cause a ground state to singlet excited state transition.
 Most of the phosphors relax back to the ground state by emitting a photon of light which is called fluorescence.
 This happens very rapidly so that all of the molecules which fluoresce do so in under a millisecond.
 These phosphors then emit light, called phosphorescence, that decays slower but still rapidly (in about 15-20 milliseconds)
 So, there is the need to refresh the screen by redrawing the image.
Phosphor

Phosphors – terms…
 Flourescence: Light emitted while the phosphor is being struck by electrons
 Phosphorescence: Light emitted once the electron beam is removed
 Persistence: The time from the removal of the excitation to the moment when phospherescence has decayed to 10% of
the initial light output.

High persistence phosphors allow for a lower refresh rate, avoids flickers
Low persistence phosphors require a high refresh rate to prevent flicker.

Monitors

CRT colour

 Phosphor dots arranged in triads

 Red, green, and blue dots
 Three colors blend to make colors
 Varying the intensity creates new colors

CRT drawbacks

 Very large
 Very heavy
 Use a lot of electricity

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

 Commonly found on laptops

 Desktop versions exist
 Solve the problems of CRT
 Fluorescent lights provide illumination

Drawbacks to LCD

 More expensive than CRT

 Must sit directly in front of screen (bad viewing experience from angles)
 Can be more fragile than CRT
Other Types of Monitors Images on different PPI
1) Paper-white displays

High contrast between fore and background

2) Electro-luminescent displays (ELD)

Similar to LCD
Uses phosphor to produce light

3) Plasma monitor

Gas is excited to produce light

Monitors and Video Cards

Monitors impacts user effectiveness

 Monitors should have
 Crisp text
 Clear graphics
 Adjustable controls
 Clear edges

Monitor Considerations:

 Size: Measured diagonally.

 Resolution: More pixels = sharper images.
 Refresh Rate: Higher rates reduce eyestrain.
 Dot Pitch: Smaller values mean finer images
Distance between the same color dots
Ranges between .15 mm and .40 mm
Smaller creates a finer picture
Should be less than .22
Video Cards Data Projectors

 Device between the CPU and monitor  Replaced overhead and slide projectors
 Better cards result in better output  Project image onto wall or screen
 Removes the burden of drawing from CPU  A series of mirrors control the display
 Have their processor and RAM  LCD projectors
 Modern cards have up to 512 MB RAM
 Capable of rendering 3D images 1 Most common type of projector
2 Small LCD screen
Ergonomics and Monitors 3 Very bright light
4 Require a darkened room
Eyestrain: Fatigue of the eyes
Sound Systems
Steps to avoid
 Choose a good monitor  Integral part of the computer experience
 Place the monitor 2 – 3 feet away  Capable of recording and playback
 Center of screen below eye level  Sound card
 Avoid reflected light
 Device between the CPU and speakers
Electronic magnetic fields (EMF)  Converts digital sounds to analog
 Can be connected to several devices
1.Generated by all electronic devices  Modern cards support Dolby Surround Sound
2.EMF may be detrimental to health
3.Steps to avoid Sound Systems
 Keep the computer at arms length
 Take frequent breaks  Headphones and headsets
 Use an LCD monitor  Replacement for speakers and microphones
 Offer privacy
 Does not annoy other people
 Outside noise is not a factor
Commonly Used Printers
 Headsets have speakers and a microphone
Types of Printer:

1 Impact printers
Generate output by striking the paper
Uses an inked ribbon

2 Non-impact printers
Use spray ink or heat
Tend to be quiet and fast

We will Study:
 Dot Printer (Impact Printer)
 Ink Jet Printer (Non-Impact)
 Laser Printer (Non- Impact)

Dot Printer

 Has a print head with small pins (7, 9, 14, 18, or 24) arranged in a vertical column.
 While printing, the pins press the inked ribbon against the paper, creating dots that form letters and numbers.
 The print head moves back and forth, printing one column of dots at a time until the full character appears.
 More pins = Better print quality.
 Common options are 9-pin or 24-pin print heads.

Dot Printer working process

 The computer sends text or images to the printer.

 The print head moves across the page one column at a time.
 Pins hit the inked ribbon to transfer dots onto the paper.
 This process continues line by line until the full document is printed.
Ink-jet printers

 Affordable, compact, and widely used for home and office printing.
 Produces color and black & white prints using CMYK ink (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black).
 Print quality depends on DPI (Dots Per Inch) – Higher DPI = Sharper prints.
 Print speed is measured in PPM (Pages Per Minute).

Ink Jet Printer Components

Print Head:
 Contains tiny nozzles that spray ink onto the paper.

Ink Cartridges:
 Hold liquid ink in CMYK colors (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black).

Print Head Belt:

 Moves the print head back and forth.

Paper Feeder:
 Holds and moves the paper through the printer.

Control Circuit Board:

 Receives and processes data from the computer.

Ink Jet Printer working process

1 Data Transmission:
The computer sends the document or image to the printer.

2 Ink Spraying:
The print head moves back and forth across the paper.
Nozzles spray microscopic ink droplets to form characters and images.
The ink is sprayed in a precise dot pattern, which creates clear, detailed prints

3 Ink Drying:
The ink dries almost instantly, so the text and images stay sharp.
Some inkjet printers use special coatings or heat to speed up drying.

4 Paper Movement:
Once a row is printed, the paper moves up slightly, and the process repeats until the entire document is printed.

