Reading and Writing 3.

Definition
• Provide concise but exact meanings of unfamiliar
words
• Explain special meanings for familiar words
8 Patterns of Development Writing • Often used to explain technical words and concept

Methods of Definition
1. Narration
• Telling story in chronological order 1. Informal Definition
• Contains the plot which gives direction in making a. Denotative
story • Dictionary meaning of the word
• Sequential presentation of events
• Signal words or transitional devices help to create b. Connotative
unified thought and show the transitions of events • Secondary meaning of a word and is not
to the next necessarily included in the dictionary
• Signal words lead us to focus on the use of the
action words in the story and help the story move c. Operational Definition
and make the story interesting • Defining a concept by the producers or operations
• Chronological ordering of events helps to show used to measure or observe it
the reader how the story moves
• It is important to give specific details in pointing d. Synonym
out the direction of the story • Similar words

Transitional Devices

➢ First 2. Formal Definition

➢ Next • Consists of three principal parts
➢ Then • Species (word) + genus (class) + differentiae
➢ After • The WORD is the name of the object, process, or
➢ Suddenly concept defined usually followed by “is” and “are”
• The CLASS or general group to which the objects
belong
2. Description • Example:
• Series of detailed observation about the subject Skimming (word) is a reading technique (class) of
• Brings the subject to life in the imagination of the allowing the eyes to travel over a page very
reader quickly, stopping only here and there to gain an
• Involves the use of adjective and adverbs idea (differentiae)
• Describe how the subject looks, sounds, feels,
smells, and taste are called sensory languages
• How you arrange the details to provide an image 3. Expanded or Extended Definition
of the subject • Methods used in paragraph development
• By stating its characteristics
• By its function
2 Types of Description
• By what it is not
1. Objective description • By what it is similar to
• Impartial and actual picture of the subject without • By examples
biases • By origin of word or etymology
• Exclude personal impression • By its effect

2. Subjective description
• Personal impression of what is observed
• Often used in fictional stories
 Transitional Expressions

➢ Classified as
➢ One kind
➢ The last group
➢ Another kind
➢ Another
➢ Final type
➢ The first category
➢ Are categorized as
➢ The next part

5. Comparison and Contrast

• Comparison is about elements that are similar
• Contrast is about element/ideas that are different
• Compare-contrast analyzes two subjects
comparing them, contrasting them, or both
• Its purpose is not to simply state the obvious
• To illustrate subtle differences or unexpected
similarities between the subjects
• Show how these two ideas are similar or different
by showing their advantages and disadvantages to
weigh the pros and cons

2 Ways to Compare-Contrast
4. Exemplification and Classification
1. Subject by subject
❖ Exemplification
• Also known as block method
• Also known as illustration
• Used to compare and contrast two subjects one at
• Most common and effective pattern to explain an
a time
idea or point
• Begin by saying everything about the first subject
• Develop a general statement – the topic sentence,
then move on and write everything about the
with examples to support
second subject
Transitional Expressions
2. Point by point
➢ For instance
• Address one subject at a time
➢ Namely
• First point + subject 1 and 2. Second point +
➢ To specify
subject 1 and 2 and so on...
➢ To clarify
➢ To illustrate
➢ For example
➢ In short Cohesive Devices
➢ As an example For similarities:

➢ Likewise
❖ Classification ➢ Similar to
• To sort out or arrange subjects into groups or ➢ Same with
categories based on their common and shared ➢ Like
characteristics ➢ In the same manner
• Associate similar things by grouping into classes
 For contrast: 3. Extended example
• After a topic sentence, illustrate the problem by
➢ On the other hand
using an extended example (through a story or an
➢ However
anecdote from the introduction)
➢ While
➢ Different with
➢ In contrast and the like
Way to present solutions:

