Boundless Management

Leadership

Defining Leadership

Leadership

Leadership is the process by which an individual mobilizes people and

resources to achieve a goal.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe the relationship between leaders and followers

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

Leadership is the process by which an individual moti-

vates others and mobilizes resources to achieve a goal.

Leadership is both a set of behaviors that can be

learned and a set of traits that can be nurtured.

Leadership is a relationship between followers and

those who inspire and provide direction for them. It in-
volves emotional ties and commitments.
 Key Terms dress the personality and cognitive factors most likely to predict a suc-
cessful leader. The many dimensions of leadership indicate how com-
Transformational Leadership: A theory of leading that
plex a notion it is and how difficult effective leadership can be.
enhances the motivation, morale, and performance of
followers through a variety of mechanisms.

Defining Leadership

Leadership is the process by which an individual mobilizes people and

resources to achieve a goal. It requires both a set of skills that can be
learned as well as certain attributes that can be nurtured. Leaders in-
spire, challenge, and encourage others. They can persuade and influ-
ence, and they show resilience and persistence. All aspects of society
have leaders. The concept of leader may call to mind a CEO, a prime
minister, a general, a sports team captain, or a school principal; exam-
ples of leadership exist across a variety of organizations.

Leaders motivate others to aspire to achieve and help them to do so.

They focus on the big picture with a vision of what could be and help
others to see that future and believe it is possible. In this way, leaders
seek to bring about substantive changes in their teams, organizations,
and societies. Abraham Lincoln, 1860: Abraham
Lincoln is considered a model of
leadership. He fought to preserve
Leadership is a relationship between followers and those who inspire national unity amid the United States’
them and provide direction for their efforts and commitments. It affects greatest trial, the Civil War, and
successfully worked to end slavery.
how people think and feel about their work and how it contributes to a
larger whole. Effective leaders can mean the difference between in-
creasing a team’s ability to perform or diminishing its performance, be-
Management versus Leadership
tween keeping efforts on track or encountering disaster, and even be-
tween success or failure.
Though they have traits in common, leadership and management both
have unique responsibilities that do not necessarily overlap.
Leadership and Management

Leadership is one of the most important concepts in management, and

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
many researchers have proposed theories and frameworks for under-
standing it. Some have distinguished among types of leadership such as
charismatic, heroic, and transformational leadership. Other experts dis-
Distinguish between managerial roles and responsibilities and
cuss the distinctions between managers and leaders, while others ad-
 leadership roles and responsibilities spiring a shared vision and effectiveness. Managerial work tends to be
more transactional, emphasizing processes, coordination, and motiva-
tion, while leadership has an emotional appeal, is based on relationships
with followers, and seeks to transform.
KEY TAKEAWAYS
One traditional way of understanding differences between managers
and leaders is that people manage things but lead other people. More
Key Points concretely, managers administrate and maintain the systems and pro-
cesses by which work gets done. Their work includes planning, organiz-
Many view leaders as those who direct the organization
ing, staffing, leading, directing, and controlling the activities of individu-
through vision and inspiration; managers are results-ori-
als, teams, or whole organizations for the purpose of accomplishing a
ented and more focused on task organization and
goal. Basically, managers are results-oriented problem-solvers with re-
efficiency.
sponsibility for day-to-day functions who focus on the immediate,
Managers sustain current systems and processes for shorter-term needs of an organization.
accomplishing work, while leaders challenge the status
quo and make change happen.
In contrast, leaders take the long-term view and have responsibility for
Such distinctions may create a negative concept of where a team or organization is heading and what it achieves. They chal-
managers. “Leader” brings to mind heroic figures rally- lenge the status quo, make change happen, and work to develop the ca-
ing people together for a cause, while “manager” sug- pabilities of people to contribute to achieving their shared goals.
gests less charismatic individuals focusing solely on Additionally, leaders act as figureheads for their teams and organizations
efficiency. by representing their vision and values to outsiders. This definition of
leadership may create a negative bias against managers as less noble or
Key Terms
less important: “Leader” suggests a heroic figure, rallying people to unite
management: The act of getting people together to ac- under a common cause, while “manager” calls to mind less charismatic
complish desired goals and objectives using available individuals who are focused solely on getting things done.
resources efficiently and effectively.

leadership: A process of social influence in which one Sources of Power

person enlists the aid and support of others in accom-
plishing a common task. Power is the ability to influence the behavior of others with or without re-
sistance by using a variety of tactics to push or prompt action.