Print Quality ,Resolution and Speed

1 Print Quality

 Measured in DPI (Dots Per Inch) → Higher DPI = Sharper images & text.
 Standard DPI:
300-600 DPI → Normal text documents.
1200-4800 DPI → High-quality images and photos.

2 Print Speed

 Measured in PPM (Pages Per Minute).

 Typical speeds:
Black & White: 5-15 PPM.
Color Printing: 3-10 PPM (slower because it blends colors).
Laser Printer

 Fast, high-quality printer commonly used in offices and businesses.

 Uses a laser beam and toner powder to create prints instead of liquid ink.
 Great for text-heavy documents, but not ideal for photo printing.

Laster Printer Component

 Laser Unit: Comparing Printers

Writes the image on the drum using a laser beam.  Determine what you need
 Determine what you can spend
 Photosensitive Drum:  Initial cost
 Cost of operating
Transfers the image onto paper using toner.  Image quality
 Speed
 Toner Cartridge:
High-Quality Printers
Holds the fine toner powder (acts like ink).
1 Special purpose printers
 Fuser Unit:
 Used by a print shop
Heats and melts the toner onto the paper.  Output is professional grade
 Prints to a variety of surfaces
 Transfer Roller:
2 Photo printers
Moves the paper and helps apply the toner.
 Produces film quality pictures
 Corona Wire/Charging Roller:
 Prints very slow
 Prints a variety of sizes
Gives the drum an electric charge.
3 Thermal wax printers
How laser printer works
 Produces bold color output
 Data Processing:  Color generated by melting wax
 Colors do not bleed
The printer receives the document and prepares it for printing.  Operation costs are low
 Output is slow
 Charging the Drum:
4 Dye sublimation printers
A rotating photosensitive drum is charged with static electricity.
 Produces realistic output
 Laser Writing:  Very high quality
 Color is produced by evaporating ink
A laser beam removes the charge in certain areas, creating an invisible image.  Operation costs are high
 Output is very slow
 Toner Application:
5 Plotters
The drum picks up toner powder, which sticks to the laser-drawn areas.
 Large high quality blueprints
 Transferring the Image:  Older models drew with pens
 Operational costs are low
The drum rolls the toner onto the paper.  Output is very slow

 Fusing(Melting the Toner):

Hot rollers melt the toner onto the paper, making it permanent.

 Final Output:

The printed paper comes out warm, and the drum is cleaned for the next page.
What is Software?

 Software is a collection of instructions, data, or programs that run machines and carry out tasks.

 It is the opposite of hardware, which refers to a computer’s physical components.

 Examples: MS Word, MS Excel, PowerPoint.

Importance of Software

 Software is essential for the functioning of modern devices.

 It enables communication between hardware and users.

 Helps automate tasks and enhances productivity.

Types of Software

1 System Software:

 Operating System
 Language Processor
 Device Driver

2 Application Software:

 General Purpose Software

 Customized Software
 Utility Programs

System Software Overview

 That directly operates the computer hardware and provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other
software to operate smoothly.
 Controls a computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as monitors, printers, and storage
devices, etc
 Examples: Windows, Linux, macOS.

Feature of System Software

 Closer to the computer system.

 Written in a low-level language in general.
 Difficult to design and understand.
 Fast in speed(working speed).
 Less interactive for the users in comparison to application software.

Operating System (OS)

 The core system software that loads when the computer starts.

 Functions of OS:

 Resource Management
 User Interface
 Security Management
 Multitasking
 File Management

 Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS.

Types of Operating Systems

 Single-User OS – Windows, macOS

 Multi-User OS – Linux, Unix (used in servers)
 Real-Time OS – Used in robotics and embedded systems
 Mobile OS – Android, iOS

Language Processor

 Converts high-level programming languages (C, Java, Python) into machine code.
 Types:

Compiler: Translates entire code at once.

Interpreter: Translates line by line.
Assembler: Converts assembly language into machine code.

Device Driver

 Controls specific hardware components like printers, keyboards, and monitors.

 Ensures seamless communication between OS and hardware.
 Examples:

- Printer driver
- Graphics card driver

Application Software Overview

 Designed to perform special functions or provides functions that are much more than the basic operation of the
computer.
 Designed to perform a specific task for end-users
 Runs on top of system software.
 Examples: Web browsers, multimedia players, database management systems.

Features of Application Software

 An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized tasks like word processing, spreadsheets,
email, etc.
 Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
 Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and design.
 The application software is easy to design and understand.
 Application software is written in a high-level language in general.

Types of Application Software

1 General Purpose Software: Word processors, spreadsheets, presentation software.

2 Customized Software: Tailor-made for specific organizations (e.g., railway reservation system).
3 Utility Software: Supports system functionality (e.g., antivirus, disk cleaner).
Utility Programs

 Utility software helps maintain, optimize, and protect a computer system.

 Functions:

 System Performance Optimization

 Security Enhancement
 File Management
 Backup and Recovery

 Examples:

 Antivirus Software: Norton, Windows Defender

 Disk Cleanup Tools
 Compression Software: WinRAR, 7-Zip

General Purpose Software

 Designed for various tasks.

 Commonly used by individuals and businesse
 Examples:

 MS Word (word processing)

 MS Excel (spreadsheet calculations)
 MS PowerPoint (presentations)

Customized Software

 Developed for specific businesses or industries.

 Meets unique requirements.
 Examples:

 Banking software
 Airline reservation system
 Hospital management system

Importance of Software in Daily Life

 Banking – Online transactions and financial applications.

 Education – E-learning platforms and research tools.
 Entertainment – Streaming services and gaming software.
 Healthcare – Medical imaging and hospital management software.