4.6.

2
30 December 2023 03:11 PM

Storing and Retrieving Data in a Database

A Database Management System (DBMS) acts as an intermediary between application programs and the database, handling data
requests and ensuring data retrieval. Here's how it functions:
Retrieval Process:

• Request from Application: When an application program requires data (e.g., pricing information for an automobile), it sends a request to
the DBMS.

• Logical Access Path (LAP): The DBMS follows a logical access route based on the request. For example, seeking pricing data for a
specific engine option.

• Physical Access Path (PAP): The DBMS navigates to the physical location (on a storage device like a disk drive) where the requested
data is stored.

User Interaction:

• User Request: Similarly, users make data requests to the DBMS (e.g., "List all options with a price greater than $200").

• Logical and Physical Access Paths: The DBMS follows the logical path to retrieve data based on the user's query. It then accesses the
physical storage to gather the necessary information.

Concurrency Control:

• Challenge: Simultaneous access by multiple users or programs to the same record in the database can cause conflicts and errors (e.g.,
conflicting inventory updates).

• Solution - Concurrency Control: Mechanisms like concurrency control prevent issues by restricting other programs from accessing a
record that's currently being updated or used by another process. This ensures data accuracy and prevents inconsistencies due to
simultaneous operations.
Proper management of data access paths and concurrency control mechanisms in a DBMS is crucial to maintain data integrity, prevent
errors, and ensure accurate information retrieval for both application programs and users.

New Section 1 Page 1

 4.6.3
30 December 2023 03:26 PM

Data Manipulation and Report Generation:

• Compliance and Reporting: For instance, the Food Allergen and Consumer Protection Act necessitates companies to compile and
disclose ingredient-related reports. A DBMS assists in fulfilling such regulatory requirements efficiently.

• Query-by-Example (QBE): Some databases utilize a visual approach like QBE, where users interact by clicking on data or features within
a graphical interface to execute queries or perform tasks (as depicted in Figure 4.14).

• Query Commands: Users can use query commands (like SQL) to interact with databases programmatically. SQL, standardized in the
1970s, enables powerful data manipulation across various systems and programming languages (Figure 4.15).

Structured Query Language (SQL):

• Standardized Language: ANSI adopted SQL as the standard query language for relational databases in 1986. It offers various functions
like AVG, MAX, MIN, etc., and its standardized procedures make it user-friendly and widely applicable.

• Integration with Programming Languages: SQL can seamlessly integrate into programming languages like C++ and COBOL, making it
versatile for database users and programmers alike.

Report Generation:

• Output Control: A DBMS allows users to select specific records and fields for reports, perform calculations, and format the reports with
headings or other organizational options.

• Types of Reports: Databases produce different reports, including financial summaries, status reports for operations tracking, aiding
executives in decision-making, and specialized uses like Intellifit's size comparison database for online apparel shopping.

Decision Support:

• Enhancing Decision-Making: For example, Intellifit's database helps online shoppers make informed clothing purchases by matching their
body dimensions with apparel sizes from various online retailers, ensuring a better fit.
In summary, a DBMS enables data manipulation, report generation, and supports decision-making across various industries, offering a
wide range of functionalities to manage and utilize data effectively.

New Section 2 Page 2

 4.6.4
30 December 2023 03:26 PM

Popular Database Management Systems (DBMS):

1. Individual Users:
• Microsoft Access: Primarily for individual desktop users, offering a user-friendly interface for database management.

• FileMaker Pro: Designed for individual or small team usage, with tools for creating and managing databases.

2. Professional Programmers and Enterprises:

• IBM, Oracle, Microsoft: Major players offering DBMS for midrange, mainframe, and supercomputers. These companies generate
substantial revenue from their database software solutions.

3. Emerging Types:
• Database as a Service (DaaS) or Database 2.0: A new paradigm where the database is hosted on service provider servers and
accessed by clients over the Internet.

Database as a Service (DaaS):

1. Similarities to SaaS Model:

• Cloud-Based Hosting: DaaS operates similarly to Software as a Service (SaaS), with databases hosted on service provider servers and
accessed via the Internet.
• Managed Services: Service providers handle database administration, relieving clients from maintenance, upgrades, and security
concerns.

2. Role in Cloud Computing:

• Part of Cloud Computing: DaaS and SaaS are integral components of cloud computing, leveraging distributed computing resources over
the Internet.
• Benefits: This model frees businesses and individuals from the technicalities of software installation, maintenance, and security.

3. Adoption by Major Companies:

• Companies Embracing DaaS: Industry giants like Google, Microsoft, Intuit, Serran Tech, MyOwnDB, and Trackvia have adopted DaaS.
• Use Cases: XM Radio, Google, JetBlue Airways, Bank of America, and Southwest Airlines have implemented DaaS solutions for
managing their databases externally.