Leaders vs. Managers

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The terms ” management ” and ” leadership ” have been used inter-
changeably, yet there are clear similarities and differences between
them. Both terms suggest directing the activities of others. In one defini- Identify the six different sources of power available to organi-
tion, managers do so by focusing on the organization and performance zational leaders and how leaders can employ these sources of
of tasks and by aiming at efficiency, while leaders engage others by in- power and influence in a meaningful and ethical way
 Another way to view power is as a resource that people use in relation-
ships. When a leader influences subordinates, it is called downward
power. We can also think of this as someone having power over some-
KEY TAKEAWAYS
one else. On the other hand, subordinates can also exercise upward
power by trying to influence the decisions of their leader. Indeed, lead-
ers depend on their teams to get things done and in that way are subject
Key Points
to the power of team members.
Power is the ability to get things done, sometimes over
the resistance of others.
The Six Sources of Power
Leaders have a number of sources of power, including
legitimate power, referent power, expert power, reward Power comes from several sources, each of which has different effects
power, coercive power, and informational power. on the targets of that power. Some derive from individual characteristics;
others draw on aspects of an organization’s structure. Six types of power
All of these sources of power can be used in combina-
are legitimate, referent, expert, reward, coercive, and informational.
tion, and people often have access to more than one of
them.
Legitimate Power
Power tactics fall along three dimensions: behavioral,
rational, and structural. Also called “positional power,” this is the power individuals have from
their role and status within an organization. Legitimate power usually in-
Key Terms
volves formal authority delegated to the holder of the position.
power: The ability to influence the behavior of others,
with or without resistance. Referent Power
Upward Power: When subordinates influence the deci-
sions of the leader. Referent power comes from the ability of individuals to attract others and
build their loyalty. It is based on the personality and interpersonal skills
Downward Power: When a superior influences
of the power holder. A person may be admired because of a specific
subordinates.
personal trait, such as charisma or likability, and these positive feelings
become the basis for interpersonal influence.

Power in Business Expert Power

Power is the ability to get things done. Those with power are able to in- Expert power draws from a person’s skills and knowledge and is espe-
fluence the behavior of others to achieve some goal or objective. cially potent when an organization has a high need for them. Narrower
Sometimes people resist attempts to make them do certain things, but than most sources of power, the power of an expert typically applies only
an effective leader is able to overcome that resistance. Although people in the specific area of the person’s expertise and credibility.
sometimes regard power as evil or corrupt, power is a fact of organiza-
tional life and in itself is neither good nor bad. Leaders can use power to
Reward Power
benefit others or to constrain them, to serve the organization ‘s goals or
to undermine them. Reward power comes from the ability to confer valued material rewards
or create other positive incentives. It refers to the degree to which the rect and interpersonal and can involve collaboration or other social inter-
individual can provide external motivation to others through benefits or action. Conversely, hard tactics are harsh, forceful, and direct and rely on
gifts. In an organization, this motivation may include promotions, in- concrete outcomes. However, they are not necessarily more powerful
creases in pay, or extra time off. than soft tactics. In many circumstances, fear of social exclusion can be a
much stronger motivator than some kind of physical punishment.

Coercive Power
Rational tactics of influence make use of reasoning, logic, and objective
Coercive power is the threat and judgment, whereas nonrational tactics rely on emotionalism and subjec-
application of sanctions and tivity. Examples of each include bargaining and persuasion (rational) and
other negative consequences. evasion and put downs (nonrational).
These can include direct punish-
ment or the withholding of de-
Structural tactics exploit aspects of the relationship between individual
sired resources or rewards.
roles and positions. Bilateral tactics, such as collaboration and negotia-
Coercive power relies on fear to
tion, involve reciprocity on the parts of both the person influencing and
Cash reward: The ability to reward induce compliance.
employees with cash and other the target. Unilateral tactics, on the other hand, are enacted without any
incentives is a source of participation on the part of the target. These tactics include disengage-
organizational power.
Informational Power ment and fait accompli. Political approaches, such as playing two against
one, take yet another approach to exert influence.
Informational power comes from access to facts and knowledge that oth-
ers find useful or valuable. That access can indicate relationships with
People tend to vary in their use of power tactics, with different types of
other power holders and convey status that creates a positive impres-
people opting for different tactics. For instance, interpersonally-oriented
sion. Informational power offers advantages in building credibility and
people tend to use soft tactics, while extroverts employ a greater variety
rational persuasion. It may also serve as the basis for beneficial ex-
of power tactics than do introverts. Studies have shown that men tend to
changes with others who seek that information.
use bilateral and direct tactics, whereas women tend to use unilateral
and indirect tactics. People will also choose different tactics based on
All of these sources and uses of power can be combined to achieve a the group situation and according to whom they are trying to influence.
single aim, and individuals can often draw on more than one of them. In In the face of resistance, people are more likely to shift from soft to hard
fact, the more sources of power to which a person has access, the tactics to achieve their aims.
greater the individual’s overall power and ability to get things done.