1. Preventive measures
6. Cause and Effect • Ways to prevent the problem from occurring in
• Explains why something happens the first place
• States what results in a particular event produces • For example: How to prevent Covid-19
• Usually gives a statement emphasizing the cause
and another emphasizing the effect 2. A series of steps
• Why did it happen? • Suggest the easiest and most obvious solution
• What caused it? first, but if that doesn’t work, try something else,
• What does it cause? etc.
• What are its effects? • For example: If you have a neighbor who does not
• How is it related to something else? wear mask nor practice social distancing, you
might first talk to him; if that doesn’t work,
Signal Words arrange for a mediator; etc. (a last resort might be
For cause: to call a police)

➢ As a consequence of 3. Advice
➢ As a result of • Give some advice and helpful hints
➢ Because of
➢ Now that 4. A choice of solutions
➢ Since
• Include solutions that have already been tried,
For effects: have been unsuccessful, and new solutions which
you are proposing
➢ Accordingly
➢ Consequently
➢ Hence
Transitional Devices
➢ So
➢ Therefore For introductions
➢ This resulted in
➢ Nowadays…
➢ It is a common trend that...
➢ Society is becoming increasingly concerned
7. Problem- Solution about…
• Presents a problem, discussing its several aspects
• Conclude by discussing solutions to the problem
For middle section/body
The problem may be addressed through: ➢ For instance
1. Effects only ➢ Such as/like
• Describe the problem only in terms of its effects ➢ Namely
• Use examples

2. Causes and effects For conclusion

• Outline the causes of the problem ➢ In conclusion
• Discuss solutions in terms of preventive measures ➢ To conclude
➢ To sum up
8. Persuasion
• State the details through presenting views and
encourages the target readers to accept the
argument
• Persuasive text can be in the form of argument,
discussion, exposition, review, or advertisement
• State the issue first, this will serve as a
background information about the topic
• Followed by a clear, strong, and specific argument
• Argument is one’s claim or position that can
either support or reject the issue
• Argument shall be supported with well-researched
evidence, which will give details on how and why
it supports the argument
• Evidences can be factual, logical, statistical, or
anecdotal
• It can also explain counter-arguments not because
the writer wants to prove which claims are wrong
or right but to enlighten the readers about other
positions
• Conclusion restating the main argument of the
text will be the end of the text, the last statement
to persuade your readers

Guide questions in contrasting persuasive text

➢ What is the issue?

➢ What is your position or opinion?
➢ What is the opposing position/opinion?
➢ What are some reasons for your position?
➢ What are some cases or examples that
support this?
Coherence and Cohesion Transitional Devices
• Also called conjunctive adverbs or adverbial
• Two basic features that facilitate textual continuity
conjunctions

Form or Structure Addition

• One of the most important elements in writing - Again - Also - And
• Without solid structure in place, the content - And then - Finally - First
gathered would fall apart - Further - Last - Moreover
• After sequencing the events in paragraph – a - Next - Second - Still
group of related sentences that leads to a single - Furthermore - Too - In addition
idea - Equally important - In the first place

Coherence Comparison

• Connection and organization of ideas in a text to - Also - In the same way

create unity - Likewise - Similarly
• Connection of the succeeding sentences to the
topic sentence
• Rhetorical aspects of writing Concession
• Include developing and supporting the argument
- Granted - Naturally
• Synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing
- Of course
and clarifying ideas
• To achieve, every good paragraph must have unity
of idea
Contrast
• Sentences in a paragraph are unified and directed
by a topic sentence
• Focuses on the overall (macro) structure of the
essay

Example:
Emphasis
- Thesis statement development
- Certainly - Indeed
- In fact - Of course
Cohesion
• Unifying ideas by binding words, phrases, Example/ Illustration
sentences and paragraphs, thus, show
relationships and smooth text flow
• More specific
• Pays attention to links between words and
sentences
• To achieve, know how to use cohesive devices, Summary
certain words or phrases that serve the purpose of
connecting two statements
• Usually by referring back to what you have
previously written or said
Properties of a Well-Written Text • Unbiased language
- Language that is free of racial bias, free of
1. Organization religious bias, and free of gender bias
• Text organization
• The way a text organized 1) Informal language
• Helps to guide the reader logically through it • Usually used in writing for oneself or in writing to
• Makes a text readable and its message clear family, friends, and colleagues
• Can be achieved through:
1) Physical format 2) Formal language
• Immediately apparent to the reader • Used in academic, business, and official texts
• How the text physically appears