4. Remote Accessibility and Management:

• Remote Monitoring: Accessibility via any internet connection enables efficient management and monitoring of databases and projects
from multiple locations. For example, JetBlue utilizes Intuit's DaaS for effective IT project organization and management.

New Section 3 Page 3

 4.7
30 December 2023 08:50 PM

1. Search Capabilities: Advanced search functionalities allow users to efficiently locate specific data within vast databases.

2. Filtering and Data Aggregation: Applications enable the filtering and aggregation of data based on specified criteria, allowing for the
extraction of relevant information.

3. Data Synthesis and Consolidation: These applications facilitate the synthesis and consolidation of disparate data sources, enabling a
comprehensive view and analysis of integrated information.

4. Integration with the Internet: Seamless integration of corporate databases with the Internet allows for real-time data sharing and access
from various locations.

5. Data Warehousing and Data Marts: Utilization of data repositories (data warehousing) and smaller, specialized datasets (data marts)
enables better analysis and reporting.

6. Strategic Business Intelligence (BI): Databases are leveraged for strategic decision-making by providing insights through analytics and
reporting tools.

7. Distributed Data Processing: Data distribution across multiple locations ensures accessibility and availability across different branches or
departments.

8. Compliance with Open Connectivity Standards: Adherence to open connectivity standards enhances interoperability and productivity
among different systems and applications.

9. Object-Oriented Database Construction: Utilizing the object-oriented paradigm allows for the creation of databases that can handle
complex data structures more effectively.

10. Handling Unstructured Data: Databases now accommodate unstructured data types like graphics, audio, and video, enabling storage,
retrieval, and analysis of multimedia content.

New Section 4 Page 4

 4.7.1
30 December 2023 08:50 PM

1. Accessibility and Convenience: Web-enabled databases have made critical information such as bank account details, academic
transcripts, financial statements, and product catalogs easily accessible via standard web browsers. This accessibility greatly benefits
individual users and streamlines operations for businesses.

2. Successful Business Models: Companies like Amazon, eBay, and eHarmony have capitalized on integrating databases with the Internet,
building successful business models that leverage online databases to offer services and products, contributing to substantial profits.

3. Healthcare Innovation: Tech giants such as Google and Microsoft have pioneered Personal Health Record (PHR) systems accessible
through web browsers. These systems, exemplified by Google Health and Microsoft HealthVault, aim to centralize medical records for
both physicians and patients, enabling more active patient involvement in healthcare management.

4. E-Health Initiatives: Government initiatives, like President Obama's push for electronic health records for all Americans by 2015,
supported by substantial investments in e-health projects, are driving efforts to create accessible health and medical databases on the
Internet.

5. Privacy and Security: Concerns over accessing private medical information online are raised by privacy advocates. However, the
benefits, including reduced paperwork, streamlined data management, and decreased clerical errors, receive support. Robust encryption
and authentication measures are being implemented to maximize the security of these systems, aiming to address privacy concerns
effectively.

New Section 5 Page 5

 4.7.2
30 December 2023 08:52 PM

In business, essential decisions depend on raw data scattered across different places and in various formats. At first, this information is collected,
stored, and handled by transaction processing systems, meant for managing everyday organizational activities. Companies have collected operational,
sales, and financial data for years using online transaction processing (OLTP) systems. This data acts as the base for aiding decision-making processes
using data warehouses, data marts, and data mining techniques.

New Section 6 Page 6

 4.7.2.1
30 December 2023 08:52 PM

Data Warehouses Simplified:

A data warehouse is like a specialized database that stores various business information gathered from different parts of an organization,
such as processes, products, and customers. It's designed to offer a detailed and multi-dimensional view of data, helping business users
analyze business conditions thoroughly.
Key Points:

• Purpose: Data warehouses serve managers by providing detailed insights or consolidating data to generate summary reports for decision-
making.

• Data Accumulation: They collect historical data from operational systems and external sources, refining and integrating it into a new
information

• repository optimized for business analysis.

• Database Size: Initially, data warehouses start as large databases containing millions of data records. They track organizational changes
over time, and regular updates ensure data freshness and accuracy.

• Maintenance: Timely updates and automated processes to clean and manage data are crucial to maintain its value.

• Incorporating Unique Data: Data warehouses can include unique data sources. For example, RFID technology used by Honda Italia helps
track vehicle components, aiding in efficient supply chain management.

Challenges:

• Implementation: Setting up a data warehouse for a large organization can be complex and expensive, often costing over $2 million.

New Section 7 Page 7

 4.7.2.2
30 December 2023 08:54 PM

Data Marts Explained:

What are Data Marts?

• Subset of Data Warehouses: Data marts are subsets of data warehouses, extending the concept of online analysis of critical business
data, like sales or inventory, to small and medium-sized businesses or specific departments within larger organizations.