A Leader’s Influence
Power Tactics
Leaders use social influence to maintain support and order with their
People use a variety of power tactics to push or prompt others into ac-
subordinates.
tion. We can group these tactics into three categories: behavioral, ratio-
nal, and structural.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Behavioral tactics can be soft or hard. Soft tactics take advantage of the
relationship between person and the target. These tactics are more di-
 Differentiate between various methods of influencing others in the form of peer pressure, socialization, conformity, obedience, and
and their role in effective leadership persuasion. The ability to influence is an important asset for leaders, and
it is also an important skill for those in sales, marketing, politics, and law.

In 1958, Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three broad va-

KEY TAKEAWAYS rieties of social influence: compliance, identification, and internalization.
Compliance involves people behaving the way others expect them to
whether they agree with doing so or not. Obeying the instructions of a
Key Points crossing guard or an authority figure is an example of compliance.
Identification is when people behave according to what they think is val-
Influence occurs when other people affect an
ued by those who are well-liked and respected, such as a celebrity.
individual’s emotions, opinions, or behaviors. Leaders
Status is a key aspect of identification: when people purchase something
use influence to create the behaviors needed to
highly coveted by many others, such as the latest smartphone, they are
achieve their goal and vision.
under the influence of identification. Internalization is when people ac-
Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three cept, either explicitly or privately, a belief or set of values that leads to
broad varieties of social influence: compliance, identifi- behavior that reflects those values. An example is following the tenets of
cation, and internalization. one’s religion.
Compliance is people behaving as others expect.

Identification happens when people are influenced by How Leaders Use Influence
someone who is well-liked and respected, such as a
celebrity. In an organization, a leader can
use these three types of influ-
Internalization of values leads to those beliefs being re-
ence to motivate people and
flected in behavior.
achieve objectives. For example,
compliance is a means of main-
Key Terms
taining order in the workplace,
social influence: When an individual’s emotions, opin- such as when employees are ex-
ions, or behaviors are affected by others. pected to follow the rules set by Politics as an Example of Social
Influence: Leaders, such as
socialization: The process of inheriting and disseminat- their supervisors. Similarly, identi- politicians, often use identification to
ing norms and customs of behavior along with ideolo- fication happens when people gain support for their beliefs on
certain issues.
gies and other beliefs. seek to imitate and follow the ac-
tions of people they look up to
and respect, for example a more experienced co-worker or trusted su-
pervisor. Internalization results when employees embrace the vision and
The Role of Influence in Leadership values of a leader and develop a commitment to fulfilling them.

Influence occurs when a person’s emotions, opinions, or behaviors are

Leaders use these different types of influence to motivate the behaviors
affected by others. It is an important component of a leader’s ability to
and actions needed to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. Individuals
use power and maintain respect in an organization. Influence is apparent
differ in how susceptible they are to each type of influence. Some work-
ers may care a great deal about what others think of them and thus be vision: A clear, distinctive, and specific view of the fu-
more amenable to identifying the cues for how to behave. Other individ- ture that is usually connected with a leader’s strategic
uals may want to believe strongly in what they do and so seek to inter- advances for the organization.
nalize a set of values to guide them. In organizations and in most parts of
life, sources of influence are all around us. As a result, our behavior can
be shaped by how others communicate with us and how we see them.
A vision is defined as a clear, distinctive, and specific view of the future,
and is usually connected with strategic advances for the organization.
A Leader’s Vision Effective leaders clearly define a vision and communicate it in such a
way as to foster enthusiasm and commitment throughout the organiza-
A clear and well-communicated vision is essential for a leader to gain tion. This ability to express a vision and use it to inspire others differenti-
support and for followers to understand a leader’s goals. ates a leader from a manager.