2) Structure Examples:
• Provides the framework upon which the text is
organized
• Consists of beginning, middle, and end

3) Signal words
• Text clues that readers can use to follow a text
• Signal the transition from one point to another,
the ordering of events and concepts

2. Coherence and Cohesion

• Text with both has a central concept linking all the
ideas in the text
• These ideas are presented in a logical manner

Coherence
• Ideas are logically sequenced in a way that is easy
to follow for the reader
4. Mechanics
Cohesion
• Set of conventions on how to spell, abbreviate,
• Unifying ideas by binding words, phrases,
punctuate, and capitalize
sentences and paragraphs, thus show
• Conventions that have to be considered in writing
relationships and smooth text flow
Examples:

- Realibility - Asociation
- Embarrass - Coleague

- I love to paint portraits I would paint one every

day if I had the time

- This book is dedicated to my parents, Noel and

3. Language Use
Corazon
• Appropriateness of word/vocabulary use
• Effective language is specific, concise, familiar,
- alex is studying in sta ana manila
correct, and appropriate
• Be sensitive to use unbiased language so that it - i work for san miguel corporation
won’t offend any individual
Claims Types of Factual Claims

1) Factual/Historical
• Synonymous to belief, argument, assertion, or
2) Relational
stand
• Casual connections
• A good claim should be:
• Argumentative and debatable
3) Predictive
• Specific and focused
• Interesting and engaging
Proof requires:
• Logical
• Sufficient and appropriate grounds
• Reliable authority and recent data
Types of information • Accurate, typical data
• Clearly defined terms, no loaded language
1. Explicit Information • Clear distinction between fact and false
• Information stated in the text
• Readers can see the piece of information stated in
the given passage
Examples:

2. Implicit Information • The oldest known disease in the world is leprosy.

• Information is not directly presented in the text • Generally, obesity causes health problems.
• Readers have to read between the lines to • Nail Armstrong was the first man to step on the
understand the details that the writer is trying to moon.
tell • The first Mindanaoan President is Rodrigo
Duterte.
• The earth is warming rapidly.

2. Claim of Policy
• Advocates a specific course of action
• Asserts that specific policies should be instituted
as solutions to problems
• Terms:
- Should - Ought to - Must

Proof requires:

• Making proposed action (clear), need

(justification), plan (must be workable), benefit
Types of Claims (advantages) consider opposition/counter
arguments
1. Claim of Fact
• Pieces of information which are grounded on
reliable authority such as science and history Examples:
• Terms used: • The mayor should suspend the classes today.
- Generally - Probably - As a rule
• You must send your children to public schools.
• The government should legalize medicinal
• To verify whether these statements are claim of
marijuana.
fact or not, ask these questions:
• The Boy Scouts should not have to include gay
- Is it debatable?
scout leaders.
- Is it verifiable?
• Local Malls should not open during the general
- Is it specific?
community quarantine.
- Can it be solved objectively?
3. Claim of Value
• Involves judgements and evaluations
• Judges whether something is good/bad,
right/wrong, just/unjust, and ethical/nonethical
• Expressions of taste, preferences, and prejudices

Proof requires:

• Establishing standards of evaluation (ex. A warrant

that defines what constitutes instances of the
relevant value)
• Note that priority of the value in this instance
• Establish the advantage (practical or moral) of
your standards
• Use examples to clarify abstract values
• Use credible authorities for support

Examples:

• It is better to be feared than loved.

• Cheating is not good.
• Gay marriage is immoral.
• Buying a house is a lot better than building it.
• Rock music sucks.
• The government is doing a great job during the
Covid-19 pandemic.