• Focused Data: Instead of containing all enterprise data, data marts concentrate on specific aspects of a company's operations, such as
finance, inventory, or personnel. They might contain more detailed data than the overarching data warehouse.

• Beneficial for Smaller Groups: They are particularly beneficial for smaller groups needing access to detailed data. While data
warehouses hold summary data for the entire organization, data marts contain smaller amounts of data, making them suitable for
smaller-scale deployment on less powerful hardware, resulting in cost savings.

• Deployment and Vendors: While any database software can create a data mart, specialized software offered by companies like Sybase,
Software AG, and Microsoft simplifies and economizes the deployment of scaled-down data warehouses.

Advantages:

• Accessibility to Decision-Makers: The primary advantage of data marts is their ability to provide targeted business information to a
broader range of decision-makers. For instance, the U.S. Department of Defense's Clinical Data Mart delivers medical information to
millions of military personnel, aligning with healthcare improvement initiatives.

New Section 8 Page 8

 4.7.2.3
30 December 2023 08:55 PM

Understanding Data Mining:

Definition:

Data mining is an analysis tool used to automatically discover patterns and relationships within extensive datasets, like a method of finding
valuable insights within a vast amount of data, similar to searching for gold nuggets in a mountain of earth.

Applications:

1. Business Enhancement: Used extensively by various industries, such as retail (like Brooks Brothers), data mining aids in providing insights
that enhance store performance, customer satisfaction, and overall business processes.

2. Marketing and E-commerce: It is widely applied in marketing to improve customer retention, identify cross-selling opportunities, manage
campaigns, analyze markets and pricing, and segment customers. In e-commerce, data mining helps analyze website traffic to personalize
sites and create targeted sales promotions.

3. Predictive Analysis: A form of data mining that combines historical data with assumptions about future conditions to predict outcomes. For
instance, retailers predict potential purchases of occasional customers and offer suitable incentives to convert them into frequent buyers.

Tools and Usage:

• Tool Development: Companies like Analytics, Magnify, NCR Teradata, SAS Institute, Sightward, SPSS, and Quadstone have developed
predictive analysis tools that analyze customer lists and sales data for identifying profitable market segments.

• Real-Life Applications: Airlines, such as American Airlines, use predictive analysis to optimize flight schedules, staffing, and in-flight
services by processing passenger survey data collected from a subset of daily flights.

Integration and Adoption:

• DBMS Incorporation: Traditional database management system (DBMS) vendors like Oracle, Sybase, Tandem, and Red Brick Systems
recognize the significant potential of data mining. They are incorporating data-mining capabilities into their products to meet the growing
demand for this analytical tool.

New Section 9 Page 9

 4.7.3
30 December 2023 08:57 PM

Business Intelligence and Competitive Intelligence

Business Intelligence (BI): Business Intelligence refers to the process of acquiring relevant information in a usable format and analyzing it
to positively influence business strategies, tactics, or operations. It involves transforming raw data into actionable insights disseminated
across an organization. For instance:

• IMS Health provides a tailored BI system for pharmaceutical businesses, aiding them in targeting their marketing efforts toward various
stakeholders in the healthcare industry.

• Puma North America utilizes SPSS software to empower sales consultants with crucial information on orders, shipments, and product
availability, enabling informed decision-making.

Competitive Intelligence (CI): Competitive Intelligence is a subset of BI focused on gathering information about competitors and its impact
on strategic planning, tactics, and daily operations. It's crucial for adapting to dynamic market conditions. It involves lawful means such
as publicly available sources, interviews, and legitimate methods to gather data. Skilled professionals in CI bridge informational gaps
using various analytical tools. However, it's important to differentiate CI from espionage.

Counterintelligence: Counterintelligence involves strategies adopted by an organization to protect its information from being sought by
hostile intelligence collectors. Effective counterintelligence includes defining and controlling the dissemination of sensitive "trade secret"
information, safeguarding the company's proprietary data.

New Section 10 Page 10

 4.7.4
30 December 2023 08:58 PM

Distributed Databases: Enhancing Accessibility and Efficiency

Concept of Distributed Databases: A distributed database comprises interconnected smaller databases spread across multiple locations,
connected via telecommunications.
Users can access data irrespective of its physical storage location. For example, a user in the Milwaukee branch of a company can
access data stored at the corporate headquarters in Milan without knowing the physical storage location.

Benefits of Distributed Databases:

1. Enhanced Flexibility: Local offices can create and manage their databases independently, allowing efficient data sharing among different
branches.

2. Improved Efficiency: Direct access to frequently used data at local sites significantly enhances organizational efficiency. For instance, the
New York City Police Department utilizes distributed databases for officers to access information across various servers located across
the city.