Many researchers believe that vision is an essential quality of effective

LEARNING OBJECTIVES leaders, as important as the abilities to communicate and to build trust.
Effective leaders clearly communicate their vision of the organization.
Their decisions and strategies reflect their view of what an enterprise
Explain the relationship among vision, mission, and strategy as can be rather than what it currently is. A strong leader builds trust in the
it pertains to leadership vision by acting in ways that are consistent with it and by demonstrating
to others what it takes to make the vision a reality.

Vision is an essential component of an organization’s success. A thriving

KEY TAKEAWAYS organization will have a vision that is succinct, indicative of the direction
that the company is heading, and widely understood throughout all lev-
els of the organization. The more employees are aware of, understand,
Key Points
and believe in the vision, the more useful it is in directing their behavior
Vision is defined as a clear, distinctive, and specific view on a daily basis.
of the future that is usually connected with strategic de-
cisions for the organization. Vision and mission are sometimes used inter-
A thriving organization will have a vision that is succinct, changeably, but there is a useful distinction
understandable, and indicative of the direction that the between the two. A vision describes an
company wants to head in the future. organization’s direction, while its mission de-
fines its purpose. By focusing on the value an
Leaders are essential for communicating the vision of
organization creates, the mission helps priori-
the organization and promoting the vision through the
tize activities and provides a framework for
decisions they make and the strategies they pursue.
decision-making.
Vision connects to
Key Terms strategy: A concise
Vision also plays a significant role in a and clear vision is
essential to drive and
leader’s strategy for the organization. By set-
ting the direction, a vision underscores the communicate an Zaccaro’s model points to extroversion, agreeableness,
organization’s strategy.
necessity of all the areas of a business work- conscientiousness, openness, neuroticism,
ing toward the same goal. This unity of pur- honesty/integrity, charisma, intelligence, creativity,
pose often involves changing what is done and how, and aligning the ac- achievement motivation, need for power, oral/written
tivities and behavior of people is critical to fulfilling a leader’s vision. A communication, interpersonal skills, general problem-
vision reduces ambiguity and provides focus—two benefits that are es- solving, and decision making.
pecially valuable in turbulent or rapidly changing times.
Key Terms

Leadership Traits Proximal: Located close to a reference point.

distal: Located far from a reference point.

Traits of effective leaders are conditionally dependent and have been
debated for years, but researchers have identified some commonalities.

Researchers have debated the traits of a leader for many decades. Early
trait theory proposed that merely a few personality traits have the ability
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
to determine the success of a leader. Researchers have since distanced
themselves from this idea and theorized that the success of a leader re-
quires more than just a few essential traits. Researchers now attest that
Summarize the key characteristics and traits that are predictive
while trait theory may still apply, individuals can and do emerge as lead-
of strong leadership capacity
ers across a variety of situations and tasks. Research findings show that
significant relationships exist between leadership and a number of indi-
vidual traits, among them intelligence, adjustment, extroversion, consci-
entiousness, openness to experience, and general self-efficacy.
KEY TAKEAWAYS

One prominent researcher in trait theory, Stephen Zaccaro, proposes a

Key Points number of models that show the interplay of the environmental and per-
sonality characteristics that make a good leader. These models rests on
Early findings regarding trait theory show that relation- two basic premises about leadership traits. First, leadership emerges
ships exist between leadership and individual traits from the combined influence of multiple traits, as opposed to coming
such as intelligence, adjustment, extroversion, consci- from various independent traits. In other words, Zaccaro argues that ef-
entiousness, openness to experience, and general self- fective leadership is derived from an integrated set of cognitive abilities,
efficacy. social capabilities, and personal tendencies, with each set of traits
Stephen Zaccaro, a researcher of trait theories, argues adding to the influence of the other. The second premise suggests that
that effective leadership is derived from an integrated leadership traits differ in their proximal (direct) influence on leadership. In
set of cognitive abilities, social capabilities, and disposi- this multistage model, certain distal or remote attributes (such as per-
tional tendencies, with each set of traits adding to the sonal attributes, cognitive abilities, and motives/values) serve as precur-
influence of the other. sors for the development of personal characteristics that more directly
shape a leader.
Some of the inherent leadership traits in Zaccaro’s model include extro- Key Points
version, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness, neuroticism,
There are five primary leadership styles: engaging, au-
honesty/integrity, charisma, intelligence, creativity, achievement motiva-
thoritative, laissez-faire, participative, and transforma-
tion, need for power, oral/written communication, interpersonal skills,
tional. All five styles can be effectively used in the ap-
general problem-solving, decision making, technical knowledge, and
propriate circumstances.
management skills. Although these characteristics may resemble a laun-
dry list of traits, Zaccaro and many other researchers have shown that An engaging style of leadership involves reaching out
they are all predictors of a successful leader. to employees and understanding their concerns and
working situations.

Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision -mak-

ing powers are centralized in the leader. Leaders do not
entertain any suggestions or initiatives from
subordinates.

A person using a laissez-faire style of leadership does

not provide direction, instead leaving the group to fend
for itself. Subordinates are given a free hand in deciding
their own policies and methods.
Trait leadership: Zaccaro’s model (2004): This diagram shows one
contemporary theory of the essential traits of a leader. Zaccaro’s theory A participative or democratic style of leadership in-
emphasizes all of the attributes that make up the traits of a leader, including
environmental, internal (personality), and cognitive abilities. volves the leader’s sharing decision-making authority
with group members while also promoting the interests
of group members and practicing social equality.
Leadership Styles Transformational leadership motivates and inspires peo-
ple to change their behaviors in service of a greater
Leaders may adopt several styles according to what is most appropriate good.
in a given situation.
Key Terms

laissez-faire: French term literally meaning “let [them]

LEARNING OBJECTIVES do,”; it also broadly implies “let it be,” “let them do as
they will,” or “leave it alone.”

Explain how different leadership styles may be adopted ac-

cording to the demands of a given circumstance
Finding the Right Style of Leadership

A leader can take a number of different approaches to leading and man-

aging an organization. A leader’s style of providing direction, setting
KEY TAKEAWAYS
strategy, and motivating people is the result of his or her personality, val-
ues, training, and experience. For example, a leader with a laid-back per-
sonality may lead with a less formal style that encourages autonomy and Participative or Democratic Leadership
creativity.
A participative or democratic style of leadership involves the leader’s
sharing decision- making authority with group members. This approach
Engaging Leadership
values the perspectives and interests of individual group members while
Engaging styles of leadership involve reaching out to employees and un- also contributing to team cohesion. Participative leadership can help em-
derstanding their concerns and working situations. Dr. Stephen L. ployees feel more invested in decision outcomes and more committed
Cohen, the senior vice president for Right Management ‘s Leadership to the choices because they have a say in them.
Development Center of Excellence, describes the engaging leadership
style as communicating relevant information to employees and involving Transformational Leadership
them in important decisions. This leadership style can help retain em-
ployees for the long term. The transformational leadership style emphasizes motivation and morale
to inspire followers to change their behavior in service of a greater good.
The concept was initially introduced by James MacGregor Burns.
Autocratic/Authoritarian
According to Burns, transformational leadership is when “leaders and
Leadership followers make each other advance to a higher level of morality and mo-
tivation.” Researcher Bernard M. Bass used Burns’s ideas to develop his
Under the autocratic leadership
own theory of transformational leadership. Bass clarified the definition to
style, decision-making power is
emphasize that transformational leadership is distinguished by the effect
centralized in the leader. Leaders
it has on followers.
do not entertain any suggestions
or initiatives from subordinates.
The autocratic management is When to Use Different Styles
effective for quick decision mak-
ing but is generally not success- Different situations call for particular leadership styles. Under intense
ful in fostering employee engage- time constraints, when there is little room to engage in long discussions
Engaging leadership: The engaging ment or maintaining worker that seek consensus, a more directive, top-down style may be appropri-
style of leadership involves leaders ate. For a highly motivated and cohesive team with a homogeneous
satisfaction.
reaching out to their constituents
and being involved in their level of expertise, a democratic leadership style may be more effective.
successes and struggles. Similarly, a participative leadership style may be most appropriate for de-
Laissez-faire/Free-Rein cisions that will require changes in behavior from a large group of
Leadership people.