Challenges with Distributed Databases:

1. Information Integration: Integrating data from different databases can be challenging.

2. Data Security: Ensuring data security, accuracy, and adherence to standards across multiple locations is crucial.

3. Access Delays: Data access might face delays due to reliance on telecommunications lines.

Data Synchronization in Distributed Databases: Data synchronization ensures consistency among replicated databases. For instance, a
railroad company might use replicated databases to improve punctuality, safety, and reliability. The primary database contains crucial
information, while remote servers across the country hold copies. These sites can read data and transmit sales and reservation
information back to the primary database for updates.

New Section 11 Page 11

 4.7.5
30 December 2023 09:04 PM

Online Analytical Processing (OLAP):

• Top-down approach: It involves query-driven data analysis.

• Human interaction: Requires significant human interaction and ingenuity to derive insights.

• Iterative hypothesis testing: Involves testing user-generated hypotheses to explore data across different dimensions.

• Exploratory analysis: Utilizes a structured, multidimensional analysis for instant data representation and navigation.

• Use case example: OLAP systems used at Blue Mountain for swift comprehension of complex datasets across various business lines.

Data Mining:

• Bottom-up approach: Engages in discovery-driven analysis without preconceptions.

• Pattern identification: Identifies facts and conclusions based on discovered patterns.

• No specific queries: Users don't need to formulate specific queries; instead, they rely on tools to reveal intriguing patterns.

• Fraud detection example: A data mining tool in a credit card company's database can construct fraud activity profiles based on historical
data and apply these profiles to incoming transactions for fraud detection.

New Section 12 Page 12

 4.7.6
30 December 2023 09:05 PM

Object-Oriented Databases:

• Object-Oriented Paradigm: Aligns closely with object-oriented programming principles by storing both data and corresponding processing
instructions within the database.

• Storage and Processing: Capable of storing data along with instructions for processing, unlike conventional DBMS that usually only store
data.

• Skype Example: Skype employed an object-oriented database derived from PostgreSQL, leveraging its object-oriented nature to scale
and evolve their database system effectively.

• Advantages: Particularly beneficial for complex data requiring efficient processing.

Components of Object-Oriented Databases:

• Methods: Correspond to procedures or actions, such as a 'sales tax method' for computing the sales tax amount.

• Messages: Requests for executing methods. For example, a sales clerk sending a message to the database to calculate sales tax for a
new order.

• Query Language: Object Query Language (OQL) is used, akin to SQL but tailored for object-oriented databases.

Object-Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMS):

• Providers: Versant and Objectivity are prominent vendors offering OODBMS.

• Usage Areas: Widely adopted in various industries like telecommunications, defense, gaming, healthcare, and government due to their
powerful processing capabilities.

• Standardization: The Object Database Management Group (ODMG) has established the Object Data Standard for the development of
object-oriented database systems.

Object-Relational Database Management Systems (ORDBMS):

• Features: Offer relational database features along with flexibility for integrating new data types and operations.

• APIs and Plugins: Provide APIs allowing users to integrate external data definitions and methods. Oracle and IBM use terms like
"DataBlades," "Cartridges," and "Extenders" for these plugins, enabling interactions with web servers and the inclusion of custom
instructions and functionalities.

New Section 13 Page 13

 4.7.7
30 December 2023 09:07 PM

Image Databases:

• Usage: Credit card companies utilize image databases for storing charge slip images, organized by customer names for statemen ts.
Medical professionals store and transmit x-rays for remote clinics. These databases serve financial, insurance, government, and
pharmaceutical sectors.

• Storage: Often accommodated in object-relational databases, specialized systems, or within certain relational databases.

Global Database Analysis:

• Challenges: Analyzing sales and accounting data across disparate global database systems poses challenges.

• Solutions: IBM developed virtual database systems, allowing seamless collaboration of different databases as a unified system . Lloyd's of
London integrated databases with IUA, enhancing customer service and reducing costs.

Specialized Database Systems:

• Spatial Data Technology: Stores and accesses data based on geographical locations, enabling spatial queries and analysis.

• Usage Examples: MapInfo by Pitney Bowes assists businesses like Home Depot, Sonic Restaurants, and CVS Corporation in optimal
store placement based on geospatial demographics. It aids law enforcement and emergency response teams for disaster preparedn ess.

• Applications: Assists in predicting business performance, analyzing population trends, traffic patterns, assessing natural ha zards for
builders and insurance companies, and enhancing financial risk management by organizing investment -related data.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS):

• Function: Utilizes spatial data technology to visualize data on maps, facilitating data interpretation and decision -making based on
geographical information.

These specialized databases and systems cater to a wide array of industries, enhancing data management, analysis, and decisio n-
making processes by efficiently handling diverse data types like images, spatial data, and audio signals.

New Section 14 Page 14