A person may be in a leadership position without providing clear direc-

tion, leaving the group to choose its own path in achieving aims. Each style of leadership can be effective if matched with the needs of
Subordinates are given a free hand in deciding their own policies and the situation and used by a skilled leader who can adopt a deft ap-
methods. Laissez-faire is most effective when workers have the skills to proach. The most effective leaders are adept at several styles and able
work independently, are self-motivated, and will be held accountable for to choose the one most likely to help the organization achieve its
results. objectives.
Four Theories of Leadership

Theories of effective leadership include the trait, contingency, behav- For a number of years, researchers have examined leadership to dis-
ioral, and full-range theories. cover how successful leaders are created. Experts have proposed sev-
eral theories, including the trait, behavioral, contingency, and full-range
models of leadership.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The Trait Theory of Leadership

Discuss differing theories and approaches to defining and un- The search for the characteristics or traits of effective leaders has been
derstanding leadership central to the study of leadership. Underlying this research is the as-
sumption that leadership capabilities are rooted in characteristics pos-
sessed by individuals. Research in the field of trait theory has shown sig-
nificant positive relationships between effective leadership and person-

KEY TAKEAWAYS ality traits such as intelligence, extroversion, conscientiousness, self-effi-

cacy, and openness to experience. These findings also show that individ-
uals emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks.
Key Points

Modern trait theory proposes that individuals emerge as

The Contingency Theory of Leadership
leaders across a variety of situations and tasks; signifi-
Stogdill and Mann found that while some traits were common across a
cant individual leadership traits include intelligence, ad-
number of studies, the overall evidence suggested that persons who are
justment, extroversion, conscientiousness, openness to
leaders in one situation may not necessarily be leaders in other situa-
experience, and general self-efficacy.
tions. According to this approach, called contingency theory, no single
Behavioral theory suggests that leadership requires a psychological profile or set of enduring traits links directly to effective
strong personality with a well-developed positive ego; leadership. Instead, the interaction between those individual traits and
self-confidence is essential. the prevailing conditions is what creates effective leadership. In other
Contingency theory assumes that different situations words, contingency theory proposes that effective leadership is contin-
call for different characteristics, and no single optimal gent on factors independent of an individual leader. As such, the theory
psychological profile of a leader exists. predicts that effective leaders are those whose personal traits match the
needs of the situation in which they find themselves. Fiedler’s contin-
According to full-range theory of leadership, four quali-
gency model of leadership focuses on the interaction of leadership style
ties are essential for leaders: individualized considera-
and the situation (later called situational control). He identified three rele-
tion, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation,
vant aspects of the situation: the quality of the leader’s relationships with
and idealized influence.
others, how well structured their tasks were, and the leader’s amount of
formal authority.
Key Terms

Contingency: Likely to happen in connection with or as

The Behavioral Theory of Leadership
a consequence of something else.
In response to the early criticisms of the trait approach, theorists began
to research leadership as a set of behaviors. They evaluated what suc-
cessful leaders did, developed a taxonomy of actions, and identified
broad patterns that indicated different leadership styles. Behavioral the-
ory also incorporates B.F. Skinner’s theory of behavior modification,
which takes into account the effect of reward and punishment on chang-
ing behavior. An example of this theory in action is a manager or leader
who motivates desired behavior by scolding employees who arrive late
to meetings and showing appreciation when they are early or on time.

The Full-Range Theory of

Leadership

The full-range theory of leader-

ship is a component of transfor-
mational leadership, which en-
hances motivation and morale by
connecting the employee’s sense
of identity to a project and the
collective identity of the organiza-
tion. The four major components
of the theory, which cover the full
range of essential qualities of a
B.F. Skinner: The father of
good leader, are: behavioral theory showed the
connection between behaviors and
reward and punishment. Today,
Individualized considera- management often incorporates his
findings.
tion: the degree to which
the leader attends to each
follower’s concerns and needs and acts as a mentor or coach

Intellectual stimulation: the degree to which the leader challenges

assumptions, takes risks, and solicits followers’ ideas

Inspirational motivation: the degree to which the leader articulates

a vision that is appealing and inspiring to followers

Idealized influence: the degree to which the leader provides a role

model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, and gains respect
and trust